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FEEDS  AND  FEEDING-7- 


A   HAND-BOOK 


FOB    THE 


STUDENT  AND  STOCKMAN 


BY 

W.  A.  HENRY,  D.  Sc.,  D.  Agr. 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Agriculture 

Formerly  Dean  of  College  of  Agriculture, 

and  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

University  of   Wisconsin 


'The  eye  of  the  master  fattens  his  cattle." 

—  German  adage. 


ELEVENTH    EDITION, 
Reviled  and  Entirely  Rewritten 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ATJTHOB 
MADISON,   WIS. 
1911 


•  •  / 


i\i;*      '*/-*••    u(.L> 


Copyright.  1910 
BY  W    A.   HENRY 


CANTWELL    PRINTING 
MADISON,    WIS. 


PREFACE. 


The  widespread  favor  with  which  Feeds  and  Feeding,  first  pub- 
lished in  1898,  was  received  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  nine  editions 
have  since  followed.  The  plates  used  by  the  printer  having  become 
worn  and  new  ones  being  necessary,  the  opportunity  has  been  used  to 
revise,  bring  down  to  date,  and  entirely  rewrite  the  book. 

In  Part  I  the  description  of  the  processes  of  digestion  have  been 
amplified,  and  the  studies  of  Pawlow  on  the  work  of  the  digestive 
glands  touched  upon ;  the  far-reaching  findings  of  Kellner  and  Arms- 
by  on  the  energy  value  of  food  are  summarized;  the  importance  of 
the  mineral  matter  in  food  has  been  duly  recognized;  Jordan's  in- 
genious study  is  recited,  settling  at  last  the  long  debated  question  of 
the  carbohydrates  as  a  possible  source  of  fat  in  the  milk  of  the  cow ; 
the  Wolff  feeding  standards  are  retained  because  of  their  great  help 
to  the  student  of  both  the  old  and  the  new  in  feeding  problems; 
Haecker's  modifications  of  these  standards  for  the  dairy  cow  are  pre- 
sented; the  advanced  feeding  standards  proposed  by  Kellner  and 
Armsby  in  substitution  for  those  of  Wolff  are  briefly  presented;  also 
the  helpful  Scandinavian  feed-unit  system.  For  help  in  this  part  and 
elsewhere  Kellner 's  recent  work,  Die  Ernahrung  der  landwirtschaft- 
lichen  Nutztiere,  has  been  heavily  drawn  upon. 

In  Part  II  the  various  new  feeding  stuffs  are  considered  along 
with  the  old.  The  supreme  importance  of  combining  the  legume 
roughages  with  Indian  corn  for  the  economical  feeding  of  farm  ani- 
mals is  duly  emphasized,  also  the  economical  importance  of  soilage 
and  silage;  and  finally  the  vital  relation  of  animal  husbandry  and 
the  manurial  residue  of  feeding  stuffs  to  the  economical  maintenance 
of  soil  fertility. 

In  Part  III  all  the  important  findings  of  the  experiment  stations, 
to  date,  on  the  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  obtained  thru  feeding  trials, 
are  recorded.  All  tabular  matter  of  feeding  trials,  both  old  and  new, 
is  presented  in  an  entirely  new  form,  greatly  simplified.  The  studies 
of  Zuntz  on  the  relation  of  feed  to  the  work  performed  by  the  horse, 
and  rations  for  horses  as  gathered  by  Langworthy,  are  presented. 
The  findings  of  Skinner,  Mumford,  and  Waters  on  the  feed  require- 
ments in  beef  production  and  the  importance  of  the  legume  rough- 
ages in  the  rations  of  fattening  cattle  are  given  merited  prominence. 

G73788 


iv  Preface. 

Finally,  the  Appendix  Tables,  giving  the  composition  and  fertil- 
izing value  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs,  a  marked  feature  of  the 
old  work,  have  been  extended  and  brought  down  to  date. 

Those  familiar  with  the  earlier  editions  may  observe  that  some  of 
the  experiments  reported  and  other  matter  given  in  the  old  book 
have  been  supplanted  by  later  and  better  material.  The  reader  who 
notes  that  much  is  still  lacking  in  this  book  is  reminded  that  the  sub- 
ject of  animal  nutrition  and  the  rational  feeding  of  animals  is  one  of 
great  complexity,  and  that  it  is  only  about  seventy  years  since  trained 
men  began  to  search  out  and  put  into  form  the  matter  here  reported. 

Thruout  the  book  the  object  has  been  to  present  the  findings  of 
the  laboratory,  the  feed  lot,  and  the  stable  bearing  on  the  problems 
of  stock  feeding  in  simple  language  and  few  words.  The  scientific 
terms  necessarily  used  have  been  plainly  defined,  and  thru  constant 
repetition  should  almost  unconsciously  become  a  part  of  the  vocab- 
ulary of  all  who  use  the  book.  The  observant  reader  will  discern 
that  the  results  of  the  investigations  as  set  forth  in  this  work  do  not 
tend  to  render  the  great  art  of  stock  feeding  complex  and  abstruse, 
but  rather  to  greatly  simplify  it.  In  evidence  of  this,  note  the  smaller 
allowances  of  expensive  concentrates  recommended  in  the  rations 
for  dairy  cows  and  for  fattening  cattle  when  corn  silage  and  the 
legume  forages  are  rightly  used  to  supply  the  roughage;  also  that 
grinding  and  cooking  feed  is,  for  the  most  part,  discouraged,  in 
opposition  to  the  theories  and  teachings  of  earlier  times.  Those  who 
may  be  rather  surprised  that  the  ways  marked  out  in  this  book  are 
after  all  so  simple  and  plain  should  remember  that  knowledge  and 
wisdom  are  always  kind  in  leading  us  along  easy  paths. 

"While  the  number  of  pages  in  the  new  F&eds  and  Feeding  is  some- 
what less  than  before,  the  total  matter  contained  has  been  materially 
increased  thru  enlarging  the  printed  page,  changing  the  style  of  type, 
simplifying  the  tables,  avoiding  repetitions,  etc. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  my  co-workers,  Professors  Woll,  Hart,  and 
McCollum,  for  appreciated  assistance  on  Part  I;  to  Messrs.  A.  D. 
Faville,  0.  Lloyd-Jones,  and  E.  P.  Smith  for  help  in  collating  and  ar- 
ranging the  tables  of  feeding  trials ;  and  especially  to  Mr.  F.  B.  Mor- 
rison for  faithful  assistance  covering  the  whole  range  of  the  book. 

October,  1910.  W.  A.  HENRY. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. — PLANT  GROWTH  AND  ANIMAL  NUTRITION. 

CHAPTER  PAQE 

I.     The  Plant;  How  it  Grows  and  Elaborates  Food  for  Animals 1 

II.     Composition  of  the  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism 14 

III.  Digestibility — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy 39 

IV.  Nutrition  Studies — The  Functions  of  Protein,  Carbohydrates,  and 

Fat 53 

V.     Nutrition  Studies  Continued 62 

VI.     The  Production  of  Heat  and  Work 80 

VII.     Miscellaneous  Studies  Bearing  on  Nutrition  Problems 90 

VIII.     Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Eations 104 

PART  II. — FEEDING  STUFFS. 

IX.     Leading  Cereals  and  By-products 129 

X.     Minor   Cereals,    Oil-bearing   and   Leguminous    Seeds,   and   Their 

By-products 145 

XI.     The   Grasses,    Including   Indian    Corn — Sorghums — The    Smaller 

Grasses — Hay-making — Straw 159 

XII.     Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay 177 

XIII.  Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs 191 

XIV.  Soilage — The  Preparation  of  Feed — Stock  Foods — Feeding  Stuffs 

Control 211 

XV.     The  Ensilage  of  Fodders 225 

XVI.     Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs 241 

PART  III. — FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS. 

XVII.     Investigations   Concerning  the   Horse 250 

XVIII.     Feeds  for  the  Horse 267 

XIX.     Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations 287 

XX.     Calf  Rearing 302 

XXI.     General  Problems  in  Beef  Production 315 

XXII.     Value  of   the  Various   Feeding   Stuffs   for   Fattening  Cattle    as 

Found  by  the  Experiment  Stations — British  Feeding  Trials.  333 

XXIII.  Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot 363 

XXIV.  The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings 376 

XXV.     Station  Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Dairy  Cows 393 

XXVI.     Public    Tests    with    Pure-bred    Dairy    Cows — Feed    Required    by 

Cows — Cost  of  Producing  Milk  and  Fat 420 

XXVII.     Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow 431 

XXVIII.     General  Investigations  in  Care  and  Management  of  Sheep 442 


vi  Contents. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXIX.     Experiments  in   Fattening   Sheep 458 

XXX.     General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs — Fattening — Hot-house  Lambs  475 

XXXI.     Investigations  with  Swine 496 

XXXII.     Value  of  the  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine 516 

XXXIII.     Management    and    Feed    of    Swine — Home   Markets    and   Bacon 

Production 552 

APPENDIX. 

Table      I.     Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 565 

Table    II.    Digestibility  of  Feeding  Stuffs 574 

Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients   and  Fertilizing  Constituents  of  Feeding 

Stuffs 582 

Table   IV.     The  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards 590 

Table     V.     The  Mineral  Constituents  of  Feeding  Stuffs 593 

INDKX__  594 


INFORMATION  TO  THE  READER 


When  seeking  information  on  any  subject  presented  in  this  book, 
the  reader  should  first  consult  the  copious  index,  the  figures  of  which 
refer  to  the  page  on  which  the  topic  is  presented.  Additional  informa- 
tion bearing  on  the  subject  given  at  other  places  may  be  found  by 
following  up  the  numerous  references  set  in  black-face  figures  in 
parentheses  occurring  in  the  body  of  the  text.  These  figures  refer 
to  the  numbered  black-face  side-heads,  and  not  to  the  pages. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 


PART  I. 
PLANT  GROWTH  AND  ANIMAL  NUTRITION. 


CHAPTER  L 

THE  PLANT;  HOW  IT  GROWS  AND  ELABORATES  FOOD  FOR 

ANIMALS. 

I.  PLANT   GROWTH. 

Aside  from  air,  water,  and  salt,  plants  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly supply  all  food  for  animals ;  it  is  therefore  proper  in  begin- 
ning these  studies  to  briefly  consider  how  plants  grow  and  elaborate 
this  food. 

1.  The  food  of  plants. — Of  the  80  or  more  elements  known  to  the 
chemist,  only  13  are  essential  to  plants,  viz. :  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxy- 
gen, nitrogen,  sulfur,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
iron,  sodium,  silicon,  and  chlorin.  Iodine  and  manganese  are  pres- 
ent in  some  plants,  and  while  not  regarded  as  vitally  necessary 
may  be  more  or  less  useful.  With  the  limited  exceptions  noted  fur- 
ther on,  plants  cannot  make  use  of  the  elements,  as  such,  for  food, 
but  are  nourished  and  supported  by  chemical  combinations  of  the 
elements. 

J^IaleLl8  the  largest  single  component  of  the  plant,  that  not  held 
in  chemical  combination  constituting  from  75  to  90  per  ct.  of  its 
fresh  weight.  The  plant  obtains  practically  all  its  water  from  the 
soil  thru  its  roots,  only  a  small  amount  being  taken  from  the  air  by 
the  leaves.  Soil  water,  absorbed  by  the  roots,  enters  the  cells  of 
which  the  plant  is  composed  and  passes  onward  and  upward  thru 
the  stem,  moved  by  capillarity  and  sap  currents,  eventually  reach- 
ing every  portion  of  the  structure,  being  especially  abundant  in  the 
leaves  and  growing  parts.  Thruout  its  existence  the  plant  takes 
2 


2  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

great  quantities  of  water  from  the  soil,  giving  most  of  it  off  again 
to  the  air  thru  its  leaves  and  green  parts.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  of 
England  found  that  wheat  and  clover  plants  take  from  the  soil  by 
their  roots  and  give  to  the  air  thru  their  leaves  about  200  Ibs.  of 
water  for  each  Ib.  of  dry  matter  they  produce. 

Next  to  water,  carbon  dioxid  or  carbonic  acid  gas  is  the  great 
food  material  of  plants.  Ten  thousand  parts  of  air  contain  about 
4  parts  of  carbon  dioxid,  and  about  28  tons  of  this  gas  rests  over 
each  acre  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  supply  of  carbon  dioxid  is 
never  exhausted  from  the  air  because  thru  the  decay  and  dissolu- 
tion ,.  of  plant  and  animal  matter  it  is  being  constantly  returned 
thereto.  On  t*he  -under  surface  of  plant  leaves  are  innumerable  mi- 
nute operthiga  or  pore's,  leading  inward  among  the  cells  of  the  leaf 
structure.  The  air,  penetrating  these  pores,  supplies  carbon  dioxid 
which  is  absorbed  into  the  cells  and  thus  enters  the  plant  proper. 

Nitrogen  abounds  in  the  living,  growing  parts  of  plants.  Despite 
the  fact  that  about  three-fourths  of  the  air  is  nitrogen  gas,  with  the 
exception  noted  farther  on,  plants  cannot  take  it  up  as  such,  but 
obtain  their  supply  from  the  soil  by  means  of  their  roots,  either  in 
the  form  of  nitrates  or  as  ammonia,  chiefly  the  former. 

The  mineral  substances  required  by  plants  are  taken  from  the 
soil  thru  the  roots.  They  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 


Sulfates 
Phosphates 
Nitrates 
Chlorids 

-Of  -i 

potassium, 
calcium, 
magnesium, 
iron. 

Silicates 

sodium. 

Carbonates 

ammonium. 

Sulfur,  in  small  amount,  is  a  component  of  plant  proteins.  Phos- 
phorus, likewise  in  small  amount,  is  present  in  the  life-holding  pro- 
toplasmic protein  of  the  leaf  cells  and  also  abounds  in  the  protein 
of  seeds.  Potassium,  vital  to  the  formation  of  plant  protoplasm, 
is  probably  one  of  its  components.  Iron  also  seems  to  have  a  spe- 
cific function  to  perform  in  the  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  univer- 
sally found  in  plant  tissues.  Calcium  and  magnesium  are  vital  to 
plants,  tho  their  uses  are  not  well  understood.  Silicon  and  sodium, 
tho  always  present,  are  regarded  by  some  authorities  as  not  essen- 
tial to  plant  life. 

Free  oxygen  gas  is  absorbed  by  seeds-  during  germination,  and  a 
small  amount  is  being  constantly  absorbed  by  the  leaves  and  fruits 
of  plants.  Bacteria  inhabiting  nodular  growths  on  the  roots  of 


How  the  Plant  Grows.  3 

leguminous  plants,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  peas,  take  nitrogen 
gas  from  the  air  and  pass  it  on  in  combined  form  to  the  host  plant, 
thus  indirectly  supplying  this  important  element.  Witfcuthese  ex- 
ceptions, the  elements,  as  such,  arc  never  used  in  uncombined  form 
by  plants,  but  serve  them  only  when  in  chemical  combination. 

2.  Plant  building. — Living  matter  is  distinguished  from  non- 
living matter  by  its  power  to  grow,  to  repair  its  own  waste,  and  to 
reproduce  itself.  In  plants  the  life  principle  is  most  in  evidence  in 
the  transparent,  viscous  protoplasmic  masses  found  within  the  cells 
of  the  green  parts,  principally  the  leaves;  and  because  of  inherent 
differences  therein,  each  plant  possesses  an  individuality  and  is  able 
to  grow  and  reproduce  itself  after  its  own  manner. 

The  interior  of  the  plant  is  everywhere  bathed  with  juice  or  sap, 
which  is  the  great  fluid  medium  for  conveying  the  chemical  com- 
pounds, gathered  by  leaf  and  root,  to  the  place  where  they  are 
formed  into  organized  plant  substances  or  building  materials 
proper,  and,  in  turn,  for  transporting  the  materials  thus  elaborated 
to  all  parts  where  needed.  By  means  of  this  sap,  the  green-colored 
protoplasm  in  the  leaf  cells  is  supplied  with  carbon  dioxid  taken 
from  the  air  by  the  leaves,  and  water,  nitrates,  and  other  soluble 
mineral  salts  taken  by  the  roots  from  the  soil.  The  carbon  dioxid, 
salts,  and  water,  commingling  in  the  protoplasmic  masses,  are  there 
decomposed,  and  their  atoms  rearranged  to  form  the  various  pri- 
mary plant  compounds.  The  first  definite  result  of  such  union  may 
be  some  form  of  sugar  or  starch,  with  the  excess  oxygen  given  back 
to  the  air  as  a  free  gas.  It  is  thru  the  chlorophyll-containing  pro- 
toplasm of  their  leaves  that  plants  are  able,  under  the  influence  of 
sunlight,  to  decompose  carbon  dioxid  and  water  and  to  recast  their 
elements  into  such  basal  plant  substances  as  sugar  and  starch.  Sugar 
and  starch  contain  much  energy  which  may  be  set  free  as  heat 
when  these  substances  are  burned  or  otherwise  broken  up.  Carbon 
dioxid  and  water  have  little  internal  energy,  and  so  on  being  de- 
composed do  not  liberate  heat.  Energy  must  therefore  be  supplied 
whenever  sugar  and  starch  are  formed  out  of  the  elements  con- 
tained in  these  two  energy-poor  bodies.  This  energy  comes  from 
the  sun  and  is  seized  and  used  by  the  active  life-holding  protoplasm 
in  building  carbon  dioxid  and  water  into  energy-holding  sugar  and 
starch. 

3.  The  carbohydrates. — Sugar  and  starch  are  the  two  great  com- 
mon elementary  structural  substances  of  plants.  With  their  sec- 
ondary products,  the  celluloses  and  pentosans,  they  constitute  the 


4  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

major  portion  of  all  dry  plant  substance.  They  are  grouped  un- 
der the  term  carbohydrates,  meaning  formed  of  carbon  and  the  ele- 
ments hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  existing  in  water, 
the  chemical  formula  for  which  is  H2O.  The  molecular  composi- 
tion of  the  leading  carbohydrates  is  shown  in  the  following  for- 


Glucose 
Levulose 
Cane  sugar 
Maltose 

t 

! 

C12H22On 

Cellulose 

( 

(C0H100B)x 

Pentosan 
Pentose 

(C5H804)x 
C.H100B 

Chemists  hold  that  the  molecules  in  the  bracketed  groups  are  in 
reality  far  more  complex  than  the  formulae  indicate,  the  a9tual 
molecule  being  many  multiples  of  the  group  here  given.  The  for- 
mulae not  bracketed  are  held  to  express  the  actual  atomic  compo- 
sition of  the  molecule. 

All  sugars — sucrose,  glucose,  maltose,  levulose,  etc. — are  ^soluble  in 
the  juices  of  the  plant  and  constitute  the  common,  portable  carbo- 
hydrate  building  material  of  plants,  capable,  by  diffusion  and  s'ap 
currents,  of  passing  to  all  parts  of  the  structure  as  needed.  Some 
plants,  the  beet  and  the  sugar  cane  for  example,  store  their  carbon 
reserve  as  sugar.  Starch,  however,  is  the  common  intermediate  car- 
bohydrate reserve  of  the  plant  world.  It  is  insoluble  in  the  juices 
of  the  plant  and  so  cannot  be  directly  transported  as  can  the  sugars. 
Starch  abounds  in  most  seeds,  closely  packed  about  the  germs,  as 
in  the  kernels  of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  etc.  Often  it  is  stored  in  the 
underground  parts  of  plants,  as  in  potato  tubers.  "When  the  starch 
thus  stored  is  needed  in  other  parts  of  the  plant,  it  is  changed  by 
a  ferment  called  diastase,  thru  the  addition  of  water,  to  maltose,  a 
soluble  sugar,  which  can  be  further  changed  to  glucose  by  the  ad- 
dition of  more  water.  The  sugars  so  formed  can  then  be  passed 
from  cell  to  cell  until  their  destination  is  reached,  where  they  may 
be  again  changed  to  starch,  pentosans,  or  cellulose,  as  required. 

Plants  are  primarily  composed  of  minute  cells,  variously  grouped 
and  modified,  the  walls  of  these  cells  being  formed  of  cellulose. 
jCellulose  is  the  great  permanent,  insoluble  structural  substance  of 
the  vegetable  world,  constituting  as  it  does  almost  the  whole  of  the 
skeleton  or  framework  of  plants.  As  before  shown,  cellulose  is 


How  the  Plant  Grows.  5 

similar  to  starch  and  sugar  in  general  composition  and  originates 
from  them.  In  the  dense  wood  of  trees  the  cell  walls  are  thick,  in 
some  cases  nearly  filling  the  entire  cell.  In  the  more  tender  twigs 
and  leaves  they  are  less  dense,  while  in  the  still  softer  portions, 
such  as  fruits  and  seeds,  they  are  thin  and  delicate.  More  or  less 
mineral  matter  or  ash  is  built  into  the  cell  walls  of  plants,  being 
especially  abundant  in  the  bark  of  trees,  as  is  shown  when  such 
material  is  burned. 

The  pent oses  and  pentosans  are  carbohydrates  with  5  atoms  of 
carbon  in  the  molecule,  in  place  of  6  as  in  the  sugars  and  starches. 
The  pentoses  correspond  to  sugars,  and  the  pentosans  to  starches 
and  cellulose.  The  pentosans  are  largely  associated  with  cellulose 
in  the  more  woody  portions  of  the  plant,  being  abundant,  for  ex- 
ample, in  wheat  bran  and  corn  cobs. 

4.  Vegetable  fats  and  oils. — In  some  cases  the  plant  stores  car- 
bon in  the  form  of  fat,  which  is  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  or 
of  oil,  which  is  liquid.     Such  storage  is  entirely  possible  since  fats 
and  oils  are  formed  from  the  same  elements  that  exist  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates.    In  vegetable  fats  and  oils  the  molecules  are  composed 
of  a  larger  number  of  atoms  than  are  those  of  the  sugars,  and  the 
proportion  of  carbon  is  greater,  as  the  following  formula  of  three 
common  vegetable  oils  or  fats  show : 

Stearin       C57H11006 
Palmitin     C51H98O6 
Olein  C57H104O6 

Vegetable  oils  and  fats  give  off  more  heat  on  burning  than  do  the  ~- 
carbohydrates,  because  they  contain  relatively  more  carbon.     Oils   * 
and  fats  most  abound  in  the  seeds  of  plants  and  represent  carbon 
energy  stored  in  condensed  form.     When  seeds  containing  oil,  as 
the  flax  seed  for  example,  begin  to  grow,  the  oil  is  changed  over 
into  products  which  nourish  the  growing  plantlet  the  same  as  do 
the  products  of  starch  in  ordinary  seeds. 

5.  Nitrogenous  compounds. — We  have  learned  how  in  the  life- 
holding  protoplasmic  masses  of  the  green  parts  of  plants,  especially 
their  leaves,  th_ej3arbohydrates  and  fats  are  formed  from  the  ele- 
ments of  carbon  dioxid  and  water  by  the  energy  of  the  sun.     To 
these  life  centers  of  protoplasm,  with  their  green  coloring  matter. 
holding  sugar  and  starch,  the  sap  brings  nitrates  and  other  mineral 
salts  gathered  by  the  roots  from  the  soil.     Thru  the  union  of  the 
elements  of  the  nitrates  and  other  salts  with  those  of  the  starches 


6  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  sugars  there  is  formed  a  new  group  of  complex  compounds 
called  crude  proteins,  which,  in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  found  in  the  carbohydrates,  contain  nitrogen,  sulfur,  and 
sometimes  phosphorus.  The  nitrogenous  compounds  are  the  most 
complex  of  all  plant  substances.  Osborne  of  the  Connecticut  Sta- 
tion gives  the  following  as  the  probable  molecular  composition  of 
legumin,  a  protein  found  in  the  seed  of  the  field  pea,  and  hordein, 
found  in  the  barley  grain: 

Legumin     C718H11580238N214S2 
Hordein      C675H10140194N181S4 

Because  of  their  great  variety  and  complexity,  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  are  the  most  difficult  of  all  plant  substances  for  study 
and  classification.  Able  organic  chemists  are  attacking  these  intri- 
cate problems  with  great  energy  and  patience,  and  important  dis- 
coveries are  being  made.  While  it  is  certain  that  the  old  classifica- 
tion of  these  compounds  must  be  superseded,  it  is  too  early  to  pre- 
sent any  satisfactory  substitute.  Since  this  work  sets  forth  only 
the  briefest  and  most  informal  consideration  of  the  matter,  it  seems 
best  to  adopt  the  following  grouping  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds 
of  plants,  in  so  doing  holding  to  what  has  been  found  in  the  past 
and  helping  toward  what  is  to  come. 

Crude  protein  is  the  term  employed  to  designate  Jill  the  nitroge- 
nous compounds  of  the  plant.  The  chemist  finds  that  about  16 
per  ct.  of  the  plant  proteins  is  nitrogen.  Accordingly,  he  multi- 
plies the  nitrogen  found  in  any  given  plant  substance  by  6.25 
(100/16=6.25)  and  calls  the  product  crude  protein.  Crude  protein 
embraces  two  groups  of  nitrogenous  plant  compounds,  proteins  and 
amids. 

Proteins  are  the  more  highly  organized  forms  of  crude  protein. 
They  are  not  always  soluble  and  therefore  not  transportable  in  the 
juices  of  the  plant.  The  life  of  the  plant  centers  in  its  protein- 
containing  parts,  such  as  the  active  leaf  cells  and  the  germs  of 
seeds. 

Amids  are  the  nitrogenous,  portable  building  compounds  of  the 
plant.  They  are  soluble  in  its  juices  and  are  the  common  vehicle 
for  conveying  nitrogen  to  needed  points  thruout  the  plant  struc- 
ture. Out  of  the  soluble  amids  the  plant  constructs  its  still  more 
highly  organized  protein  compounds.  During  the  active  period  of 
the  plant's  life,  amids  are  constantly  being  formed  out  of  the  ele- 
ments composing  sugar  or  starch  and  the  nitrates  and  other  min- 


How  the  Plant  Grows.  7 

eral  salts.  These  amids  are  transported  to  needed  points  and  there 
changed  into  the  proteins.  As  a  consequence  the  amids  do  not 
usually  continue  to  accumulate  in  the  plant.  Just  as  starch  and 
sugar  may  be  changed  one  into  the  other  in  the  plant,  so  the  pro- 
teins and  amids  may  be  changed  one  into  the  other  as  plant  neces- 
sity may  require.  When  germination  starts  in  a  seed,  an  enzyme 
or  ferment  contained  therein  acts  upon  the  insoluble  proteins  stored 
in  and  about  the  germ  and  changes  them  to  soluble  amids,  so  that 
the  nitrogen  may  be  transported  to  the  newly  forming  parts  of  the 
plantlet.  When  corn  forage  is  placed  in  the  silo,  much  of  the  pro- 
teins it  then  contains  is  changed  back  to  amids  thru  the  fermenta- 
tions which  occur. 

Very  little  crude  protein  is  found  in  the  older 'woody  parts  of 
plants,  the  greater  portion  always  being  concentrated  at  the  point 
of  growth,  or  in  the  leaves,  seeds,  and  reproductive  parts.  The 
germ  of  seeds  is  largely  protein,  and  the  rich  nutritive  substances 
in  the  grain  close  about  it  usually  hold  much  protein.  It  is  in  the 
life-holding  protoplasm  in  the  green  parts  of  plants,  principally  in 
their  leaves,  that  all  the  crude  inorganic  compounds  taken  up  by 
the  plant  from  air  and  soil  are  elaborated  into  true  plant  substances 
by  sun  power.  The  life  processes  of  the  plant  are  maintained  and 
all  changes  are  wrought  thru  its  nitrogenous  or  protein  compounds, 
and  a  knowledge  of  such  fact  is  not  only  of  interest,  but  has  many 
practical  bearings  for  the  farmer  and  stockman. 

6.  Mineral  compounds. — The  elaboration  of  food  materials  in  the 
protoplasmic  masses,  as  well  as  the  development  of  young  plants 
from  the   seed,   requires   the  presence   of  mineral  matter,   or   ash, 
which  is  found  _in  relatively  small  amount  everywhere  thruout  the 
plant.    The  leaves  contain  more  ash  than  do  the  other  parts,  due  to 
the  life  processes  within  the  leaf  cells  and  the  constant  evaporation 
of  water  from  their  surfaces  by  which  the  ash  in  solution  is  left 
behind.    The  ash  content  of  the  bark  of  trees  and  stems  of  plants  is 
also  often  high. 

7.  The  end  of  plant  effort. — If  we  study  the  life  history  of  a 
plant,  we  observe  that  its  first  effort  is  toward  self-establishment 
and  enlargement.    At  such  time  all  the  elaborated  material,  as  fast 
as  formed,  is  transferred  to  the  growing  parts  that  the  plant  may 
be  built  up  and  established.     As  the  plant  approaches  maturity,  its 
energies  are  changed  from  growth  to  reproduction,  or  the  perpetua- 
tion of  its  kind.     The  nutrients  in  the  juices,  which  were  formerly 
directed  to  the  growing  portions,  are  now  turned  toward  the  re- 


8  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

productive  parts.  First  come  the  blossoms,  then  the  young  enlarg- 
ing fruits.  Into  these  the  sugars,  amids,  and  mineral  substances, 
all  elaborated  and  worked  over  by  the  plant  in  its  leaves,  are 
poured  in  a  steady  current.  The  wheat  plant  resulting  from  a  sin- 
gle kernel  bears  a  hundred  fruits  in  the  shape  of  seed  grains,  while 
the  Indian  corn  plant  may  produce  a  thousand-fold.  In  each  of 
these  grains  is  a  miniature  plant,  the  germ,  composed  largely  of 
protein,  about  which  is  stored  a  generous  supply  of  rich  nutri- 
ment— proteins,  starch,  sugar,  oil,  and  mineral  matter — all  in  com- 
pact, concentrated  form,  awaiting  the  time  when  the  germ  shall 
begin  life  on  its  own  account.  In  the  tuber  of  the  potato  the  cells 
are  packed  with  starch,  while  in  the  beet  root  the  stored  material 
is  largely  in  the  form  of  cane  sugar.  Each  germ,  or  reproductive 
part,  is  surrounded  with  food  nutrients  stored  after  Nature's  choic- 
est plan  to  aid  the  new  life  which  is  to  follow. 

8.  Plants  support  animal  life. — Nature  has  decreed  that  it  is  the 
function  of  plants  to  build  inorganic  matter  taken  from  earth  and 
air  into  organic  compounds,  in  which  operation  the  sun  energy  em- 
ployed becomes  latent.  Thru  the  life  processes  the  various  plant 
compounds  used  as  food  by  animals  are,  after  more  or  less  change, 
built  into  the  animal  bodj^,  or  are  broken  down  within  it  to  give 
heat  and  energy.  In  this  change  and  dissolution  the  sun  energy 
which  became  latent  or  was  hidden  in  the  growing  plant  is  again 
revealed  in  all  the  manifestations  of  animal  life.  In  the  coal  burn- 
ing in  the  grate  we  observe  the  reappearance  of  the  energy  of  the 
sun  which  was  stored  in  the  plants  of  ages  ago.  In  the  stalks  and 
ears  of  corn  which  we  feed  our  cattle  we  are  furnishing  energy  re- 
ceived from  the  sun  and  rendered  latent  by  the  corn  plant  during 
the  previous  summer.  Thus  it  is  that  the  stockman,  when  supply- 
ing plants  and  seeds  to  the  animals  under  his  care,  observes  in  their 
growing  bodies,  warmed  by  internal  fires,  the  energy  of  the  sun 
transmitted  by  the  plant  to  the  animal.  To  the  plants  of  the  farm 
the  stockman  turns  for  the  nourishment  and  support  of  his  animals. 
A  general  knowledge  and  full  realization  of  how  plants  live  and 
grow  is  therefore  not  only  of  interest,  but  also  may  be  helpful  in  a 
thousand  ways. 

II.  How  THE  CHEMIST  GROUPS  PLANT  SUBSTANCES. 

In  the  following  table,  taken  from  Table  I  of  the  Appendix,  the 
composition  of  a  few  common  feeding  stuffs  is  arranged  after  the 
manner  adopted  by  agricultural  chemists.  The  first  column  gives 


How  the  Plant  Groivs. 


9 


the  name  of  the  feeding  stuff,  followed  by  the  number  of  analyses 
from  which  the  average  composition  is  derived.  The  remaining  col- 
umns give  the  average  percentage  composition  of  the  several  nu- 
trients. 

Sample  table  showing  the  percentage  composition  of  plants. 
(For  full  table  consult  Table  I  of  Appendix.) 


Feeding  stuff 

°l 

£1 

oJ 

Inorganic  matter 

Organic  matter 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Pasture  grass 

Percent 
80.0 
90.9 
10.6 
15.3 

Percent 
2.0 
1.1 
1.5 
6.2 

Per  cent 
3.5 
1.4 
10.3 
12.3 

Percent 
4.0 
0.9 
2.2 

24.8 

Per  cent 
9.7 
5.5 
70.4 
38.1 

Per  cent 
0.8 
0.2 
5.0 
3.3 

Mangels 

9 

86 
38 

Dent  corn 

Ked  clover  hay 

9.  Water. — To  determine  the  amount  of  water  in  a  fodder  the 
chemist  places  a  small  quantity  of  the  material,  finely  divided,  in  a 
dish  and  ascertains  its  weight.    It  is  then  dried  in  an  oven  at  a  tem- 
perature of  212°  F.  for  several  hours  and  again  weighed.    The  dif- 
ference between  the  first  and  last  weights  represents  the  amount  of 
water  in  the  sample.     From  the  third  column  of  the  table  we  learn 
that  fresh  pasture  grass  is  about  80  per  ct.  or  four-fifths  water, 
while  dent  corn  contains  10.6  per  ct.  and  red  clover  hay  15.3  per  ct. 
of  water. 

10.  Ash. — The  chemist  next  burns  the  sample,  weighing  as  be- 
fore, to  ascertain  its  ash  or  mineral  content.     From  the  next  col- 
umn of  the  table  we  learn  that  100  Ibs.  of  fresh  pasture  grass  has  2 
Ibs.  of  ash,  which  is  about  twice  that  in  mangels.    Red  clover  hay 
has  6.2  Ibs.  of  ash  per  100  Ibs.    This  large  amount  is  due  to  the  ac- 
cumulation of  mineral  matter  in  the  clover  leaves  during  growth,  to 
earthy  matter  washed  upon  the  growing  plants  by  rain,  and  to  dust 
settling  on  the  hay  before  it  is  housed.     The  foreign  material  is  not 
really  plant  ash,  but  of  necessity  is  reported  as  such.     The  ash  and 
water  of  plants  constitute  the  so-called  inorganic  matter;  the  other 
components  combined  are  termed  the  organic  matter. 

11.  Crude  protein. — The  process  of  determining  the  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  feeding  stuffs  is  too  complicated  for  presentation 
here.     Suffice  it  to  say  that  tjxe  nitrogen  content  is  found  and  the 
result  multiplied  by  6.25  to  give  the  crude  protein,  since  about  16 


10  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

per  ct.  of  plant  protein  is  nitrogen  (100/16=6.25).  From  the  table 
we  learn  that  pasture  grass  contains  3.5  Ibs.  of  crude  protein  per 
100  Ibs.,  while  dent  corn  contains  over  10  Ibs.,  and  red  clover*  hay 
still  more. 

12.  Fiber. — The  woody  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  determined 
by  boiling  a  sample  thereof  successively  in  weak  acid  and  alkali 
and   washing   out   the    dissolved   matter.     That   which   remains   is 
termed  fiber.     Fiber  consists  mostly  of  cellulose  and  is  the  woody 
portion  of  feeds.    The  grains  of  Indian  corn  contain  only  2.2  per  ct. 
of  fiber,  while  clover  hay  yields  nearly  25  per  ct. 

13.  Fat. — A  sample  of  the  pulverized  dried  fodder  is  treated  with 
ether,  which  dissolves  the  fats,  waxes,  resins,  chlorophyll  or  green 
coloring  matter,  and  similar  substances.    This,  most  properly  called 
ether  extract  in  works  on  plant  analysis,  is  for  convenience  termed 
fat  in  this  work.     The  ether  extract  of  seeds  is  nearly  all  true  fat 
or  oil,  while  that  of  the  leaves  and  stems  contains  chlorophyll,  wax, 
etc.    By  the  table,  mangels  are  shown  to  yield  only  0.2  Ib.  of  fat  per 
100  Ibs.,  while  corn  carries  5  Ibs.,  the  extract  in  this  case  being 
true  fat. 

14.  Nitrogen-free   extract. — The-  nitrogen-free  extract,   expressed 
in  the  tables  in  this  book  as  N-free  extract,  embraces  the  substances 
that  are  extracted  from  the  dry  matter  of  plants  by  treatment  with 
weak  acids  and  alkalies  under  standard  conditions,  less  the  crude 
protein,  fat,  and  ash.     It  is  determined  by  difference  and  not  by 
direct  analysis.    The  total  dry  matter  in  a  feeding  stuff  minus  the 
sum  of  the  ash,  crude  protein,  fiber,  and  fat,  equals  the  nitrogen- 
free    extract.      It    embraces    the    sugars,    starches,    pentoses,    non- 
nitrogenous  organic  acids,  etc.,  of  the  plant. 

15.  Carbohydrates. — The  nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber  together 
constitute  the  carbohydrates. 

The  methods  of  analyzing  and  grouping  plant  substances  now  em- 
ployed by  chemists  are,  in  many  particulars,  unsatisfactory.  In 
time  they  will  work  out  a  more  rational  classification  of  the  food 
substances  of  plants,  but  for  the  present  we  have  nothing  better 
than  what  is  here  given. 

In  discussing  feeding  stuffs  it  is  often  desirable  to  differentiate 
between  those  of  coarse,  bulky  nature  and  others  more  condensed 
and  usually  more  nutritious.  Accordingly  the  terms  "concentrate" 
and  "roughage"  employed  in  the  first  edition  of  the  work  are  re- 
tained since  they  are  now  widely  recognized  and  used. 


How  the  Plant  Grows. 


11 


Concentrates  are  feeding  stuffs  of  condensed  nature  and  usually 
highly  nutritious  character,  such  as  the  various  grains,  milling  by- 
products, etc.  Indian  corn,  oats,  bran,  and  oil  meal  are  examples. 

Roughages  are  the  coarser  feeding  stuffs,  such  as  hay,  corn  for- 
age, straw,  silage,  roots,  etc. 

III.  THE  STUDY  OF  AN  ACRE  OF  CORN. 

To  illustrate  and  fix  more  clearly  in  mind  the  great  basic  facts 
in  plant  life  as  briefly  told  in  the  preceding  pages,  there  is  here  pre- 
sented the  classic  study  of  Ladd  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Sta- 
tion1 on  the  development  of  the  nutrients  in  a  measured  acre  of  that 
greatest  of  all  agricultural  plants,  Indian  corn. 

16.  Changes  in  a  maturing  corn  crop. — Beginning  his  studies  July 
30,  at  which  time  the  plants  were  fully  tasseled,  and  repeating  the 
examination  at  periods  until  September  23,  when  the  crop  was  ma- 
ture, Ladd  secured  the  following  data : 

Composition  of  an  acre  of  Indian  corn  at  different  stages. 


Tasseled, 
July  30 

Silked, 
Aug.  9 

Milk, 
Ausr.  21 

Glazed, 
Sept.  7 

Ripe, 
Sept.  23 

Weight  of  green  crop  

Lbs. 
18,045 

Lbs. 
25,745 

Lbs. 
32,600 

Lbs. 
32,295 

Lbs. 
28,460 

Water  in  same  ._  _ 

16,426 

22,666 

27,957 

25,093 

20,540 

Dry  matter  in  same 

1,619 

3,078 

4,643 

7,202 

7,918 

Nutrients  in  same: 
Ash,  or  mineral  matter 

139 

201 

232 

302 

364 

Crude  protein 

240 

437 

479 

644 

678 

Fiber  _    )    Carbo-    f 

514 

873 

1,262 

1,756 

1,734 

N-free  extract  \  hydrates  \  _  _ 
Fat,  or  ether  extract. 

654 

72 

1,399 
168 

2,441 
229 

4,240 
260 

4,828 
314 

The  table  shows  that  this  acre  of  corn  increased  over  14,000  Ibs. 
in  weight  between  July  30,  when  tasseled,  and  August  21,  when  the 
grains  were  in  the  milk  stage.  After  the  latter  date  the  gross 
weight  decreased  nearly  4000  Ibs.  because  of  the  water  lost  by  the 
maturing  plants.  The  plants  increased  continuously  in  dry  matter 
from  tasseling  to  full  ripeness,  the  gain  being  strikingly  rapid  be- 
tween the  silking  and  glazing  stages.  In  less  than  a  month  follow- 
ing August  9,  this  acre  of  corn  stored  over  2  tons  of  dry  matter! 
At  tasseling,  on  July  30,  the  crop  was  nearly  90  per  ct.  water  and 
only  about  10  per  ct.  dry  matter,  while  at  ripening,  September  23, 
there  were  nearly  28  per  ct.  dry  matter.  The  mineral  matter  and 
crude  protein  increased  rapidly  at  first  and  more  slowly  thereafter. 

1Rpt.  1899. 


.12 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  stalk  of  corn  must  be  strong  and  sturdy  to  carry  the  heavy 
ear.  Hence  until  the  glazing  stage  there  was  an  increase  in  fiber 
which  forms  the  woody  plant  framework.  The  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract increased  more  than  2  tons  between  tasseling  and  ripening. 
Most  of  this  increase  was  stored  in  the  kernels  as  starch.  The  crude 
protein  and  so-called  fat  increased  thruout  the  whole  period  under 
study,  most  of  these  nutrients  being  likewise  stored  in  the  corn  ker- 
nels. (211) 

17.  Changes  in  crude  protein. — Ladd's  study  further  shows  most 
important  and  interesting  changes  in  the  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  the  maturing  crop,  as  the  following  table  sets  forth : 

Changes  in  the  crude  protein  of  the  ripening  corn  crop. 


Date 

Stage  of  maturity 

Crude  protein 

Amids 

Proteins 

July  30  

Tasseled 

Lbs. 
69 
158 
102 
152 
109 

Lbs. 
171 
279 
377 
491 
569 

August  9 

Silked 

August  21  

Kernels  in  milk 

September  7.    __  . 

Glazed 

September  23  _     . 

Ripe 

During  the  development  of  the  plants  there  was  a  steady  forma- 
tion of  the  soluble,  circulating  amids,  which  in  turn  were  constantly 
being  changed  to  the  more  highly  organized  proteins.  As  a  result 
there  was  no  increase  of  the  amids  after  the  silking  stage,  while 
there  was  a  steady  and  marked  increase  in  the  proteins  up  to  ma- 
turity. Much  of  the  protein  formed  was  stored  in  the  kernels,  espe- 
cially in  and  about  the  germ,  to  there  aid  in  carrying  on  the  vital 
functions  whenever  the  grains  might  find  lodgment  in  the  soil  and 
begin  growth  to  form  new  corn  plants. 

18.  The  nitrogen-free  extract. — The  development  of  the  principal 
carbohydrates  in  this  acre  of  corn  is  presented  in  the  following 
table : 

Changes  in  the  glucose,  sucrose,  and  starch  of  the  ripening  corn  crop. 


Date 

Stage  of  maturity 

Glucose 

Sucrose 

Starch 

July  30  

Tasseled 

Lbs. 
58 

Lbs. 
9 

Lbs. 
122 

August  9 

Silked 

300 

111 

491 

August  21 

In  milk 

665 

129 

707 

September  7 

Glazed 

720 

95 

1,735 

September  23 

Ripe 

538 

149 

2,853 

How  the  Plant  Grows.  13 

On  August  21,  at  the  milk  stage,  the  glucose  and  sucrose  together 
amounted  to  nearly  800  Ibs.,  which  is  more  than  the  total  weight  of 
the  starch  stored  at  that  period.  After  the  milk  stage  was  reached, 
the  glucose  and  sucrose  did  not  increase,  while  there  was  a  continu- 
ous and  rapid  increase  in  starch,  of  which  there  was  nearly  a  ton 
and  a  half  when  this  acre  of  corn  was  ripe.  During  all  the  periods, 
glucose  and  sucrose  were  being  steadily  formed  in  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  and  transferred  from  them  thru  the  sap  to  the  swelling  ker- 
nels of  the  ear.  Here  these  sugars  were  changed  to  insoluble  starch, 
which  was  compactly  stored  about  the  germs  in  the  corn  kernels. 

Adding  together  the  glucose,  sucrose,  and  starch  and  subtracting 
this  sum  from  the  total  nitrogen-free  extract  found  at  the  same 
period,  as  reported  in  the  first  table,  there  is  a  remainder  of  nearly 
1300  Ibs.  This  excess  must  have  been  largely  pentosans  and  the 
soluble  celluloses. 

As  the  sugars  were  built,  a  portion  was  changed  into  cellulose, 
forming  the  woody  framework  of  the  plant  structure — the  roots, 
stems,  tassels,  leaves,  husks,  cobs,  etc.  A  second  and  larger  portion 
was  changed  to  starch  and  stored  in  the  kernels.  The  elements  of  a 
third  portion  must  have  been  combined  with  nitrates  and  other 
mineral  matter  taken  from  the  soil  to  form  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds— the  amids  and  proteins. 

In  reviewing  the  tables  so  graphically  setting  forth  the  develop- 
ment of  America's  greatest  agricultural  plant,  the  reader  is  re- 
minded that,  in  producing  this  acre  of  corn,  probably  not  over  10 
Ibs.  of  seed  was  placed  in  the  ground  in  the  spring  time.  From  this 
insignificant  beginning,  by  the  following  October,  about  120  days 
later,  the  resultant  plants  had  gathered  inorganic  matter — carbon 
dioxid  from  the  air,  and  water,  nitrogen,  and  mineral  matter  from 
the  soil — and  built  all  these,  first  into  primary  organic  forms,  and 
finally  into  complex  organic  parts  of  their  structure.  The  product 
of  such  building  amounted  to  over  14  tons  of  green  or  4  tons  of  dry 
matter,  all  largely  available  for  nourishing  the  animals  of  the  farm 
and,  thru  them,  man.  This  is  a  forceful  illustration  of  Nature's 
wonderful  processes  of  food  production  occurring  all  about  us  un- 
der the  guiding  mind  of  man. 

The  reader  who  will  thoroly  familiarize  himself  with  this  study 
of  the  growing  corn  plant  can  readily  extend  his  acquirement  to  all 
the  other  crops  of  the  farm.  Thus  equipped  he  is  in  position  to 
study  the  composition  of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  and  consider 
how  they  are  built  up  and  maintained  by  food  derived  from  plants, 
as  later  presented. 


CHAPTER  II. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION- 
METABOLISM. 

I.  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY. 

Division  III  of  the  preceding  chapter  sets  forth  the  yield  and 
composition  of  an  acre  of  Indian  corn,  thereby  showing  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  several  nutrients  of  feeding  stuffs  are  elaborated 
by  the  plants  of  the  farm.  We  will  next  consider  the  nature  and 
composition  of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals,  which  are  built  up  and 
nourished  by  plants. 

19.  The  animal  body. — The  unit  of  the  animal  body  is  the  proto- 
plasmic life-holding  cell,  which,  associated  with  myriads  of  others 
and  modified  in  innumerable  ways,  makes  up  the  body  structure. 
Both  the  cell  envelop  and  its  contents  are  of  nitrogenous  material 
in  most  complex  combination. 

In  studying  the  higher  animals  we  may  regard  their  bodies  as 
consisting  of  a  bony  skeleton  of  mineral  character  surrounded  by 
an  elaborate  muscular  system.  Fatty  tissue  permeates  the  bones 
and  muscles,  filling  in  and  rounding  out  the  body  form,  and  around 
all  is  the  enveloping  skin.  Within  the  body  cavity  are  the  various 
special  organs,  such  as  the  heart,  stomach,  etc.,  designed  for  dis- 
solving, assorting,  distributing,  and  utilizing  the  nutritive  matters 
of  the  food  and  for  conveying  and  disposing  of  the  waste.  Finally 
there  are  the  nerves,  which  control  and  direct  all  body  actions. 

20.  Composition  of  animal  bodies. — To  aid  in  a  study  of  the  com- 
position of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  we  have  the  following  in- 
valuable data  gathered  by  those  greatest  of  agricultural  students, 
Lawes  and  Gilbert1  of  the  Eothamsted  (England)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, whose  classic  investigations  stand  as  models  in  agricultural  re- 
search. 

21.  Mineral  matter. — The  first  division  of  the  table  shows  the 
composition  of  the  entire  body  (fasted  weight)  of  the  animal.     Re- 
ferring to  the  first  column  we  learn  that  in  each  100  Ibs.  of  the  body 
of  the  fat  calf  there  are  3.80  Ibs.  of  mineral  matter,  or  ash.     That 
is,  if  the  body  of  the  calf  were  burned,  there  would  remain  that 

1  Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.  Eng.,  1898 ;   U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  22. 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism. 


15 


amount  of  ash  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  body  weight.     With  the  half-fat 
ox  the  ash  amounts  to  4.66  Ibs.,  while  for  the  fat  ox  it  falls  to  3.92 

Composition  of  the  entire  bodies,  carcasses,  and  offal  of  farm  animals. 


Contents 

Description  of  animal 

Mineral 
matter 
(ash) 

Protein 

Fat 

Total  dry 
sub- 
stance 

Water 

of  stom- 
ach and 
intestines 
in  moist 

state 

Division  I.    Per  cent  in  the  entire  animal  (fasted  live  weight). 


Fat  calf  ... 

3.80 

15.2 

14.8 

33.8 

63.0 

3.17 

Half-fat  ox  _ 

4.66 

16.6 

19.1 

40.3 

51.5 

8.19 

Fat  ox    _ 

3.92 

14.5 

30.1 

48.5 

45.5 

5.98 

Fat  lamb 

2.94 

12.3 

28.5 

43.7 

47.8 

8.54 

Store  sheep 

3.16 

14.8 

18.7 

36.7 

57.3 

6.00 

Half-fat  old  sheep 

3.17 

14.0 

23.5 

40.7 

50.2 

9.05 

Fat  sheep 

2  81 

12  2 

35  6 

50  6 

43  4 

6.02 

Extra-fat  sheep  _    .  

2.90 

10.9 

45.8 

59.6 

35.2 

5.18 

Store  pig  _  -           __ 

2.67 

13.7 

23.3 

39.7 

55.1 

5.22 

Fat  pig  .     _ 

1.65 

10.9 

42.2 

54.7 

41.3 

3.97 

Means  of  all          

3.17 

13.5 

28.2 

44.9 

49.0 

6.13 

Division  IT.    Per  cent  in  carcass. 


Fat  calf 

4.48 

16.6 

16.6 

37.7 

62.3 

Half  -fat  ox 

5.56 

17.8 

22.6 

46.0 

54.0 

Fat  ox 

4.56 

15.0 

34.8 

54.4 

45.6 

Fat  lamb 

3.63 

10.9 

36.9 

51.4 

48.6 

Store  sheep. 

4.36 

14.5 

23.8 

42.7 

57.3 

Half-fat  old  sheep 

4.13 

14.9 

31.3 

50.3 

49.7 

Fat  sheep  .      ________ 

3.45 

11.5 

45.4 

60.3 

39.7 

Extra-fat  sheep.    _    _  ___ 

2.77 

9.1 

55.1 

67.0 

33.0 

Store  pig 

2.57 

14.0 

28.1 

44.7 

55.3 

Fat  pig 

1.40 

10.5 

49.5 

61.4 

38.6 

Means  of  all  

3.69 

13.5 

34.4 

51.6 

48.4  • 

Division  III.    Per  cent  in  offal  (excluding  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines). 


Fat  calf  __ 

3.41 

17.1 

14.6 

35.1 

64.9 

Half-fat  ox 

4.05 

20  6 

15.7 

40.4 

59.6 

Fat  ox 

3.40 

17.5 

26.3 

47.2 

52.8 

Fat  lamb  _ 

2.45 

18.9 

20.1 

41.5 

58.5 

Store  sheep  

2.19 

18.0 

16.1 

36.3 

63.7 

Half-fat  old  sheep  __ 

2.72 

17.7 

18.5 

38.9 

61.1 

Fat  sheep    

2.32 

16.1 

26.4 

44.8 

55.2 

Extra-fat  sheep  

3.64 

16.8 

34.5 

54.9 

45.1 

Store  pier 

3.07 

14.0 

15.0 

32.1 

67.9 

Fat  pig 

2.97 

14.8 

22.8 

40.6 

59.4 

Means  of  all    

3.02 

17.2 

21.0 

41.2 

53.8 

16  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Ibs.  In  100  Ibs.  of  live  lean  pig  there  are  but  2.67  Ibs.  of  ash.  The 
pig  has  the  least  mineral  matter  in  its  body  of  any  of  the  farm 
animals. 

22.  Protein.— The  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments,  hide,  hair,  horns, 
blood,  nerves,  all  internal  organs,  and  a  part  of  the  organic  portion 
of  the  bones  are  nitrogenous  or  protein  in  character.     Most  of  the 
protein  is  in  the  muscular  tissues  or  lean  flesh.     The  fat  calf  has 
15.2  Ibs.  of  dry  nitrogenous  substance,  or  protein,  for  each  100  Ibs. 
of  fasted  body  weight.     This  proportion  is  slightly  increased  in 
the  half-fat  ox,  but  reduced  in  the  fat  one.     There  is  less  protein 
in  the  lean  sheep  and  pig  than  in  the  fat  calf,  while  in  the  extra-fat 
sheep  and  fat  pig  there  are  but  10.9  Ibs.,  mostly  lean  meat,  in  each 
100  Ibs.  of  body. 

23.  Fat.— In  the  fat  calf  there  are  14.8  Ibs.  of  fat  for  each  100 
Ibs.  of  fasted  body  weight.     This  is  increased  to  19.1  Ibs.   in  the 
half-fat  ox,  and  30.1  Ibs.  in  the  fat  ox.     Lean  sheep  show  18.7  Ibs. 
of  fat,  while  extra  fat  ones  run  up  to  45.8  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.     The 
lean  pig  shows  23.3  per  ct.  and  the  fat  pig  42.2  per  ct.  of  fat. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  body  of  the  fat  calf  contains 
almost  as  much  fat  as  dry  lean  meat,  and  that  of  the  fat  ox  more 
than  twice  as  much.  Even  in  the  lean  sheep  or  the  store  pig  there 
is  much  more  fat  than  lean  meat,  while  the  sheep  or  the  pig,  when 
extra  fat,  has  4  times  as  much  dry  fat  as  lean  meat,  their  carcasses 
often  being  nearly  one-half  fat. 

24.  Water  and  dry  substance. — The  next  two  columns  show  the 
dry  substance  and  water  in  the  animal  body.     We  learn  that  63 
out  of  every  100  Ibs.  live  weight  of  the  fat  calf's  body  is  water. 
With  the  half-fat  ox  the  water  is  materially  reduced,  and  in  the 
fat  one  it  amounts  to  only  45.5  per  ct.     Considerably  more  than 
half  the  body  weight  of  the  calf,  and  nearly  half  that  of  the  fat  ox, 
is  water.     In  extra  fat  sheep  the  water  falls  to  35.2  Ibs.,  the  lowest 
for  any  farm  animal,  while  for  the  fat  pig  it  is  41.3  Ibs.  for  each 
100  Ibs.  of  body.     For  all  the  animals  studied,  49  Ibs.  in  every  100 
of  the  body  weight,  or  nearly  50  per  ct.,  is  water.     The  supreme 
importance  of  water  in  the  animal  body  is  strikingly  brought  out 
by  these  figures. 

25.  Nitrogen  and  ash. — The  following  table  shows  the  nitrogen 
and  the  principal  ash  constituents  in  the  fasted  live  weight  of  the 
animals  analyzed  at  Rothamsted,  and  also  in  milk  and  unwashed 
wool : 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism. 


17 


Ash  and  nitrogen  in  1000  Ibs.  of  farm  animals  (fasted  live  weight),  milk, 

and  unwashed  wool. 


Nitrog-en 
(N) 

Phosphoric 
acid 
(P205) 

Potash 
(K20; 

Lime 
(CaO) 

Magrnesia 
(MgO) 

Fat  calf  

Lbs. 
24.64 

Lbs. 
15.  35 

Lbs. 
2.06 

Lbs. 
16.46 

Lbs. 
0.79 

Half-fat  ox  

27.45 

18.39 

2.05 

21.11 

0.85 

Fat  ox 

23.26 

15  51 

1.76 

17.92 

0.61 

Fat  lamb 

19.71 

11  26 

1.66 

12.81 

0.52 

Store  sheep 

23.77 

11.88 

1.74 

13.21 

0.56 

Fat  sheep 

19.76 

10.40 

1.48 

11.84 

0.48 

Store  pig 

22.08 

10.  66 

1.96 

10.79 

0.53 

Fat  pig 

17.65 

6.54 

1.38 

6.36 

0.32 

Milk.  _ 

5.76 

2.00 

1.70 

1.70 

0.20 

Unwashed  wooL. 

54.00 

0.70 

56.20 

1.80 

0.40 

The  table  shows  that  the  nitrogen  in  each  1000  Ibs.  (fasted  live 
weight)  of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  varies  from  about  17  to  27 
Ibs.,  being  least  in  the  fat  pig  and  greatest  in  the  half-fat  ox.  Lime, 
the  largest  mineral  constituent  of  the  bones,  ranges  from  about  6 
Ibs.  per  1000  Ibs.  of  carcass  in  the  fat  pig  to  over  21  Ibs.  in  the  ox. 
Phosphoric  acid  almost  equals  lime  in  quantity,  while  potash  runs 
from  1  to  2  Ibs.  only  per  1000  Ibs.  of  animal,  and  magnesia  still  less. 
Soda,  silica,  iron,  etc.,  are  found  in  small  quantities. 

26.  Plants  and  animals  compared. — One  of  the  great  distinguish- 
ing differences  between  plants  and  animals  is  that  in  plants  the 
walls  of  the  cells  of  which  they  are  composed  are  of  carbohydrate 
material,  while  in  animals  the  walls  of  the  body  cells  are  of  protein 
substance.  Thus  plants  are  on  a  carbon  and  animals  on  a  nitrogen 
foundation.  The  higher  plants  are  nourished  by  inorganic  matter, 
while  animals  live  upon  both  organic  and  inorganic  substances, 
principally  the  former.  Plants  absorb  thru  their  leaves  great 
quantities  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  re- 
taining the  carbon  and  giving  off  the  oxygen  as  waste.  Animals 
take  free  oxygen  thru  their  lungs  and  combine  it  with  carbon  to 
form  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  thrown  off  as  waste  in  the  breath. 
Thus  the  two  great  classes  of  living  objects  are  interdependent. 

In  the  animal  body  the  organic  material  derived  from  plants  may 
be  built  into  still  other  highly  organized  compounds,  usually  pro- 
tein in  character.  Thus  built,  matter  has  reached  its  last  high 
stage  of  organized  existence,  but  its  fall  or  descent  soon  occurs.  In 
the  daily  waste  of  the  body  or  upon  the  withdrawal  of  life,  this 
highly  endowed  organic  matter  is  quickly  broken  down  into  inor- 
ganic compounds,  to  begin  again  the  eternal  round  of  Nature. 
3 


18  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

II.  DIGESTION. 

27.  Digestion. — The   changes   which  food   undergoes  within   the 
digestive  tract  of  the  animal  to  prepare  it  for  absorption  and  ulti- 
mate use  in  building  new  tissues,  repairing  body  waste,  and  as  a 
source  of  energy  are  collectively  known  as  digestion.     Digestion  is 
effected  by  enzymes  or  ferments  elaborated  by  glands  of  the  mouth, 
stomach,  pancreas,  and  small  intestines.     Bacteria  inhabiting  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  digestive  tract  attack  the  woody  cellulose  of  the 
food,  breaking  it  down  and  thereby  freeing  nutrients.     In  addition 
to  the  action  of  the  secretions  and  bacteria,  the  food  in  its  course 
thru  the  digestive  tract  is  subjected  to  mechanical  processes  which 
tend  to  reduce  it  to  a  fine  state  of  division,  the  object  of  the  whole 
process  being  to  separate  from  the  useless  matter  those  constituents 
which  are  to  nourish  the  body. 

28.  The  alimentary  tract. — The  digestive  tract  is  a  long,  tortuous 
tube   passing   thru  the   animal   from   mouth   to   vent,    enlarged   in 
places  for  the  storage   of  food  or  waste.     Within  its  linings   are 
secretory  organs  furnishing  various  fluids  of  digestion,  and  into  it, 
from  other  specific  secretory  organs  located  near  by,  pour  still  other 
digestive  fluids.     Within  its  walls  are  nerves  controlling  its  action, 
arteries  which  nourish  it  with  fresh  blood,  and  veins  and  lymphat- 
ics which  absorb  and  carry  from  its  interior  the  products  of  diges- 
tion, as  well  as  water,  mineral  matter,   and  gases.     It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  are 
really  outside  the  body  proper.     Only  when  a  substance  has  passed 
into  or  thru  the  walls  of  the  digestive  tract  has  it  actually  entered 
the  body  of  the  animal. 

In  young  ruminants,  or  animals  which  chew  the  cud,  the  first  3 
stomachs  are  less  developed  than  in  grown  animals.  Colin  found 
that  the  first  stomach,  or  rumen,  of  a  calf  held  2.6  Ibs.  of  water ; 
the  second  stomach,  or  reticulum,  0.22  Ib. ;  the  third  stomach,  or 
manyplies,  0.35  Ib. ;  and  the  true  stomach,  or  abomasum,  7.7  Ibs. 
As  the  diet  of  the  growing  calf  changes  to  more  solid  food,  such  as 
grass,  hay,  and  grains,  the  rumen  or  paunch  gradually  increases  in 
size,  until  in  the  grown  ox  it  holds  9  times  as  much  as  the  other  3 
stomachs  combined. 

The  length  and  capacity  of  the  intestines  and  the  capacity  of  the 
stomachs  of  different  farm  animals  are  as  follows : 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism. 


19 


Capacity  and  length  of  intestines  and  capacity  of  stomachs  of  farm 

animals. 


Animal 

Capacity  of  stomach 
and  intestine 

Average 
length  of 
intestine 

Ratio  between  length  of  — 

Quarts 

Relative 
capacity 

Largre  and 
small  intestine 

Body  and 
small  intestine 

Horse 
Stomach*  
Small  intestine  ___ 
Large  intestine  _  _  _ 

Total 

19.0 
67.4 
137.4 

Per  cent 

8.5 
30.2 
61.3 

Feet 

73.6 
24.5 

1:3 

1:12 

223.8 

100.0 

98.1 

Ox 
All  4  stomachs  
Small  intestine  .__ 
Large  intestine-.. 

Total 

266.9 
69.7 
40.1 

70.8 
18.5 
10.7 

150.9 
36.3 

1:4.1 

1:20 

376.7 

100.0 

187.2 

Sheep 
Rumen 

24.7 
2.1 
1.0 
3.5 

52.9 
4.5 
2.0 
7.5 

85.9 
21.4 

1:4 

1:27 

Reticulum 

Manyplies 

Abomasum 

All  4  stomachs  ._ 
Small  intestine  ... 
Large  intestine.-- 

Total   .. 

31.3 
9.5 
5.9 

66.9 
20.4 
12.7 

46.7 

100.0 

107.3 

Hog 
Stomach 

8.5 
9.7 
10.8 

29.2 
33.5 
37.3 

60.0 
17.1 

1:3.5 

1:14 

Small  intestine  _  _  _ 
Large  intestine.  __ 

Total 

29.0 

100.0 

77.1 

*Chauveau,  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,  places  the  capacity  at  3  to  3.3 
gallons. 

29.  Insalivation. — In  the  mouth  of  the  animal  the  food  is  crushed 
and  ground  by  the  teeth,  and  at  the  same  time  is  moistened  with 
the  alkaline  saliva,  forming  a  pasty  mass.  Colin1  found  that  a 
horse  fed  on  hay  secreted  11  to  13  Ibs.  of  saliva  per  hour.  Oats  re- 
quire a  little  more  than  their  own  weight,  green  fodders  half,  and 
dry  fodders  4  times  their  weight  of  saliva  during  mastication.  If 
the  ration  of  a  horse  for  one  day  amounts  to  11  Ibs.  of  hay  and  11 
Ibs.  of  other  dry  fodder,  this  will  require  4  times  its  weight  of 

1  Smith,  Physiol.  Dom.  Anim. 


20  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

saliva,  or  88  Ibs.,  to  which  must  be  added  4.4  Ibs.  secreted  during 
rest,  making  92.4  Ibs.  in  all.  The  mingling  of  saliva  with  the  food 
aids  the  sense  of  taste  by  dissolving  small  quantities  of  food  which 
affect  the  nerve  ends  of  the  tongue.  In  this  moist  condition  the 
food  is  more  easily  swallowed.  The  most  important  property  of 
the  saliva  is  due  to  the  enzyme,  called  ptyalin,  which  it  contains. 

Enzymes  are  mysterious  organic  compounds  which  are  able  to 
change  or  break  down  other  organic  compounds  without  themselves 
being  broken  down. 

30.  Ptyalin. — The  first  enzyme  of  digestion,  ptyalin,  converts  the 
insoluble  starches  of  food  into  a  sugar  called  maltose.     The  pro- 
teins and  fats  of  food  are  not  changed  by  the  action  of  the  saliva. 

Since  most  of  the, changes  which  food  substances  undergo  during 
digestion  are  effected  thru  enzymes,,  their  general  nature  should  be 
early  understood  by  the  student,  and  ptyalin  action  serves  as  an 
example.  If  a  quantity  of  starch,  placed  in  a  dish,  is  treated  with 
saliva  and  the  whole  kept  at  body  temperature,  the  starch  so  treated 
will  gradually  dissolve,  and  after  a  time  malt  sugar  will  be  found 
in  its  stead.  The  complex  starch  molecule  has  been  cleaved  or  split 
into  simpler  ones  by  the  action  of  the  ptyalin.  The  enzyme  caus- 
ing this  change  is  itself  not  altered  in  character  or  function,  how- 
ever, or  seemingly  exhausted  in  energy  thereby,  but  is  still  capable 
of  changing  more  starch  into  sugar.  So  far  as  known,  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  amount  of  sugar  which  a  given  quantity  of  ptyalin  will 
produce  if  the  supply  of  starch  is  maintained  and  the  resultant 
sugar  is  continuously  removed  from  the  solution.  If  the  saliva  is 
heated  above  176°  F.,  it  will  no  longer  possess  this  power.  At  the 
temperature  of  ice  water  its  action  ceases,  altho  the  enzyme  is  not 
destroyed,  for  on  warming  it  becomes  active  again.  Acids  destroy 
ptyalin  if  added  much  beyond  the  point  of  neutrality.  Each  of  the 
several  enzymes  of  digestion  is  capable  of  acting  on  only  one  of 
the  groups  of  nutritive  substances— on  either  proteins,  carbohy- 
drates, or  fats.  Some  act  only  in  the  presence  of  acids,  and  others 
only  in  neutral  or  faintly  alkaline  solutions.  All  are  most  active  at 
about  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

31.  Digestion  in  the  stomach.— The  Jopd  remains  but  a  compara- 
tively short  time  in  the  mouth,  and  is  then  passed  on  thru  the  gullet 
to  the  stomach,  where  it  is  acted  on  by  the  gastric  juice.    This  con- 
sists of  water  containing  the  enzymes,  pepsin  and  rennin,  and  also 
from  0.2  to  0.5  per  ct.  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  gastric  juice  of  car- 
nivora,  or  flesh-eating  animals,  being  more  acid  than  that  of  others 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  21 

Pepsin  acts  only  in  weak  acid  solutions,  converting  the  very  com- 
plex proteins  into  soluble  and  simpler,  tho  still  complex,  products 
known  as  proteoses  and  peptones.  Proteoses  and  peptones  are  solu- 
ble nitrogenous  compounds,  simpler  than  the  proteins  from  which 
they  originate.  They  are  the  result  of  the  partial  cleavage  of  pro- 
teins with  the  addition  of  water. 

Eennin  is  the  enzyme  which  curdles  milk.  The  membranous  lin- 
ing of  the  stomachs  of  calves  yields  the  rennet  of  commerce,  which 
contains  this  enzyme.  One  part  of  rennin  will  coagulate  400,000 
parts  of  milk.  This  enzyme  is  an  interesting  provision  of  nature 
for  conserving  milk  so  the  animal  may  get  the  full  value  from  it. 
Altho  liquid,  milk  is  not  in  condition  to  be  taken  directly  into  the 
animal  system,  but,  like  solid  foods,  must  first  undergo  digestion. 
Milk  being  liquid,  the  stomach  would  naturally  pass  it  quickly  on 
to  the  small  intestine,  and  if  this  occurred  it  would  not  be  suffi- 
ciently acted  on  by  the  pepsin.  Rennin  quickly  converts  the  milk 
into  a  solid  curd  which  is  easily  retained  by  the  stomach  until  dis- 
solved by  the  action  of  the  digestive  juice. 

Acid  destroys  the  power  of  ptyaliii  to  convert  starch  into  sugar. 
The  construction  of  the  stomach,  however,  is  such  that  the  action 
of  ptyalin  on  the  food  after  it  reaches  that  organ,  following  masti- 
cation, is  not  too  promptly  checked.  The  first  portion  of  the  stom- 
ach, into  which  the  gullet  directly  leads,  secretes  pepsin  but  no 
acid.  The  action  of  ptyalin  on  the  starches  of  the  foods  continues, 
therefore,  in  this  part  of  the  stomach.  The  intestinal  or  rear  end  of 
the  stomach,  on  the  other  hand,  secretes  little  pepsin  but  much  hy- 
drochloric acid.  Here  the  conversion  of  the  starches  into  malt 
sugar  by  the  pytalin  ceases,  and  pepsin  digestion  becomes  active. 
Only  the  preliminary  steps  of  digestion  are  accomplished  in  the 
stomach,  and  relatively  little  absorption  of  the  digested  nutrients 
takes  place  from  it.  Sugars  may  be  absorbed  to  some  extent,  but 
the  proteoses  and  peptones  produced  from  the  breaking  up  of  pro- 
tein, and  also  the  fats,  are  mostly  carried  into  the  small  intestine 
along  with  the  other  matter. 

Soon  after  the  food  reaches  the  stomach  that  organ  begins  a  series 
of  orderly  movements  for  the  delivery  of  its  contents  into  the  small 
intestine.  In  this  delivery  the  stomach  contracts  at  the  middle  re- 
gion, and  the  wave  of  contraction  proceeds  slowly  and  regularly  to- 
ward the  intestinal  end,  one  wave  following  another.  Every  time 
the  contraction  reaches  the  rear  end  of  the  stomach,  the  ring  of 
muscles  which  keeps  the  stomach  shut  off  from  the  small  intestine 


22  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

relaxes  and  allows  a  small  quantity  of  the  semi-liquid  contents  of 
the  stomach  to  spurt  thru  into  the  intestine.  After  this  the  ring 
of  muscles  again  contracts,  thereby  closing  the  entrance.  The  stom- 
ach in  turn  slowly  relaxes,  and  after  a  certain  length  of  time,  vary- 
ing in  different  animals,  the  process  is  repeated.  By  this  means  the 
fluid  portions  of  the  mixed  contents  of  the  stomach  are  squeezed  out 
and  carried  into  the  small  intestine,  while  the  more  solid  portions 
remain  behind  for  further  action  by  the  gastric  juice. 

32.  The  stomach  of  ruminants. — In  such  animals  as  the  horse  the 
gullet  is  a  simple  muscular  tube  passing  from  the  mouth  to    the 
stomach.     In  ruminants,   or  animals  which   chew  the   cud,   as  the 
cow,  sheep,  etc.,  it  is  expanded  into  three  compartments  of  great 
aggregate   capacity,  called  the  paunch,    the    honeycomb,   and    the 
manyplies,  before  the  true  stomach  is  reached.    They  secrete  water 
but  no  enzymes,  and  merely  serve  as  pouches  for  the  storage  of 
food  and  the  better  preparation  of  it  for  digestion.     With  rumi- 
nants the  food  is  swallowed  after  partial  mastication  and  passes  to 
the  paunch,  from  which  it  can  be  returned  to  the  mouth  in  small 
portions  to  be  again  chewed.    While  the  food  is  in  any  of  the  first 
compartments  the  action  of  the  ptyalin  of  the  saliva  continues. 

The  nutritive  substances  within  the  cells  of  plants  are  enclosed 
within  the  cellulose  cell  walls.  Where  these  cell  walls  are  formed 
of  hard,  thickened  cellulose,  the  nutritive  substances  contained 
within  the  cells  are  not  readily  reached  by  the  fluids  of  digestion. 
In  the  first  stomachs  of  ruminants,  especially  in  the  paunch,  the  fer- 
mentation of  cellulose  by  bacteria  takes  place,  the  walls  of  the 
cells  being  thereby  more  or  less  broken  down  and  their  contents 
set  free,  thus  becoming  available  for  digestion.  In  the  partial  de- 
struction of  the  woody  cellulose  in  the  paunch  there  regularly  oc- 
curs the  evolution  of  gases,  which  may  be  very  considerable  when 
fresh,  easily  fermentable  forage,  such  as  green  clover  or  alfalfa,  is 
eaten.  Ordinarily  these  gases  are  absorbed  by  the  blood,  but  in 
some  cases  the  gas  is  evolved  so  rapidly  that  the  blood  circulation 
cannot  absorb  it  as  fast  as  formed,  and  hoven  or  bloat  occurs. 

33.  The  small  intestine. — In  the  small  intestine  the  work  of  di- 
gestion is  carried  on  even  more  vigorously  than  in  the  stomach.   All 
classes  of  nutrients  are  attacked  by  the  fluids  it  holds,  and  in  it  the 
digestive  processes  come  to  a  close.     The  contents  of  the  stomach, 
when  received  into  the  small  intestine,  consist  of  a  semi-liquid  mix- 
ture of  undigested  proteins,  partially  digested  nutrients — proteoses 
and  peptones,  fats,  sugars,  starches,  and  celluloses — and  waste  mat- 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  23 

ter.  The  small  intestine  first  receives  digestive  fluids  from  two  out- 
side organs,  the  liver  and  the  pancreas,  whose  functions  in  nutri- 
tion are  of  the  highest  importance,  while  farther  on  the  food  is 
mixed  with  a  secretion  containing  several  enzymes  which  are  pro- 
duced by  the  intestine  itself.  Immediately  on  entering  the  small 
intestine  the  inpouring  material  is  changed  from  an  acid  to  an  alka- 
line character  thru  rapid  addition  of  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice, 
both  alkaline. 

34.  The  pancreas. — The  pancreas  is  a  slender  gland  lying  just  be- 
yond the  stomach  and  connected  with  the  small  intestine  by  a  duct. 
Its  secretion,  thejocmcreah'c  juice,  varies  in  different  animals,  being 
thin,  clear,  and  watery  in  some,  and  thick,  viscous,  and  slimy  in 
ethers.     The  pancreatic  juice  bears  three  enzymes— trypsin,   amy- 
lopsin,  and  steapsin. 

Trypsin  is  an  enzyme  which,  like  pepsin,  converts  protein  into 
proteoses  and  peptones.  It  has  the  power  of  further  cleaving  these 
two  partially  digested  substances  into  amino  acids,  which  constitute 
the  ultimate  useful  nutrients  which  come  from  the  cleavage  of  all 
the  proteins  of  food  stuffs  thru  digestion.  The  digestion  of  protein 
goes  on  much  more  thoroly  in  the  small  intestine  under  the  influ- 
ence of  trypsin  than  it  does  in  the  stomach  with  pepsin. 

Amylopsin  is  a  pancreatic  enzyme  which  converts  starch  into 
glucose-like  sugars. 

Steapsin  is  a  pancreatic  enzyme  which  splits  fats  into  fatty  acids 
and  glycerin. 

Ordinarily,  when  digestion  is  not  going  on  there  is  no  secretion 
by  the  pancreas.  It  has  been  found  that  if  the  mucous  lining  of 
the  first  part  of  the  small  intestine  is  treated  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  the  pancreas  at  once  pours  out  its  secretion.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  at  the  time  of 
their  ejection  from  that  organ  into  the  small  intestine,  are  strongly 
acid  because  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  of  the  gastric  juice.  This 
acid  when  it  pours  into  the  small  intestine,  acting  on  the  lining  of 
the  latter,  produces  something  which,  when  absorbed  into  the 
blood,  calls  forth  the  pancreatic  secretion  just  when  needed — a 
forceful  illustration  of  how  all  the  organs  of  the  complicated  di- 
gestive tract  work  in  harmony. 

35.  The  liver. — The  liver,  the  largest  organ  in  the  body,  has  nu- 
merous duties  in  the  digestion  and  metabolism  of  nutrients.    While 
some  of  its  functions  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter,  attention 


24  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

is  here  directed  to  its  function  in  the  digestion  and  absorption  of 
the  fats  of  foods. 

Bile,  the  product  of  the  liver,  is  a  clear,  greenish  or  golden  col- 
ored fluid,  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  extremely  bitter  in  taste.  The 
bile  furnishes  the  alkalies  which  are  necessary  for  the  conversion 
of  the  fats  of  the  food  into  soaps,  that  is,  for  changing  them  from 
an  unabsorbable  into  a  readily  absorbable  condition.  It  is  of  such 
nature  that  it  readily  forms  an  emulsion  with  fats,  and  in  this  form 
the  latter  present  a  very  large  surface  for  the  action  of  the  steapsin 
of  the  pancreatic  juice.  The  process  of  the  decomposition  of  the  fats 
into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  is  greatly  hastened  by  this  means.  In 
the  presence  of  bile  the  fatty  acids  take  on  alkali  and  form  soaps, 
which  are  soluble  in  water  and  can  be  absorbed  into  the  walls  of  the 
intestine.  After  performing  this  important  function  the  bile  is  not 
wholly  excreted  with  the  contents  of  the  intestine,  but  is  in  part 
taken  up  by  the  circulation  and  again  utilized.  According  to  Colin, 
the  liver  of  the  horse  secretes  over  13  Ibs.,  of  the  ox  5.7  Ibs.,  and  of 
the  sheep  0.75  Ib.  of  bile  during  each  24  hours. 

36.  The  intestinal  secretion. — The  first  portion  of  the  small  in- 
testine secretes  no  fluids  except  possibly  water,  but  into  it  are 
poured  the  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile,  as  already  described.  Fur- 
ther on,  the  small  intestine  secretes  its  own  digestive  fluid  contain- 
ing several  enzymes,  the  most  important  of  which  are  erepsin  and 
the  invertases. 

Erepsin  is  an  enzyme  of  great  digesting  power  which  attacks  and 
still  further  splits  or  cleaves  those  proteoses  and  peptones  which 
have  escaped  such  action  by  trypsin,  likewise  converting  them  into 
amino  acids,  the  ultimate  digestion  products  of  the  proteins. 

The  invertases,  sucrase,  maltase,  and  lactase,  are  enzymes  which 
convert  cane-,  malt-,  and  milk-sugars  into  the  more  simple  glucose- 
like  sugars. 

Thus  into  the  small  intestine  are  poured  the  complex  bile;  the 
three  digestive  enzymes  from  the  pancreas — trypsin,  amylopsin,  and 
steapsin ;  and  finally  erepsin  and  the  invertases  from  its  own  walls. 
Water  is  also  freely  poured  into  the  small  intestine  from  its  walls. 

While  in  the  small  intestine,  the  food,  which  has  been  masticated 
in  the  mouth  and  partially  digested  in  the  stomach,  is  acted  on  by 
all  the  various  fluids  above  described.  That  part  of  the  food  which 
thus  far  has  escaped  digestion  is  now  vigorously  and  variously  at- 
tacked, so  that  under  ordinary  conditions  little  that  is  useful  is 
lost.  The  larger  portion  of  all  the  digested  material  is  absorbed 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  25 

from  the  intestine  into  its  walls,  and  thus  enters  the  body  proper, 
as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  chapter.  The  waste,  along  with  some 
digested  matter  and  much  of  the  digestive  fluids,  passes  from  the 
small  into  the  large  intestine. 

37.  Special  provision  for  the  horse. — The  horse,  tho  eating  coarse 
food  like  the  ox,  has  a  small  stomach  and  no  paunch  for  specially 
preparing  such  food  for  digestion.  In  partial  compensation  it  has 
the  caecum,  which  is  a  greatly  enlarged  portion  of  the  alimentary 
tract,  linking  the  small  and  large  intestines.  Into  the  caecum  is 
passed  much  of  the  undigested  matter,  together  with  the  enzymes 
of  the  small  intestine.  Here  the  digestive  processes  of  the  small 
intestine  are  prolonged,  thus  making  up  for  his  small  stomach  and 
lack  of  a  paunch. 


Since  the  steps  by  which  the  food  is  prepared  thru  digestion  for 
final  use  by  the  body  are  so  numerous  and  complicated,  it  is  well  to 
now  review  the  subject,  dealing  with  the  nutrients  and  what  occurs 
with  them,  rather  than  considering  the  organs  and  solvents  em- 
ployed. 

38.  Digestion  of  fat. — As  has  been  stated,  the  fats  of  foods,  no 
matter  how  finely  divided,  cannot  directly  enter  the  circulation,  but 
must  be  changed  in  the  following  manner :  One  of  the  enzymes  pro- 
duced by  the  pancreas  is  the  fat-splitting  steapsin,  which  breaks 
some  of  the  fats  in  the  food  into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids.     The  bile 
is  largely  made  up  of  alkaline  salts,  and  with  these  the  fatty  acids 
react  and  form  soaps.     These  soaps  in  turn  form  an  emulsion  with 
the  unchanged  fats,  the  emulsified  fats  presenting  a  large  surface 
on  which  the  steapsin  may  act.     Thus  it  is  believed  that  the  fat 
which  is  finally  absorbed  is  split  into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids,  the 
latter  and  the  alkali  of  the  bile  forming  soaps.     These  soaps  and 
the  glycerin  are  absorbed    by  the    intestinal  wall,  in   the    cells  of 
which  they  are  reunited  into  fats  and  are  contributed  as  such  to 
the  circulation.     Some  authorities  hold,  however,  that  a  part  of  the 
fatty  acids  and  glycerin  formed  by  the  splitting  of  neutral  fats  by 
steapsin  may  be  absorbed  as  such,  without  being  first  changed  to 
soaps. 

39.  Carbohydrate  digestion. — The  purpose  of  the  animal  in  di- 
gesting either  starch,   or  sugars  other  than  those  of  glucose-like 
form,  is  to  convert  them  into  glucose  or  glucose-like  sugars,  which 
are  the  only  forms  of  carbohydrates  that  can  be  used  in  the  body. 


26  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Since  the  carbohydrates  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of 
animals,  nature  provides  for  their  digestion  in  several  parts  of  the 
alimentary  tract.  Carbohydrate  digestion  begins  with  the  action 
of  ptyalin  on  the  starches  of  foods  in  the  mouth,  whereby  they  are 
converted  into  maltose.  Ptyalin  action  continues  in  the  first  por- 
tion of  the  stomach,  but  ceases  in  the  latter  part  of  that  organ. 
Sugars  of  glucose  form  may  be  absorbed  from  the  stomach.  Even 
the  compound  cane-,  malt-,  and  milk-sugars  may  without  change  be 
absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  in  small  amounts.  If  these 
compound  sugars  remain  in  the  digestive  tract  an  appreciable  time, 
as  usually  happens,  they  are  changed  to  glucose  and  glucose-like 
sugars.  Thus  most  of  the  carbohydrates  are  absorbed  from  the  ali- 
mentary tract  in  the  form  of  glucose.  Nearly  all  the  carbohydrates 
are  carried  on  from  the  stomach  into  the  small  intestine,  wrhich  is 
the  principal  organ  concerned  in  their  final  digestion.  Here  the 
starches  which  have  escaped  digestion  in  the  mouth  and  stomach 
are  acted  upon  by  amylopsin,  and  the  compound  cane-,  malt-,  and 
milk-sugars  are  converted  by  the  invertases  into  simpler  glucose- 
like  sugars. 

When  a  human  eats  bread,  or  an  animal  consumes  hay  or  corn, 
the  starch  of  such  food  must  all  be  changed  to  sugars  before  it  can 
enter  the  body  proper.  With  trifling  exceptions  all  compound  sugars 
are  converted  into  glucose-like  sugars.  It  is  even  held  that  milk 
sugar  has  no  food  value  with  birds,  because  their  digestive  tract 
provides  no  enzyme  for  breaking  it  up  into  glucose-like  sugars  which 
may  be  absorbed. 

In  the  digestive  tract  no  enzyme  has  been  found  which  acts  on 
cellulose.  Bacteria  inhabiting  the  alimentary  canal,  however,  at- 
tack cellulose,  especially  in  the  paunch  of  ruminants  and  the  caecum 
of  the  horse.  Among  the  products  of  such  bacterial  decomposition 
of  cellulose  are  organic  compounds,  such  as  acetic  and  lactic  acid, 
besides  gases — marsh  gas,  carbon  dioxid,  and  hydrogen.  While 
these  gases  are  of  no  value  to  the  animal,  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  other  cleavage  products  are  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract 
and  serve  as  nutrients.  Smith1  suggests  that  cellulose  digestion 
may  be  brought  about  by  ferments  contained  in  the  food  itself. 
When  artificially  digested  with  strong  sulphuric  acid,  cellulose  is 
converted  into  a  gummy  product  and  finally  into  glucose.  Because 
the  goat  and  the  ox  can  subsist  for  long  periods  on  coarse  straw, 
which  is  largely  cellulose,  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  this  sub- 

1  Manual  of  Vet.  Physiol.,  1908. 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  27 

stance  has  considerable  nutritive  value,  tho  the  manner  of  its  diges- 
tion is  not  yet  understood. 

40.  Protein  digestion. — In  the  process  of  digestion  the  protein 
compounds  in  the  food  are  attacked  first  by  pepsin  in  the  stomach, 
and  later  by  trypsin  and  erepsin  in  the  small  intestine.  The  action 
of  these  enzymes  is  to  cleave  the  very  complex  protein  molecules 
into  simpler  ones,  during  which  process  the  split  molecules  take  up 
water  and  become  soluble.  Proteoses  and  peptones  are  products 
of  the  cleavage  of  proteins,  an  example  of  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  experiment:  If  a  fragment  of  the  white  part  of  a 
hard-boiled  egg,  which  is  a  protein  substance,  is  placed  in  a  dish 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  a  little  pepsin  added,  and  the  whole 
kept  at  body  temperature,  in  a  short  time  the  edges  of  the  opaque 
egg  mass  will  become  swollen  and  transparent,  the  change  gradu- 
ally extending  thru  the  whole  fragment.  After  a  time  the  mass  will 
have  entirely  disappeared,  and  in  its  stead  there  will  remain  a  clear 
solution.  If  this  peptone  solution  is  evaporated  to  dryness  there 
will  be  left  a  yellowish,  transparent  mass  resembling  the  dried 
white  of  an  unboiled  egg.  This  dry  digested  material,  now  a  mix- 
ture of  proteoses  and  peptones,  is  soluble  in  water  the  same  as  the 
white  of  egg;  but  if  dissolved  in  water  it  will  not  solidify  on  heat- 
ing, as  does  ordinary  white  of  egg.  This  shows  that  the  substance 
has  been  changed  to  something  other  than  protein,  which  always 
coagulates  or  solidifies  on  heating.  These  proteoses  and  peptones 
have  resulted  from  the  cleavage  or  splitting  of  the  very  complex 
egg  protein  into  simpler  molecules,  which  upon  such  cleavage  have 
taken  up  chemically  a  large  amount  of  water  and  become  soluble. 
When  a  piece  of  lean  meat  or  hard-boiled  egg  is  taken  into  the 
human  stomach,  the  pepsin,  acting  in  the  presence  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  gradually  dissolves  such  meat  or  egg,  changing  it  to  soluble 
peptones  and  proteoses.  If  it  escapes  solution  in  the  stomach,  it  is 
usually  dissolved  later  in  the  small  intestine. 

The  soluble  proteoses  and  peptones  are  not  yet  in  suitable  form 
for  use  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  and  so  are  not  absorbed,  but  are 
retained  in  the  small  intestine  until  they  have  undergone  further 
enzyme  action.  This  is  effected  by  trypsin,  which  can  not  only  at- 
tack protein  directly  and  convert  it  into  proteoses  and  peptones, 
as  does  pepsin  in  the  stomach,  but  can  also  attack  the  peptones  and 
proteoses  and  cleave  them  further.  Erepsin,  an  enzyme  of  the  small 
intestine,  is  of  powerful  action.  It  attacks  nitrogenous  substances 
after  they  have  become  proteoses  and  peptones.  By  the  action  of 


28  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

these  last  two  enzymes  the  proteoses  and  peptones  have  their  mole- 
cules further  cleaved  into  simpler  but  still  complex  molecules, 
water  being  again  taken  up  as  in  the  first  cleavage.  The  simplest 
products  of  such  cleavage  of  the  proteins  of  food  substances  are 
the  amino  acids. 

The  amino  acids  are  the  common  final  nitrogenous  nutritive  ma- 
terials of  the  digestive  tract,  resulting  from  the  cleavage  of  the 
complex  molecules  of  the  food  proteins.  They  are  soluble  in  the 
juices  of  the  small  intestine  and  are  ready  for  transference  thru 
the  intestinal  walls  into  the  body  proper.  These  acids  are  still 
relatively  complex  in  structure,  but  are  much  simpler  than  the  pro- 
teoses and  peptones  from  which  they  are  derived.  The  amino 
acids,  derived  from  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  foods,  constitute  the 
great  primary  nitrogenous  building  material  out  of  which  the  pro- 
tein tissues  of  the  animal  body  are  built.  So  far  as  known,  protein 
compounds  taken  as  food  cannot  be  broken  apart  further  than  into 
amino  acids  and  remain  useful  in  body  building.  The  amino  acids 
are  now  obtained  by  the  physiological  chemist  as  a  laboratory 
product.  The  mixture  of  amino  acids  secured  by  completely  di- 
gesting a  protein  and  then  evaporating  the  water  is  a  syrup-like 
substance. 

41.  Tissue  building. — The  process  of  protein  digestion  is  the 
breaking  down  of  complex  nitrogenous  bodies  into  simpler  ones. 
A  good  picture  of  what  takes  place  can  be  had  by  likening  the  pro- 
tein molecule  to  a  house  being  taken  down  by  a  builder  in  order 
that  he  may  construct  another  from  the  materials.  An  animal  eat- 
ing protein  compounds  cannot  use  the  protein  molecules  in  the 
form  in  which  the  plant  has  built  them  up  into  its  own  substance, 
but  must  first  take  them  apart  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  from 
the  parts  reconstruct  another  kind  of  protein  molecule  suitable  for 
its  own  use.  In  other  wrords,  its  protein  molecules  must  have  a 
different  architecture  from  those  of  the  plants  which  serve  as  its 
food.  The  proteoses  and  peptones  may  be  likened  to  the  roof  and 
walls  of  the  house.  These  walls  and  the  roof  can  be  broken  down 
into  bricks  and  tiles,  which  are  represented  by  the  amino  acids ; 
and  from  these  the  animal,  beginning  anew,  can  construct  new  pro- 
teins of  the*  specific  architecture  its  body  may  require. 

It  is  possible  that  in  certain  cases  portions  of  the  protein  mole- 
cule which  are  more  complex  than  the  amino  acids  may  be  of  such 
structure  that  they  can  be  directly  utilized  in  the  reconstruction  of 
body  protein,  without  first  being  broken  down  into  amino  acids. 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  29 

While  most  of  the  nitrogen  from  the  food  protein  is  absorbed  as 
amino  acids,  it  is  possible  that  some  of  it  is  taken  up  as  proteoses 
or  peptones.  It  is  certain  that  in  artificial  digestion  of  proteins  in 
the  laboratory,  if  sufficient  time  is  given  the  enzyme  to  act,  the 
proteoses  and  peptones  are  completely  broken  down  into  amino 
acids  or  similar  bodies.  Very  probably  this  takes  place  normally 
in  the  digestive  tract. 

42.  The  large  intestine. — The  large  intestine  receives  the  contents 
of  the  small  intestine  after  the  latter  organ  has  ceased  further  ef- 
fort at  digestion.     These  contents  consist  of  undigested  matter,  bits 
of  indigestible  substances  of  all  kinds  taken  in  with  the  food,  bile 
salts  which  have  escaped  resorption,  water,  mineral  salts,  and  frag- 
ments  of  the   mucous   lining   of  the  small   intestine.    Mixed   with 
these  are  some  of  the  digestive  juices  of  the  small  intestine.     The 
large  intestine  does  not  elaborate  any  digestive  fluids,  but  its  walls 
contribute  water  and  certain  metabolic  waste  products,  especially 
certain  inorganic  salts  common  to  the  tract.     It  is  possible  that 
some  digestion  may  occur  in  the  large  intestine  owing  to  traces  of 
digestive  enzymes  coming  from  the  small  intestine,  but  such  diges- 
tion is  insignificant  in  amount.     There  is   a   constant  interchange 
of  water  between  the  contents  of  the  large  intestine  and  the  blood 
circulation,  which  results  in  the   absorption  of  any  soluble  prod- 
ucts, nutritive  or  otherwise,  which  may  be  formed  in  the  large  in- 
testine either  by  digestion  or  bacterial  action. 

43.  Bacteria. — In  the   stomach  bacteria  find  unfavorable   condi- 
tions for  growth  because  of  the  free  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  and 
in  the  small  intestine  the  presence  of  bile  rapidly  causes  the  death 
of  bacteria.     Consequently  bacteria  play  little  or  no  part  in  diges- 
tion in  either  the  acid  stomach  or  the  alkaline  small  intestine.   They 
do  act,  however,  on  the  woody  fiber  or  cellulose  in  the  first  three 
stomachs  of  ruminants  and  in  the   caecum  of  the  horse.     In  the 
large  intestine  there  develops  a  profuse  bacterial  flora  of  various 
forms  which  thrive  in  the  absence  of  air.     The  presence  of  more 
or  less  undigested  food,  together  with  moisture,  warmth,  and  the 
faint    alkaline    reaction,    furnishes    ideal    conditions    for    bacterial 
growth.     Some  cellulose  is  decomposed  by  the  bacteria  with  the 
liberation  of  carbon  dioxid,  marsh  gas,  and  hydrogen.     Sulfureted 
hydrogen  is  also  produced  thru  putrefaction  of  protein  substances. 
Some  nitrogen  is  found,  but  this  has  its  source  in  the  air  taken  in 
with  the  food.     Much  of  the   gas  is  doubtless  absorbed  into  the 
circulation  and  eliminated  from  the  lungs.    Products  other  than  gas 


30  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

which  are  mostly  toxic  or  poisonous  to  the  animal  result  in  small 
quantity  from  bacterial  growth  in  the  large  intestine.  To  these 
substances  the  odor  of  the  feces  is  largely  due.  If  the  functions 
of  the  bowels  are  impaired,  the  contents  may  remain  for  an  undue 
length  of  time,  in  which  case  excessive  putrefaction  may  cause  the 
animal  to  suffer  from  poisoning  due  to  the  absorption  of  the  prod- 
ucts formed. 

44.  Feces. — The   solid   excrement,   or  dung,   of  farm   animals  is 
that  waste  which  finally  escapes  from  the  large  intestine,  the  solids 
of  which,  for  the  most  part,   have   never  been   within  the   body 
proper.     It  is   composed  principally   of   cellulose,   or  woody   fiber, 
from  the  undigested  portions  of  straw,  hay,  and  grasses;  and  also 
of  seeds,  grains,  or  parts  of  the  food  that  have  escaped  proper  mas- 
tication and  digestion.     Matter  not  properly  food,  such  as  hair  and 
dirt  of  various  kinds  taken  into  the  alimentary  tract,  escapes  thru 
this  exit.     Finally  there  are  cast  away  traces  of  bile  salts  and  some 
mucus  from  the  lining  of  the  intestines,  together  with  much  water. 

45.  Amid  digestion.— The    nitrogenous    bodies    of    plants    which 
are  known  collectively  as  "amids"  are,  as  before  stated,  simpler 
nitrogenous   compounds  than   proteins.     They   are   either  on   their 
way  to  be  built  into  proteins,  or  result  from  the  cleavage  of  pro- 
teins in  the  plant  for  the  purposes  of  transportation,  or  are  formed 
in  the  partial  breaking  down  and  decay  of  protein.     Very  little  is 
actually  known  of  their  chemical  nature,   but  they  are  probably 
similar  in  character,  in  many  instances  at  least,  to  certain  inter- 
mediary products  of  digestion  in  the  animal  body.     Since  amids 
may  result  from  enzyme  action  in  the  plant,  their  digestion  in  the 
animal  may  be  looked  upon  as  similar  to  that  of  proteins. 

46.  Mineral  matter. — So  far  as  known,   the  mineral  matter,  or 
ash,  in  foods  is  absorbed  principally  from  the  small  intestine  and 
is   usually   unchanged   in    chemical    composition.      Changes    which 
occur  in  the  different  inorganic  salts,  or  mineral  matter,  are  en- 
tirely due  to  such  chemical  reactions  as  would  have  taken  place 
outside  the  intestine  under  the  same  conditions.     Insoluble  mineral 
matter  in  food  may  become  soluble   because   of  the  hydrochloric 
acid  in  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach,  but  this  is  hardly  to  be  re- 
garded as  digestion. 

47.  The  work  of  the  digestive  glands. — The  brilliant  studies  of 
the  Russian  physiologist,  Pawlow,1  and  his  associates,  working  with 
dogs,  have  thrown  much  light  upon  the  subjects  of  digestion,  appe- 

1  The  Work  of  the  Digestive  Glands. 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  31 

tite,  and  palatability.  Pawlow  and  his  associates  performed  the 
following  surgical  operations  on  dogs:  (1)  The  ducts  or  tubes  which 
deliver  the  saliva  into  the  mouth  were  cut,  turned  outward,  and 
healed  into  the  cut  edges  of  the  skin,  so  that  when  saliva  was  se- 
creted it  poured  out  thru  the  opening  and  could  be  caught  in  glass 
tubes  attached  to  the  dog's  head.  (2)  The  gullet,  which  carries 
food  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach,  was  cut  across,  led  outward, 
and  healed  in  the  skin  at  the  throat,  so  that  when  food  was  swal- 
lowed it  would  pass  out  at  the  severed  end  and  fall  back  into  the 
dish  out  of  which  he  was  feeding.  Food  so  eaten  was  called  a 
" false  meal."  In  many  cases  a  dog  with  a  gullet  thus  severed 
would  chew  and  swallow  the  "false  meal"  again  and  again  with 
apparent  satisfaction.  (3)  An  opening  was  made  thru  the  side  of 
a  dog  and  into  his  stomach.  On  the  healing  of  the  stomach  wall 
with  the  cut  in  the  skin,  the  investigator  was  enabled  to  pass  food 
directly  into  the  stomach  and  study  the  processes  of  digestion  oc- 
curring within  that  organ.  (4)  A  portion  of  the  stomach  was  con- 
stricted and  made  into  a  small  separate  chamber,  which  likewise 
opened  out  thru  the  side  of  the  dog.  Here  the  flow  of  juices  could 
be  studied  independent  of  admixture  with  food  placed  in  the  other 
portion  of  the  stomach.  (5)  The  small  intestine  was  drawn  to  the 
side  of  the  dog,  and  an  opening  made  in  it  the  same  as  in  the  stom- 
ach. (6)  The  pancreatic  duct  wras  cut  and  led  outward,  so  that 
its  secretion  could  likewise  be  studied. 

Many  persons  assisted  in  these  operations,  and  many  dogs  were 
used  in  the  various  studies.  The  animals  usually  yielded  readily 
to  the  operations  and  lived  comfortable  lives,  so  that  the  results 
were  normal. 

It  was  found  that  the  character,  composition,  and  quantity  of 
saliva  secreted  varied  greatly  according  to  the  composition,  quality, 
and  other  characteristics  of  the  food  rather  than  according  to  either 
appetite  and  hunger,  or  to  the  palatability  of  any  particular  food. 

It  was  found  that  when  food  was  placed  directly  in  the  stomach 
it  did  not  necessarily  call  forth  the  gastric  secretions  from  the  walls 
of  the  stomach.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sight,  smell,  or  taste  of 
food  not  only  started  the  flow  of  saliva  in  the  mouth,  but  the  gas- 
tric juices  also  began  to  pour  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  even 
when  there  was  no  food  in  that  organ.  Neither  chemical  nor  me- 
chanical stimulation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  was 
capable  of  reflexly  starting  a  flow  of  the  juices  of  the  stomach.  The 
gastric  secretions  which  are  brought  forth  by  the  sight,  taste,  or 


32  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

smell  of  food  are  designated  by  Pawlow  as  "psychic  secretions." 
For  example,  when  a  dog  was  given  a  false  meal,  and  the  swallowed 
food  fell  out  of  the  fistula  or  opening  in  the  throat  and  back  into 
the  dish  out  of  which  the  dog  was  eating,  the  stomach  would  never- 
theless pour  forth  its  fluids  (psychic  secretions),  as  tho  the  food 
had  reached  it.  The  more  eagerly  the  dog  ate  his  false  meal  the 
greater  was  the  amount  of  gastric  secretions,  and  the  richer  they 
were  in  both  acid  and  pepsin.  The  gastric  secretions  were  freest 
and  strongest  with  that  food  which  was  liked  best,  and  food  given 
in  small  portions  called  forth  stronger  juices  than  when  the  whole 
ration  was  given  at  one  time. 

It  was  found  that  in  character  and  proportion  the  digestive  fer- 
ments adapt  themselves  to  the  nature  of  the  food.  When  the  meat 
diet  of  a  dog  was  changed  to  one  of  milk  and  bran,  the  protein- 
digesting  enzymes  of  the  pancreatic  juices  diminished,  while  the  fer- 
ments which  act  on  starch  were  increased.  Pawlow 's  studies  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  gastric  and  pancreatic  glands  are  guided 
by  a  form  of  instinct,  so  that  they  pour  out  their  juices  in  a  n- 
ner  which  corresponds  quantitatively  and  qualitatively,  in  a 
ure,  to  the  amount  and  kind  of  food  consumed.  He  believes  that  in 
time  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  specific  stimuli  or  excitants  in 
the  food  itself,  possibly  produced  after  it  has  entered  the  alimen- 
tary tract,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  excite  and  draw  forth  that 
form  of  secretion  which  is  best  suited  to  digest  the  particular  kind 
of  food  then  in  the  stomach. 

The  studies  of  Pawlow,  here  barely  touched  upon,  point  plainly 
to  the  great  basic  fact  that  digestion,  appetite,  and  palatability  are 
associated  with  each  other,  and  should  be  studied  together  and  not 
separately.  With  palatability,  appetite,  and  digestion  inter-related 
and  resting  on  so  fundamental  and  profound  a  basis,  the  prudent 
stockman  will  always  give  due  heed  to  the  preferences  of  his  ani- 
mals as  to  kind  and  quality  of  food,  as  well  as  to  its  preparation 
and  administration. 

48.  Palatability. — So  vague  and  illusive  is  the  subject  of  the  pal- 
atability of  food  that  it  would  be  a  waste  of  space  to  discuss  it  at 
any  length  in  this  work.  "What  is  one  man's  meat  is  another  man's 
poison"  is  an  old  saying,  to  which  might  be  added,  "and  what  is 
one  man's  meat  today  may  be  his  poison  tomorrow ;"  for  desire, 
appetite,  and  digestion  are  not  the  same  with  any  given  individual 
at  all  times  and  under  all  circumstances.  Even  with  farm  animals 
palatability  is  greatly  influenced  and  controlled  by  familiarity  and 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  33 

habit  or  custom.  When  corn  silage  is  first  placed  before  cows,  not 
infrequently,  after  sniffing  it,  they  will  let  it  alone  for  a  time.  They 
then  usually  begin  nibbling  at  it,  and  later  will  gorge  themselves 
thereon  if  permitted.  In  such  cases  food  that  at  first  seems  un- 
palatable suddenly  becomes  palatable. 

In  his  early  experience  the  author  was  feeding  two  lots  of  fat- 
tening steers,  one  on  shelled  corn  and  wheat  bran,  the  other  on 
wheat  bran  and  shelled  corn  ground  to  a  meal.  After  some  weeks 
of  successful  feeding,  the  rations  for  the  two  lots  were  reversed. 
The  steers  changed  from  corn  meal  to  whole  corn  showed  a  strong 
dislike  for  the  new  ration,  eating  so  little  at  first  that  they  shrank 
materially  in  weight.  From  this  the  general  conclusion  might  have 
been  drawn  that  shelled  corn  is  less  palatable  than  corn  meal  for 
fattening  steers.  But  the  steers  given  corn  meal  in  place  of  shelled 
corn  were  equally  dissatisfied.  No  conclusion  is  possible  from  this 
experiment  except  that  custom  and  habit— something  entirely  ex- 
traneous to  the  food— are  possible  factors  in  palatability. 

>ile  palatability  has  a  bearing  on  digestibility,  the  reverse  is 
n^c  necessarily  true,  for  humans  and  animals  often  show  fondness 
for  kinds  of  food  that  are  indigestible  or  worse.  Even  poisonous 
substances  may  be  palatable,  and,  per  contra,  food  which  the  human 
or  animal  does  not  relish  or  even  dislikes  may  have  high  nutritive 
value  provided  the  repugnance  is  overcome. 

Despite  the  complexities  of  the  subject,  every  practical  stockman 
knows  that  to  get  the  best  results  he  must  at  all  times  provide  feed 
for  his  animals  which  is  palatable  and  altogether  acceptable.  This 
may  be  accomplished  in  considerable  degree  by  steadily  using  the 
same  feeds  and  feed  combinations,  and  in  always  avoiding  sudden 
and  violent  changes  in  their  character  and  in  the  manner  of  feeding. 

III.  METABOLISM. 

In  the  preceding  division  we  learned  how  digestion  prepares  the 
nutrients  of  feeding  stuffs  for  the  nurture  of  the  animal  body.  In 
what  follows  there  is  briefly  set  forth  how  the  digested  materials 
are  brought  into  the  body  proper  and  what  becomes  of  them.  Chem- 
ists and  physiologists,  working  together  with  skill  and  great  pa- 
tience, have  been  able  quite  fully  to  set  forth  and  explain  the  pro- 
cesses of  digestion.  When  the  nutrients  leave  the  alimentary  tract 
and  enter  the  body,  the  difficulties  of  following  them  and  learning 
what  becomes  of  them  have  in  a  large  measure  thus  far  exceeded 

4 


34  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

the  powers  of  man.  As  inert  matter  takes  on  the  hidden  proper- 
ties of  life  in  plant  or  animal  the  problem  seems  to  grow  too  deep 
for  solution  by  finite  man.  Many  of  the  changes  that  occur  in  the 
body  are  know^n  and  can  be  described ;  concerning  others,  but  little 
of  a  definite  nature  can  be  told. 

49.  Metabolism. — The  processes  by  which  the  digested  nutrients 
of  the  food  are  utilized  for  the  production  of  heat  and  work,  or 
built  up  into  the  living  matter  of  the  body,  in  turn  being  broken 
down  and  once  more  becoming  non-living  matter,  are  termed  metab- 
olism.    Constructive   metabolism,   or  the   building-up   processes,   is 
termed  anabolism,  while  the  breaking-down  and  wasting  processes 
are  styled  catabolism. 

50.  The  circulative  canals  of  the  body. — The  body  of  the  animal 
is  made  up  of  innumerable  cells,  which,  grouped  and  modified  in 
myriads  of  ways,  ultimately  form  all  its  organs  and  parts.     Every- 
where among  the  cells  are  minute  spaces  called  lymph  spaces,  which 
are  connected  with  the  lymphatics,  a  set  of  vessels  which  permeate 
most  parts  of  the  body.     In  some  respects  the  lymphatics  resemble 
the  veins,  but  they  are  thinner  and  more  transparent  and  drain  in 
only  one  direction — toward  the  heart.     Within  these  vessels  is  a 
clear  fluid   called   lymph.     These  vessels  unite   with   one   another, 
forming  a  network  in  many  places.     Here  and  there  a  trunk  sub- 
divides into  five  or  six  smaller  vessels,  and  the  latter  enter  a  nodule- 
like  body  called  a  lymphatic  gland.    From  this  gland  come  several 
small  vessels,   which,   after   a  short  space,   again  unite  to  form  a 
trunk.     Gradually  these  trunks  unite,  forming  larger  trunks  until 
two  large  ducts  are  formed  which  enter  a  vein  in  the  neck. 

The  other  set  of  canals  is  the  arteries  and  veins,  which  permeate 
every  portion  of  the  body,  the  former  carrying  the  blood  away 
from  the  heart,  and  the  latter  carrying  it  to  the  heart.  At  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arteries  are  still  more  minute  tubes,  called  capil- 
laries, which  connect  them  with  the  veins.  If  one  extends  his  arms 
in  front  of  him  with  his  finger  tips  touching,  his  body  will  repre- 
sent the  heart,  while  one  arm  will  represent  an  artery  carrying 
blood  from  the  heart,  and  the  other  a  vein  conveying  blood  to  the 
heart.  The  touching  fingers  will  correspond  to  the  capillaries  con- 
necting the  arteries  with  the  veins,  and  the  space  all  about  the  fin- 
gers will  represent  the  surrounding  body  tissues.  In  general,  neither 
the  veins  nor  the  arteries  allow  any  substance  within  them  to  es- 
cape thru  their  walls  proper.  It  is  thru  the  capillaries  that  the  nu- 
tritive matter  carried  by  the  blood  finds  its  way  into  the  body  tis- 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  35 

sues  for  their  nourishment, ..  and  thru  the  capillaries  and  the  lym- 
phatics, in  turn,  the  waste  of  the  body  drains  back  into  the  blood 
circulation.  The  cellular  tissues  of  which  the  body  is  composed  are 
thus  everywhere  permeated  by  the  ducts  of  the  lymphatic  system 
and  the  capillaries  of  the  blood  system.  The  cells  of  the  body  are 
bathed  by  lymph,  which  is  the  fluid  that  receives  and  temporarily 
holds  all  the  nutritive  substances  and  the  body  waste.  The  mucous 
membrane  lining  the  small  intestine  has  a  velvety  appearance, 
caused  by  innumerable  minute  cone-like  projections  or  tongues, 
called  villi,  which  project  into  the  interior  of  the  intestinal  tube, 
thereby  coming  into  contact  with  its  fluid  contents.  Within  each 
villus  are  lacteals,  or  drainage  tubes  of  the  lymphatic  system,  and 
capillaries  of  the  blood  system. 

51.  Absorption  of  fat. — As  before  told,  in  the  small  intestine  a 
part  of  the  fat  of  the  food  is  split  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  by 
the  action  of  steapsin.    These  acids  and  the  alkalies  in  bile  combine 
to  form  soaps  which  aid  in  emulsifying  the  remaining  fat,  so  that  it 
also  is  rapidly  acted  on  by  the  steapsin  and  changed  into  fatty 
acids  and  glycerin.     Modern  investigation  supports  the  view  that 
the  fats  are  absorbed  as  soaps  and  glycerin.    In  the  intestinal  wall 
these  are  reconverted  into  neutral  fats  which  enter  the  lacteals, 
forming  with  the  lymph  a  milky  substance  called  chyle.     This  is 
carried  in  the  lymphatics  and  poured  into  a  vein  near  the  shoulder, 
thus  entering  the  blood  circulation. 

52.  Absorption  of  carbohydrates;   formation  of  glycogen. — The 
glucose  and  glucose-like  sugars  taken  up  from  the  intestinal  con- 
tents by  the  capillaries  pass  into  the  veins,  and  thence  by  way 
of  the  portal  vein  into  the  liver.    Here  they  are  for  the  most  part 
withdrawn  from  the  blood  and  temporarily  stored  in  this  organ 
as  glycogen,  a  carbohydrate  which  is  closely  related  to  starch  and, 
having  the  same  percentage  composition,  is  sometimes  called  ani- 
mal starch.    Normally  from  1.5  to  4.0  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  the 
liver  consists  of  glycogen.    The  glycogen  stored  in  the  liver  is  grad- 
ually changed  back  into  glucose,  and  then  doled  out  to  the  system 
as  required.     The  property  of  converting  glucose  into  glycogen  is 
not  possessed  by  the  liver  alone,  but  by  the  tissues  of  the  body  gen- 
erally, especially  the  muscles.    "When  work  is  being  done  the  glyco- 
gen in  the  muscles  is  first  drawn  upon  to  furnish  glucose,  and  after 
this  store  has  been  exhausted,  the  glycogen  in  the  liver  furnishes 
the  needed  glucose.    Under  normal  conditions  some  glucose  is  found 
in  the  blood  and  a  trace  in  the  muscles. 


36  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

53.  Absorption  of  proteins. — The  amino  acids  and  other  products 
of  protein  digestion  are  likewise  absorbed  from  the  small  intestine 
thru  the  villi.     While  still  within  the  intestinal  walls  these  rela- 
tively simple  products   are  joined  together,  thereby  forming  the 
extremely  complex  molecules  of  the  two  proteins,  serum  albumin 
and  serum  globulin.     These  newly  formed  proteins,  which  are  the 
common  nitrogenous  structural  material  of  the  body  tissues,  pass 
on  into  the  capillaries  and  enter  the  blood  circulation  along  with 
the  glucoses. 

Mineral  matter  is  taken  up  from  the  small  intestines,  and  water 
is  absorbed  all  along  the  alimentary  tract,  from  the  stomach  to  the 
large  intestines. 

54.  Distribution  of  absorbed  nutrients. — We  have  seen  that  the 
digested  fats  wrhich  are  to  nourish  the  body  are  poured  into  the 
blood  current  by  way  of  the  lymphatics,  while  the  glucoses,  as  such, 
and  the  amino  acids  and  other  nitrogenous  products  of  digestion, 
changed  to  serum  globulin  and  serum  albumin,  enter  the  blood  di- 
rectly thru  the  capillaries  and  veins.     The  veins  from  the  small 
intestine  unite  and  become  the  portal  vein,  which  passes  the  blood 
thru  the  liver  and  on  into  the  heart.     The  various  nutrient  mate- 
rials, having  been  mingled  with  the  blood,  are  carried  thru  the  cir- 
culation to  the  capillaries. 

These  are  so  constructed  that,  when  the  blood  finally  reaches 
them,  the  nutritive  substances  it  carries  pass  thru  their  walls  and 
are  mingled  with  lymph  that  bathes  the  myriad  body  cells.  In  this 
manner  all  the  nutrients,  having  been  especially  prepared  and 
transported,  are  available  for  the  nourishment  of  every  portion  of 
the  body.  Oxygen  is  taken  into  the  blood  thru  the  lungs,  and 
water  and  mineral  matters  are  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract. 
All  are  carried  by  the  arteries  and  pass  thru  the  capillaries  into 
the  lymph  bathing  the  body  cells. 

55.  Use  of  the  absorbed  nutrients. — The  absorbed  nutrients,  thus 
transferred  to    all  the  tissues  of  the   body,   may  be   oxidized  or 
burned  to  warm  the  body,  or  to  produce  energy  to  carry  on  the 
vital  processes  and  to  perform  work,  as  shown  in  the  following 
chapters.     In  case  more  nutrients  are  supplied  than  are  required 
for  these  purposes,  the  excess  may  be  transformed  into  body  tissue 
proper,  as  shown  in  Chapter  V.     The  glucoses  may  be  converted 
into  fats  and  stored  as  body  fat,  as  may  also  the  fats  derived  di- 
rectly from  the  food  fats.     It  is  probable  that  the  proteins  of  the 
food,  changed  to  serum  globulin  and  serum  albumin,  may  be  broken 


The  Animal  Body — Digestion — Metabolism.  37 

up  and  a  portion  of  their  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  turned  into 
fat,  while  the  nitrogen  is  wasted  as  urea.  The  highest  and  most 
general  use  of  the  proteins,  however,  is  the  formation  of  nitroge- 
nous tissues— the  muscles,  nerves,  skin,  hair,  and  various  organs  of 
the  body. 

56.  Disposal  of  body  waste. — In  breaking  up  the  food  nutrients 
within  the   body  proper  for  the   production  of  heat,   and  in  the 
changes  which  occur  in  building  them  into   body  tissues,   carbon 
dioxid  is  evolved.     Most  of  this  escapes  into  the  capillaries  and  is 
carried  in  the  blood  by  the  veins  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  elimi- 
nated in  breathing,  a  portion,  however,  escaping  by  way  of  the 
skin.     Some  of  the  marsh   gas  produced  by  fermentations  in  the 
stomach  of  herbivora  is  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  thrown  out  by 
the  lungs. 

Nearly  all  of  the  nitrogenous  waste,  representing  the  breaking 
down  of  protein  material  in  the  body,  is  excreted  in  the  urine  thru 
the  kidneys,  tho  a  trace  is  given  off  in  the  sweat  and  a  more  appre- 
ciable amount  in  the  feces.  In  mammals  this  waste  takes  the  form 
principally  of  urea.  In  calculating  the  total  amount  of  protein 
metabolism  it  is  customary  to  determine  the  total  nitrogen  in  the 
urine  and  multiply  this  by  6.25.  This  gives  the  amount  of  protein 
broken  down,  since  it  is  assumed  that,  on  the  average,  nitrogen 
forms  16  per  ct.  of  the  total  weight  of  the  protein  molecule. 

A  great  variety  of  other  end-products  of  metabolism  are  likewise 
eliminated  by  the  kidneys  thru  the  urine.  The  inorganic  salts,  such 
as  common  salt,  also  escape  from  the  body  principally  in  the  urine. 
Small  amounts  of  most  of  the  substances  eliminated  in  the  urine 
are  also  excreted  by  the  skin  thru  the  sweat  glands.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  certain  inorganic  salts  containing  calcium,  magne- 
sium, and  phosphorus  are  eliminated  by  way  of  the  intestines. 

57.  Summary. — In  Chapter  I  we  learned  how  the  various  inor- 
ganic compounds  taken  by  plants  from  earth,  air,  and  water  are 
built  into  organic  plant  compounds,  and  how  in  such  building  the 
energy  of  the  sun  becomes  latent  or  hidden  in  the  substance  of  the 
plant.     In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  how  the  animal,  feeding 
on  plants,  separates  the  useful  from  the  waste  by  mastication  and 
digestion,  and  how  the  digested  nutrients,  after  undergoing  more 
or  less  change,  are  conveyed  from  the  alimentary  tract  to  the  body 
tissues  and  used  for  building  the  body,  for  warming  it,  or  in  per- 
forming work.     All  the  energy  manifested  by  living  animals  and 
the  heat  evolved  in  their  bodies  represent  the  energy  of  the  sun 


38  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

originally  stored  in  food  substances  by  plants.  With  the  breaking 
down  of  the  nutrient  matters  in  the  bodies  of  animals,  and  in  the 
decay  of  the  animal  substance  itself,  the  organic  matter  loses  the 
condition  of  life  and  falls  back  to  the  inorganic  condition,  once 
more  becoming  a  part  of  the  earth,  air,  and  water  as  inert  matter. 
After  this  degradation  it  is  again  gathered  up  by  the  plants  and 
once  more  starts  on  the  upward  path.  Such  is  the  eternal  round 
of  Nature,  in  which  plants,  animals,  the  energy  of  the  sun,  and  the 
mysterious  guiding  principle  of  life  all  play  their  parts. 


CHAPTER  III. 


DIGESTIBILITY— RESPIRATION— CALORIMETRY— ENERGY. 

I.  DIGESTIBILITY. 

The  method  of  determining  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  the  undigested  portion  of  food  passes  from 
the  body  in  the  so-called  solid  excrement.  In  studying  the  diges- 
tibility of  a  given  feed  the  chemist  first  determines  by  analysis  the 
percentage  of  each  nutrient  it  contains.  Weighed  quantities  of  the 
feed  are  then  given  to  the  animal,  and  the  solid  excrement  voided 
during  a  stated  period  is  saved,  weighed,  and  samples  analyzed. 
The  difference  between  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  fed  and  that 
found  in  the  solid  excrement  resulting  therefrom  represents  the 
digested  portion. 

58.  A  digestion  trial  with  sheep. — The  following  description 
covers  an  actual  digestion  trial  conducted  by  Armsby  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station.1  Desiring  to  ascertain  the  digestibility  of  clover 
hay  and  malt  sprouts,  2  wethers  weighing  87  Ibs.  each  were  confined 
in  specially  constructed  apartments  and  fed  from  zinc-lined  boxes 
to  prevent  waste.  Each  day's  allowance  was  weighed  and  samples 
analyzed.  The  solid  excrement  passed  by  the  wethers  was  col- 
lected in  rubber-lined  bags  attached  to  their  hind  quarters  by  a 
light  harness.  These  bags  were  emptied  each  24  hours,  and  the 
contents  weighed  and  analyzed.  Feeding  progressed  6  days  before 
the  trial  proper  began,  in  order  that  all  residues  of  previous  feed 
might  have  passed  from  the  alimentary  tract.  During  the  first 
period  each  sheep,  as  shown  in  the  table,  was  fed  700  grams  (about 
1.5  Ibs.)  of  clover  hay  daily,  which  was  consumed  without  waste. 

Digestion  trial  with  sheep  fed  clover  hay;  .average  for  1  day. 


Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fed  700  grams  hay,  containing 
Excreted    610.6    grams    dung, 
containing  _.. 

Grams 
586.1 

288.6 

Grams 

77.7 

40.4 

Grams 
191.5 

101.5 

Grams 

276.7 

119.4 

Grams 
10.7  . 

7.9 

Digested     

297.5 

50.8 

37.3 
48.0 

90.0 
47.1 

157.3 

56.8 

2.8 
26.2 

Per  cent  digested  

'Kept.   1884. 


39 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  table  shows  that  the  700  grams  of  hay  fed  contained  586.1 
grams  of  dry  matter,  and  that  the  solid  excrement  for  1  day,  which 
represented  the  undigested  portion  of  the  ration,  contained  288.6 
grams.  The  difference,  297.5  grams,  or  50.8  per  ct.,  is  held  to  be 
the  dry  matter  digested.  The  average  dry  matter  digested  in  2 
such  trials  was  51.2  per  ct.  Of  the  77.7  grams  of  crude  protein  sup- 
plied, 40.4  grams  appeared  in  the  solid  excrement.  The  difference, 
37.3  grams,  or  48  per  ct.,  represents  the  digested  crude  protein.  In 
like  manner  the  percentage  of  the  other  nutrients  digested  was  de- 
termined. 

The  average  percentage  of  each  nutrient  digested  in  a  feeding 
stuff  is  termed  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  that  nutrient  in  the 
feed. 

59.  Digestibility  of  malt  sprouts. — The  sheep  were  next  fed  the 
following  ration  of  600  grams  of  clover  hay  and  175  grams  of  malt 
sprouts. 

Trial  with  sheep  to  ascertain  the  digestibility  of  malt  sprouts. 


Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fed  600  grams  hay  

Grams 
500.9 
154.1 

Grams 
67.4 
36.8 

Grams 
163.3 
,21.0 

Grams 
236.3 

87.5 

Grams 
9.4 
2.2 

Fed  175  grams  malt  sprouts.  _  _ 
Total               __ 

655.0 
295.2 

104.2 
41.5 

184.3 
100.6 

323.8 
129.0 

11.6 
5.5 

In  681.1  grams  solid  excrement 
Digested,  total 

359.8 
256.4 

62.7 
33.2 

83.7 
76.8 

194.8 
135.2 

6.1 

3.8 

Digested  from  hay 

Digested  from  malt  sprouts.  _  _ 
Per  cent  digested 

103.  4 
67.1 

29.5 

80.2 

6.9 
32.9 

59.6 
68.1 

2.3 
104.5 

The  digestibility  of  malt  sprouts  was  determined  indirectly  in 
the  following  manner :  The  dry  matter  of  the  clover  hay  and  malt 
sprouts  together  equaled  655  grams.  The  excreted  dry  matter 
from  this  equaled  295.2  grams,  so  that  the  total  quantity  digested 
was  the  difference,  or  359.8  grams.  In  the  previous  trial  it  was 
found  as  the  average  of  2  periods  that  51.2  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter 
in  clover  hay  was  digestible.  Taking  51.2  per  ct.  of  500.9  grams 
gives  256.4  grams,  which  is  the  probable  quantity  of  dry  matter 
that  was  digested  from  the  hay.  Subtracting  256.4  from  359.8 
grams,  there  is  left  103.4  grams,  or  67.1  per  ct.,  which  is  taken  as 
the  per  cent  of  dry  matter  digested  from  the  malt  sprouts.  In  a 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  41 

similar  manner  the  other  digestion  coefficients  for  malt  sprouts  are 
determined.  The  table  reports  104.6  per  ct.  of  the  fat  of  malt 
sprouts  digested — an  absurdity.  The  total  quantity  of  fat  in  the 
feeds  used  in  this  trial  was  so  small  that  an  error  like  this  could 
easily  occur. 

Table  II  of  the  Appendix  shows  the  coefficients  of  digestibility 
of  American  feeding  stuffs  so  far  as  they  have  been  ascertained. 

60.  Concerning  digestibility. — In  digestion  trials  it  is  assumed 
that  all  matter  appearing  in  the  so-called  solid  excrement  has 
escaped  the  action  of  the  digestive  ferments,  and  so  represents  the 
indigestible  part  of  the  food.  Tho  correct  in  general,  there  are 
exceptions  to  this  assumption.  Solid  excrement  contains  some 
waste  from  the  body  itself,  such  as  bile  residues  and  matter  which 
sloughs  off  from  the  walls  of  the  alimentary  tract.  Since  these 
wastes  cannot  be  wholly  separated  and  determined,  they  tend  to 
vitiate  the  accuracy  of  digestion  studies. 

Armsby  has  shown1  that  ruminants  feeding  on  coarse  forage  con- 
vert much  of  the  fiber  into  marsh  gas,  or  methane,  which  has  no 
nutritive  value.  In  such  cases  digestion  trials  will  show  too  high 
a  value  for  the  fiber. 

In  digestion  studies  the  so-called  fat  is  determined  by  the  use  of 
ether,  which  not  only  dissolves  the  true  fat,  but  also  chlorophyll, 
wax,  bile  residues,  and  other  substances  which  are  not  true  fat. 
Due  to  this,  and  because  the  fats  in  feeding  stuffs  are  usually  in 
relatively  small  amount,  errors  are  liable  to  occur  in  their  deter- 
mination. The  true  fats  are  highly  digestible. 

Table  II  of  the  Appendix  shows  that  feeds  low  in  fiber  and  rich 
in  nitrogen-free  extract  usually  have  a  high  factor  of  digestibility; 
for  example,  corn,  barley,  linseed  meal,  etc.,  are  better  digested  than 
straw,  chaff,  etc.  The  percentage  of  digestibility  of  the  grasses 
decreases  as  they  approach  maturity.  However,  the  large  accumu- 
lation of  starch  which  occurs  in  the  corn  plant,  a  grass,  as  it  ripens 
gives  the  more  mature  form  a  greater  total  feeding  value.  (18)  It 
seems  reasonable  that  palatability  should  stimulate  the  supply  of 
digestive  fluids,  as  it  must  likewise  stimulate  the  action  of  the  di- 
gestive tract  itself. 

Grinding  grain  to  meal  may  or  may  not  increase  its  digestibility. 
Jordan2  states  that  crushing  or  grinding  grain  for  horses  may  in- 
crease its  digestibility  as  much  as  14  per  ct.  Cooking  food  usually 

1  Cyclopedia  Am.  Agr.,  Ill,  p.  65.  2  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  p.  133. 


42  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

lowers  the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein.  At  the  Oregon  Sta- 
tion1 Withycombe  and  Bradley  found  that  steaming  both  vetch 
and  corn  silage  materially  decreased  the  digestibility  of  the  crude 
protein  and  other  nutrients.  In  general,  cooking,  steaming,  or  fer- 
menting food,  while  often  improving  its  palatability,  generally 
lowers  its  digestibility,  tho  potatoes  and  possibly  other  starchy 
tubers  are  improved  thereby. 

When  nitrogenous  feeds,  such  as  oil  meal,  oats,  etc.,  are  added  to 
roughages — hay,  straw,  etc. — the  digestibility  of  the  roughage  is  not 
thereby  increased.  The  addition  of  a  large  quantity  of  digestible 
carbohydrates,  such  as  sugar  and  starch,  to  a  ration  containing 
much  roughage  may  reduce  the  digestibility  of  its  crude  protein 
and  fiber.  If  pure  carbohydrates,  such  as  starch  and  sugar,  form 
more  than  10  per  ct.,  or  roots  and  potatoes  furnish  more  than  15  per 
ct.,  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  ration,  its  digestibility  is  diminished 
thereby.  At  the  Weende  Station,  in  a  trial  with  sheep,  the  addition 
of  0.5  Ib.  of  starch  to  a  ration  containing  1.75  Ibs.  of  hay  reduced 
the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein  from  54  per  ct.  to  32  per  ct. 
and  of  the  fiber  from  60  per  ct.  to  54  per  ct.  This  depression  does 
not  occur  when  nitrogenous  feeds,  such  as  oil  meal,  supplement  the 
starch  or  sugar.  Adding  fat  to  a  ration  does  not  increase  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  other  constituents.  Salt  does  not  affect  digestion, 
tho  it  may  increase  the  quantity  of  food  eaten  and  improve  nutri- 
tion. 

If  green  forage  is  cured  without  waste  and  in  a  manner  to  pre- 
vent fermentation,  the  mere  drying  does  not  lower  its  digestibility. 
Ordinarily,  however,  in  curing  forage  much  of  the  finer  and  more 
nutritious  parts  is  wasted,  and  dews,  rain,  and  fermentations  effect 
changes  which  lower  digestibility.  The  large  amount  of  work  done 
in  masticating  dry  forage  and  passing  it  thru  the  alimentary  tract 
explains  why  green  forage  may  give  better  results  and  hence  ap- 
pears more  digestible  than  dry  forage.  The  long  storage  of  fod- 
ders, even  under  favorable  conditions,  decreases  both  their  diges- 
tibility and  palatability.  Hay  browned  by  heating  shows  increased 
digestibility  of  fiber  but  decreased  digestibility  of  crude  protein  and 
carbohydrates. 

Ruminants — the  ox,  cow,  sheep — digest  the  same  kind  of  forage 
about  equally  well.  Kellner,2  however,  shows  that  the  ox  is  able  to 
digest  as  much  as  11  per  ct.  more  of  the  less  digestible  roughages, 
such  as  straw,  than  is  the  sheep.  He  ascribes  this  difference  to  the 

1  Bui.  102.  2  Land.  Vers.  Stat.,  63, 1906,  p.  313. 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  43 

fact  that  the  content  of  the  last  part  of  the  intestine  of  the  ox  re- 
mains more  watery  and  hence  is  subject  to  more  complete  fermenta- 
tion. The  more  easily  digested  a  feeding  stuff  is,  the  less  differ- 
ence will  there  be  in  its  digestion  by  these  various  animals.  For 
the  great  majority  of  feeding  stuffs  the  same  digestion  coefficients 
may  be  used  for  the  sheep  and  ox. 

The  horse  and  pig  digest  less  fiber  than  the  ruminant,  in  whose 
paunch  the  coarse  feeds  undergo  special  preparation  and  digestion. 
The  richer  the  feed  the  more  nearly  do  the  digestive  powers  of  the 
horse  approach  those  of  other  farm  animals.  Swine  digest  the  con- 
centrates fully  as  well  as  do  the  ruminants,  but  make  only  small 
use  of  the  fiber.  Age  and  breed  do  not  affect  digestion,  tho  indi- 
viduals show  considerable  variations  one  from  another.  The  spe- 
cies, breed,  or  age  of  animals  does  not  ordinarily  cause  variations 
of  more  than  5  per  ct.  in  digestibility. 

Neither  the  frequency  of  feeding,  the  time  of  watering,  nor  the 
amount  of  water  drank  appears  to  influence  digestibility.  Within 
reasonable  limits  the  quantity  of  food  the  animal  eats  does  not 
affect  its  digestibility.  Jordan1  found  that  sheep  digested  4.7  per 
ct.  more  of  the  dry  matter  when  given  a  half  ration  than  when  fed 
a  full  ration.  Warington2  states  that  an  animal  does  not  digest  its 
food  any  better  during  partial  starvation,  tho  when  an  abundance 
of  rich  food  is  fed  its  digestibility  may  be  lowered.  Healthy  ani- 
mals usually  eat  no  more  forage  than  they  can  properly  digest,  and 
the  digestive  fluids  are  no  more  active  on  small  than  on  large  quan- 
tities of  food.  Grandeau  and  Leclerc3  found  that  Paris  cab  horses 
digested  their  rations  best  when  given  walking  exercise  or  worked 
at  walking  gait.  When  trotting  or  at  hard  work  their  digestion 
was  lowered.  Kindness  should  favorably  influence  digestion.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  flow  of  saliva  and  the  other  digestive  juices  is 
checked  by  fright.  Under  skillful  care  animals  show  remarkable 
relish  for  their  food,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  better 
digestion  ensues,  tho  no  confirmatory  data  can  be  given. 

The  digestibility  of  a  feed  should  not  be  confused  with  its  avail- 
ability. (69) 

II.  KESPIRATION  STUDIES. 

The  respiration  apparatus  is  an  air-tight  chamber,  arranged  in 
such  manner  and  with  such  devices  that  all  that  goes  into  and  comes 
from  the  body  of  an  animal  within  it  can  be  accurately  measured 

1  N.  Y.   (Geneva)   Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  141.         3  Ann.  Sci.  Agr.,  II,  1884,  p.  325. 

2  Chem.  of  the  Farm,  p.  150. 


44  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  studied.  In  some  cases  mechanical  work  is  performed,  while  in 
others  the  subject  is  at  rest.  Everything  which  passes  into  the 
animal — air,  food,  and  water — is  carefully  measured  and  analyzed 
so  that  the  exact  intake  of  the  body  is  known.  The  air  is  in  turn 
drawn  from  the  chamber,  and  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements 
passed  by  the  animal  are  all  likewise  weighed  and  analyzed.  If  the 
intake  is  larger  than  the  outgo,  the  animal  has  increased  in  body 
substance;  if  less,  it  has  lost.  The  respiration  apparatus  has  been 
used  for  studying  the  production  of  work  and  the  formation  of  the 
tissues  of  the  body,  both  the  lean  flesh  and  the  body  fat.  Thru  this 
means  scientists  have,  in  some  measure,  been  able  to  determine  what 
becomes  of  the  food  of  animals. 

61.  A  respiration   study. — The   following  example  from  Henne- 
berg1  of  the  Weende  Station,  Germany,  illustrates  the  use  of  the 
respiration   apparatus.     A  full-grown   ox   weighing   1570  Ibs.   was 
placed  in  the  respiration  chamber.     During  one  day  of  the  trial  it 
was  fed  11  Ibs.  of  clover  hay,  13.2  Ibs.  of  oat  straw,  8.2  Ibs.  of  bean 
meal,  and  2.13  oz.  of  salt,  and  drank  123.7  Ibs.  of  water.     The  in- 
take and  outgo  of  the  body  for  the  day  are  shown  in  the  table  on 
the  opposite  page. 

62.  Intake  of  the  body.— The  table   shows  that  during  the  24 
hours  of  the  trial  the  intake  of  nourishment  by  the  ox  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

Grams  Pounds 

Oxygen  taken  by  way  of  the  lungs 7,255  16.0 

Dry  matter  taken  into  the  alimentary  tract 12,675  27.8 

Water  drank  and  in  food 58,200  128.0 


Total  intake  of  the  body  for  1  day 78,130  171.8 

From  these  data  we  learn  that  during  the  24  hours  of  study  the 
ox  breathed  in  16  Ibs.  of  oxygen,  ate  27.8  Ibs.  of  dry  matter,  and 
took  128  Ibs.  of  water  in  food  and  drink,  a  total  for  the  day  of 
171.8  Ibs. 

63.  Waste  products. — Division  B  of  the  table  records  the  losses 
from  the  body  as  follows : 

Grams  Pounds 

Passed  off  as  so-called  solid  excrement 40,645  89.4 

Passed  off  as  urine 13,900  30.6 

Respiration  products  from  lungs  and  skin 22,550  49.5 


Total  waste  from  body  during  24  hours 77,095  169.5 

Thus  during  the  day  of  the  trial  there  passed  from  the  ox  89.4 
Ibs.  of  the  so-called  solid  droppings  and  30.6  Ibs.  of  urine,  while  the 

xNeue  Beitrage,  Gottigen,  I,  1870,  p.  XIX;  Kraft,  Lehrb.  Landw.,  Ill,  p.  17. 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  45 

One  day's  study  with  a  1570-lb.  ox  in  a  respiration  apparatus. 


1  gram=l-28  oz. 


1000  grams=2.2  pounds. 


Mineral 
matter 

Carbon 

Hydro- 
gen 

Nitro- 
gen 

Oxygen 

A.  Intake  of  body. 
70,875  grams  feed  and   water, 
containing  12,  675  grams  dry 
matter    and  58,200   grams 
water 

Grams 
890 

Grams 

5,825 

Grams 
7,215 

Grams 
310 

Grams 
56,  635 

7,255  grams  oxygen  from  air 

7,255 

78,  130  grams,  total  intake 

890 

5,825 

7,215 

310 

63,890 

B.  Outgo  from  body. 
54,545  grams  excrements,  con- 
sisting of: 
40,  645  gms.  solid  excrement 
13,  900  gms.  urine  

575 

305 

2,585 
220 

4,205 
1,480 

105 
170 

33,175 
11,  725 

22,550  grams  respiration   prod- 
ucts, consisting  of: 
9,800  grams  carb.  acid 

2,670 

7,130 

30  grams  methane  gas 

20 

10 

12,  720  grams  water 

1,410 

11,310 

77,095  grams,  total  outgo 

880 

5,495 

7,105 

275 

63,340 

C.  Production  in  body. 
219  grams  dry  lean  meat 

114 

15 

35 

55 

281  grams  fat 

216 

35 

30 

10  grams  mineral  matter 

10 

525  grams  water  in  flesh  and 
fat  ___    _ 

60 

465 

1,035  grams  remaining  in  body. 

10 

330 

110 

35 

550 

78,130  grams  in  B  and  C  to  bal- 
ance A    _  _ 

890 

5,825 

7,215 

310 

63,  890 

lungs  and  skin  exhaled  49.5  Ibs.  of  gas  and  vapor,  a  little  over  half 
of  which  was  water  and  a  little  less  than  half  carbonic  acid  gas. 
The  total  outgo  for  24  hours  was  169.5  Ibs. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  food  was  not  digested,  but  passed  off 
as  the  so-called  solid  excrement  and  so  was  useless.  The  larger 
part,  however,  entered  the  body  proper  from  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines, and  was  used  to  carry  on  the  life  functions,  repair  the 
wasting  tissues,  etc.,  and  passed  off  as  waste  after  being  so  used. 
A  small  portion  only  was  stored  as  body  substance,  as  we  shall  see 
later. 


46  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

64.  Nitrogenous  waste  in  the  urine. — During  the  day  the  ox  gave 
off  30.6  Ibs.  of  urine  which  contained  170  grams  of  nitrogen.     We 
can   determine   the   amount    of   nitrogenous   substance   which   was 
broken  down    to  produce    this   waste   in    the    following  manner: 
About  16  per  ct.  of  such  nitrogenous  substance  as  was  in  the  food 
of  the  ox  or  composed  its  body  tissues  was  nitrogen.     Multiplying 
170  grams  by  100/16,  or  6.25,  gives  1,062  grams,  or  2.33  Ibs.,  which 
represents  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  substance  that  was  broken 
down  and  passed  away  in  the  urine.     This  nitrogenous  waste  came 
either  from  the  food  which  the  ox  had  consumed  during  the  day, 
or  resulted  from  the  breaking  down  of  the  lean-meat  tissues  of  the 
body  which  lost  the  condition  of  life  and  passed  away  as  dead 
matter. 

65.  Dry  lean  meat. — Division  C  of  the  table  shows  that  during 
the  day  of  the  study  the  body  weight  of  the  ox  was  increased  by 
1,035  grams  as  follows: 

Grams  Pounds 

Total  substance  passed  into  the  body 78,130  171.8 

Total  waste  leaving  the  body 77,095  169.5 


Amount  remaining  in  the  body  for  the  day      1,035  2.3 

Let  us  now  direct  our  attention  to  the  2.3  Ibs.  of  income  which 
really  became  a  part  of  the  body.  We  learn  from  the  table  that 
during  the  day  of  this  study  the  ox  stored  up  35  grams  of  nitrogen 
in  its  body.  Sixteen  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogenous  substance  or  pro- 
teins of  the  body,  such  as  dry  lean  meat,  is  nitrogen.  Accordingly 
the  35  grams  of  nitrogen  retained  in  the  body  represents  about  219 
grams  of  dry  lean  meat.  The  table  shows  that  330  grams  of  carbon 
were  retained  by  the  ox.  As  dry  lean  meat  is  a  little  over  half 
carbon,  about  115  grams  of  carbon  were  built  into  the  219  grams 
of  dry  lean-meat  proteins. 

66.  Dry  fat. — Since  the  lean  meat  took  up  115  grams  of  carbon 
there  remains  215  grams  of  carbon  out  of  the  total  of  330  grams. 
This  must  have  gone  into  the  fatty  matter  stored  during  the  day. 
Pure  fat  is  about  three-fourths  carbon.     Hence  the  215  grams  of 
carbon  represents  about  281  grams  of  dry  body  fat.     From  this  we 
learn  that  about  281  grams  of  dry  fat  were  stored  in  the  body 
during  the  day  of  trial. 

67.  Summary. — From  all  this  we  learn  that  during  the  24  hours 
spent  by  the  ox  in  the  respiration  chamber,  out  of  a  total  intake 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  47 

of  171.8  Ibs.  of  food,  water,  and  oxygen  it  stored  up  matter  as 
follows : 

Grams  Pounds 

Proteins  or  dry  lean  meat  __  219  0.48 

Fat 281  0.61 

Mineral  matter 10  0.02 

Water ._.  525  1.17 

Total 1,035  2.28 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  intake  of  the  body  of  the  ox  during 
the  day  of  the  trial  exceeded  the  outgo  by  2.30  Ibs.  The  table  ac- 
counts for  practically  all  of  this  in  the  2.28  Ibs.  of  increase  here 
reported. 

The  0.02  Ib.  of  mineral  matter  must  have  largely  gone  to  increase 
the  bony  structure.  Fresh  lean  meat  is  nearly  two-thirds  water, 
therefore  the  0.48  Ib.  of  dry  lean  meat  equaled  about  1.25  Ibs.  of 
fresh  lean  meat.  The  fatty  tissues  of  the  fattening  ox  are  about 
two-thirds  fat,  hence  the  ox  put  on  slightly  less  than  1  Ib.  of  body 
fat  during  the  day. 

Thus  we  are  shown  that  a  1570-lb.  ox  confined  in  a  respiration 
chamber  for  24  hours  consumed  during  that  time  11  Ibs.  of  clover 
hay,  13.2  Ibs.  of  oat  straw,  8.2  Ibs.  of  bean  meal,  and  2.13  oz.  of 
salt;  drank  123.7  Ibs.  of  water;  and  breathed  in  16  Ibs.  of  oxygen 
gas.  From  all  this  it  gained  2.28  Ibs.  of  body  weight,  of  which 
about  1.11  Ibs.  was  dry  lean  meat,  fat,  and  mineral  matter,  and  1.17 
Ibs.,  or  over  one-half,  was  water. 

III.  CALORIMETRY. 

In  nutrition  studies  it  is  helpful  to  consider  food  according  to  its 
power  to  produce  heat.  Such  studies  fall  under  the  head  of  calo- 
rimetry. 

68.  Calorimetry. — The  calorimeter  is  an  apparatus  in  which  a 
given  quantity  of  material  is  burned  with  pure  oxygen  gas  under 
pressure,  the  heat  evolved  being  taken  up  by  water  and  measured 
with  a  thermometer. 

A  Calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  kilogram  of 
water  1°  C.,  or  1  Ib.  of  water  4°  F. 

A  therm  is  1000  Calories,  or  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
1000  Ibs.  of  water  4°  F. 


48  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  heat  or  chemical  energy  evolved  on  burning  100  Ibs.  of  vari- 
ous substances  is  as  follows: 

Therms- 
Anthracite  coal 358.3 

Timothy  hay,  containing-  15  per  ct.  moisture 175.1 

Oat  straw,  containing  15  per  ct.  moisture 171.0 

Corn  meal,  containing1 15  per  ct.  moisture 170.9 

Linseed  meal,  containing- 15  per  ct.  moisture 196.7 

Pure  digestible  protein 186.0 

Pure  digestible  carbohydrates 186.0 

Pure  digestible  fat 422.0 

The  table  shows  that,  on  burning,  100  Ibs.  of  anthracite  coal 
yields  358.3  therms,  or  enough  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
358,300  Ibs.  of  water  4°  F.,  or  about  8000  Ibs.  of  water  from  32°  F., 
or  freezing,  to  212°  F.,  or  boiling  temperature.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  timothy  hay  likewise  burned  would  yield  175.1  therms, 
or  about  half  that  of  coal.  Linseed  meal  has  a  higher  fuel  value 
than  corn  meal  because  it  contains  more  oil.  Digestible  protein 
yields  about  the  same  amount  of  heat  as  the  carbohydrates  and  fat 
more  than  twice  as  much.  In  comparing  feeding  stuffs  the  diges- 
tible fat  is  regarded  as  having  2.25  times  the  fuel  value  of  the  di- 
gestible carbohydrates.  (131) 

The  energy  evolved  on  burning  a  substance  may  be  expressed  by 
the  work  it  will  do  in  lifting  a  weight,  the  foot-ton  being  the  unit 
of  such  measurement.  A  Calorie  will  furnish  the  energy  required 
to  raise  a  weight  of  1.53  tons  1  foot.  A  therm  is  the  energy  re- 
quired to  raise  a  weight  of  1530  tons  1  ft.,  or  1  ton  1530  feet. 

IV.  THE  ENERGY  OF  FOOD. 

69.  Available  energy. — The  fuel  value  of  any  food  does  not 
necessarily  measure  its  nutritive  value  to  the  animal,  because  foods 
containing  the  same  heat  units  may  vary  in  the  amount  of  avail- 
able energy  which  they  can  furnish  to  the  body.  This  is  because : 

1.  A   part   of   the   food   passes   thru   the    alimentary   tract  un- 
digested. 

2.  The  carbohydrates,  especially  the  woody  fiber,  undergo  fer- 
mentations in  the  intestines  and  paunch,  gases  being  evolved  which 
are  without  fuel  value  to  the  animal. 

3.  When  the  protein  substances  in  the  body  are  broken  down 
they  form  urea,  a  nitrogenous  compound  which  escapes  thru  the 
kidneys.     Urea  has  fuel  value  which  is  lost  to  the  body. 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  49 

The  fuel  value  of  any  food  which  remains  after  deducting  these 
three  losses  represents  the  available  energy  of  the  food,  or  that  por- 
tion which  the  animal  can  use  for  body  purposes. 

70.  Net  energy. — The  available  energy  of  the  food  measures  its 
value  for  heat  production,  but,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  article, 
does  not  represent  its  true  value  to  the  animal  for  other  purposes. 
A  portion  of  the  total  available  energy  of  any  food  must  be  ex- 
pended in  the  work  of  masticating  and  digesting  it  and  of  assim- 
ilating  the    digested   nutrients.     The    energy   so    expended   finally 
takes  the  form  of  heat,  but  is  not  available  for  other  purposes  in 
the  body,  since  the  animal  has  no  power  to  convert  heat  into  other 
forms  of  energy.     That  portion  of  the  energy  which  remains  after 
masticating,  digesting,  and  assimilating  the  food  is  termed  the  net 
energy  of  the  food.     This  net  energy  is  used  by  the  animal  in  the 
work  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  other  internal  organs,  and  in  case  a 
surplus   of   net   energy   remains   after   satisfying   the   maintenance 
requirement  of  the  animal,  such  surplus  may  be  used  for  produc- 
ing fat,  growth,  milk,  or  wool,  or  in  the  performance  of  external 
work,  etc. 

71.  Available  and  net  energy. — There  has  already  been  given  a 
brief   description  of  the  respiration   apparatus,   with   an   example 
study  by  Henneberg  of  the  intake  and  outgo  of  an  ox  confined 
therein.     In  recent  years  the  respiration  apparatus  of  the  earlier 
times  has  been  improved  by  adding  thereto  means  for  accurately 
measuring  the  heat   given  off  by  the   animal  while  under  study. 
The  new  apparatus  is  styled  the  respiration  calorimeter.     The  first 
respiration  calorimeter  in  the  United  States  was  constructed  by 
Atwater  with  the  aid  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture,   at   Middletown,    Connecticut.     It  was   for   human   nutrition 
studies  only.     The  first  and  only  respiration  calorimeter  for  animals 
in  this  country  was  erected  some  years  since  in  a  special  building 
at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  by  Armsby,  thru  the  joint  efforts 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Station.1 

For  many  years  Kellner2  of  the  Mockern  Station,  Germany,  has 
been  using  the  respiration  chamber  in  animal  studies.  His  studies 
and  those  of  Armsby3  with  the  respiration  calorimeter  have  been 
for  the  most  part  with  the  mature  ox.  In  these  investigations  not 

1  For  a  popular  description  of  these  calorimeters,  see  Century  Magazine,  July, 
1887,  and  the  Experiment  Station  Kecord,  July,  1904. 

2  Land.  Vers.  Stat.,  53, 1900,  pp.  440-468. 

8  U.  8.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  101. 
5 


50 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


only  was  a  record  kept  of  all  the  feed  consumed  and  water  drank, 
but  of  everything  that  passed  from  the  animal,  including  the  so- 
called  solid  excrement,  urine,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  water,  and  in 
the  case  of  Armsby's  experiments  all  the  heat  given  off  by  the 
body.  While  the  work  of  Kellner  and  Arrnsby  has  really  only  be- 
gun, they  have  already  brought  out  facts  of  great  interest  and  im- 
portance. The  following  table  sets  forth  some  of  their  findings 
with  reference  to  what  becomes  of  the  pure  nutrients  and  three 
common  feeding  stuffs  when  fed  to  the  ox. 

Net  energy  from  100  Ibs.  of  pure  nutrients  and  common  feeding  stuffs. 


Nutrients  or 
feeding  stuffs 

Total 
energy 

Energy  lost 

Net  en- 
ergy re- 
maining 

In  feces 

In 

methane 
gas 

Tn  urine 

In  pro- 
duction 
process's 

Total 

loss 

Pure  nutrients 
Peanut  oil  (fat)  
Wheat  gluten  (protein) 
Starch  (carbohydrate;. 

Common  feeding  stuffs 
Corn  meal  .. 

Therms 

399.2 
263.1 
186.0 

170.9 
179.3 
171.4 

Per  ct. 

100 
100 
100 

Therms 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

15.7 

87.7 
93.9 

Per  ct. 

9.2 

48.9 
54.8 

Therms 

0.0 
0.0 

18.8 

15.9 
6.8 
15.5 

Per  ct. 

9.3 
3.8 
9.0 

Therms 

0.0 
49.2 
0.0 

6.6 
5.5 
4.3 

Per  ct. 

3.9 
3.1 
2.5 

Therms 

174.4 
118.3 

68.7 

62.0 
52.9 

47.4 

Per  ct. 

36.3 

29.5 
27.7 

Therms 

174.4 
167.5 

87.5 

100.2 
152.9 
161.1 

Per  ct. 

58.7 
85.3 
94.0 

Therms 

224.8 
95.6 
98.5 

70.7 
26.4 
10.3 

P  erct. 
41.3 
14.7 
6.0 

Timothy  hay 
Wheat  straw  

Expressed  in  per  cent. 
Corn  meal 

Timothy  hay 

Wheat  straw  

This  table  sets  forth  some  of  the  highest  and  most  instructive 
attainments  of  the  scientists  working  on  animal  nutrition.  It 
shows,  first  of  all,  that  when  100  Ibs.  of  pure  peanut  oil,  a  true 
fat,  is  burned  it  will  yield  399.2  therms.  When  fed,  none  of  this 
oil  passed  into  the  solid  excrement  or  feces  as  waste,  all  being  ab- 
sorbed out  of  the  small  intestine  and  going  into  the  body  proper. 
This  oil  contained  no  nitrogen,  and  so  no  nitrogenous  waste  from 
it  appeared  in  the  urine,  nor  did  any  of  it  form  methane  gas  in  the 
intestines.  To  digest  and  assimilate  this  100  Ibs.  of  oil  required 
174.4  therms  of  energy,  leaving  224.8  therms  which  might  be 
stored  in  the  body,  either  temporarily  in  the  lymph  bathing  the 
tissue  cells,  or  more  permanently  as  body  fat. 

When  100  Ibs.  or  263.1  therms  of  wheat  gluten,  which  is  prin- 
cipally protein,  was  fed,  no  part  passed  away  in  the  solid  droppings, 
but  the  very  large  amount  of  49.2  therms  was  carried  away  by  the 
urine,  this  loss  coming  from  the  breaking  down  of  this  protein 
nutrient  within  the  body,  or  from  the  breaking  down  of  body  tissue 


Digestion — Respiration — Calorimetry — Energy.  51 

which  was  replaced  by  new  protein  from  this  source.  In  all,  167.5 
out  of  263.1  therms  in  100  Ibs.  of  gluten  were  lost  either  in  the 
urine  or  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  mastication,  digestion,  and 
assimilation,  leaving  95.6  therms  which  might  be  temporarily  or 
permanently  stored  in  the  body.  This  amount  of  protein  was 
available  for  building  protein  tissues  or  lean  meat,  which  would 
be  its  highest  use,  or  it  could  serve  for  the  production  of  body  fat, 
etc. 

72.  Losses  in  undigested  matter,  methane,  and  urine. — Studying 
the  lower  division  of  the  table  we  observe  that  if  the  total  energy 
of  corn  meal  is  placed  at  100,  then  9.2  per  ct.  of  its  heat  value 
passed  from  the  ox  in  the  undigested  matter  of  the  solid  excrement. 
This  loss  we  may  compare  to  bits  of  coal  passing  unburned  thru 
the   grate   bars   of  a  furnace.     While  undergoing  digestion,   large 
quantities   of    gas,    called   methane,    were    formed.     This    gas   was 
taken  from  the  intestines  by  the  blood  and  given  off  thru  the  lungs 
and  skin,  a  loss  of  9.3  per  ct.  resulting.     There  was  a  further  loss 
of  3.9  per  ct.  in  the  urea  which  left  the  body  in  the  urine  by  way 
of  the  kidneys.     The  sum  of  these  three  losses  is  22.4  per  ct.,  which 
measures   that   portion   of  the   total  fuel  value   of  the   corn  meal 
which   was   of   no  value  to  the  ox,  but  really  worse  than  useless, 
because  work  was  required  in  passing  it  thru  the  alimentary  tract. 
The  remaining  77.6  per  ct.  represents  the  available  energy  of  the 
corn. 

73.  Losses  due  to  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation. — From 
this  77.6  per  ct.  of  available  energy  must  be  deducted  the  energy 
expended  in  the  work  of  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation, 
amounting  to  36.3  per  ct.  of  the  total  fuel  value  of  the  corn.     Sub- 
tracting this  last  sum  and  the  previous  losses  from  100,  there  re- 
mains 41.3  per  ct.  as  the  net  energy  value  of  the  corn,  or  the  amount 
which  the  animal  may  use  for  repairing  body  tissue,  for  growth, 
for  the  laying  on  of  fat,  or  for  the  production  of  external  work.     In 
the  case  of  timothy  hay  only  14.7  per  ct.,  and  with  wheat  straw 
but  6  per  ct.,  of  its  original  fuel  value  remains  as  finally  available 
for  such  purposes.     About  one-half  of  the  total  fuel  value  of  these 
two  feeds  passed  off  as  undigested  matter,  this  portion  never  having 
been  inside  the  body  proper. 

In  noting  the  heavy  losses  shown  under  the  column  headed  "Pro- 
duction processes, "  the  following  points  are  of  interest:  Zuntz 
found  that  the  work  of  the  horse  in  chewing  hay  and  preparing  it 
for  swallowing  required  4.5  per  ct.  of  the  total  energy  in  the  hay, 


52  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

oats  only  a  little  over  1  per  ct.,  and  corn  but  one-third  of  1  per  ct. 
He  estimates  that  with  the  horse  the  work  of  digestion  calls  for 
about  9  per  ct.  of  all  the  energy  in  the  digestible  portion  of  the 
food.  He  further  found  that  each  100  Ibs.  of  fiber,  or  the  woody 
part  of  feeding  stuffs,  in  passing  thru  the  animal,  whether  digested 
or  not,  required  about  118  therms  for  the  work  of  disposing  of  it. 

The  digestive  processes  call  for  a  large  amount  of  work,  and  this 
means  an  evolution  of  heat.  Such  roughages  as  straw,  hay,  and 
corn  stover,  because  of  their  coarse,  woody  character  due  to  the 
fiber  they  contain,  place  much  work  on  the  animal  in  digesting 
them  and  passing  the  waste  out  of  the  body.  Where  the  animal, 
such  as  an  idle  horse  in  winter,  is  doing  no  work,  living  on  coarse 
food  may  bring  no  harm  but  rather  economy  in  cost  of  keep,  be- 
cause the  large  amount  of  heat  necessarily  evolved  in  the  diges- 
tion and  passage  of  such  food  helps  to  keep  the  animal  warm.  On 
the  other  hand  animals  at  hard  work  and  those  producing  milk  or 
being  fattened  cannot  profitably  utilize  large  amounts  of  coarse 
forage. 

The  data  of  the  table  we  have  been  studying  are  as  a  whole  cor- 
rect, interesting,  and  helpful  in  extending  our  knowledge  of  a  diffi- 
cult, tho  most  important,  subject  of  animal  nutrition.  In  details 
the  data  are  more  or  less  imperfect.  It  is  hardly  probable,  for 
example,  that  corn  evolves  as  much  methane  gas  during  digestion 
as  does  straw,  and  more  than  timothy  hay.  The  student  should  not 
regard  the  figures  in  each  division  of  the  table  as  exact  and  final, 
but  rather  as  approximate  to  the  facts.  Taken  in  the  right  spirit, 
these  data  are  of  the  highest  value  in  setting  forth  what  portions 
of  the  food  consumed  by  the  animal  are  lost  at  each  step  in  their 
progress  thru  the  body,  and  how  a  considerable  part  of  the  value 
of  the  food  is  required  to  carry  on  the  work  of  mastication,  diges- 
tion, and  metabolism,  leaving  a  relatively  small  portion  ultimately 
available  for  building  the  body  or  for  external  work.  The  marvel 
is  that  the  scientists  have  been  able  to  go  so  far  in  solving  these 
most  complicated  problems,  and  that  their  zeal  is  still  unabated. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

NUTRITION  STUDIES— THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  PEOTEIN,  CARBO- 
HYDRATES, AND  FAT. 

In  this  chapter  there  will  be  considered  the  effects  of  withhold- 
ing all  food  from  the  animal  and  of  feeding  the  three  basic  nutri- 
ents— proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fat — separately  and  in  combi- 
nation. 

74.  Starvation. — At  all  times  there  is  a  loss  of  nitrogen  from  the 
animal  body  by  way  of  the  urine,  since  all  the  tissues  are  steadily 
breaking  down  and  wasting  away.  The  nitrogen  excretion  from 
the  body  of  a  well-nourished  animal  is  relatively  large,  keeping 
pace  with  the  amount  of  nitrogen  supplied  in  the  food.  If  food  is 
withheld  from  such  an  animal  the  nitrogen  excretion  decreases 
rapidly  at  first,  many  holding  that  the  losses  at  this  time  fall  chiefly 
upon  the  circulating  protein,  or  protein  which  is  not  a  part  of  the 
tissues  of  the  body.  If  starvation  continues,  this  loss  falls  upon 
both  the  circulating  protein  and  on  the  muscles  and  other  nitroge- 
nous tissues  of  the  body.  At  the  same  time  the  fats  of  the  body 
are  also  being  gradually  oxidized  or  burned  in  the  effort  to  sustain 
life.  The  nitrogen  waste  in  the  urine  now  slowly  decreases  until 
it  reaches  a  minimum,  which  remains  quite  constant  so  long  as 
there  is  available  fatty  matter  to  furnish  energy.  When  the  supply 
of  body  fat  begins  to  fail,  however,  the  muscles  and  other  protein 
tissues  waste  more  rapidly,  and  the  animal  finally  perishes  thru 
the  impairment  of  its  organs  and  the  lack  of  the  food  fuel  re- 
quired to  carry  on  the  functions  of  life. 

A  rise  in  temperature  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  starvation,  fol- 
lowed by  a  general  fall  until  death  takes  place.  Carnivora  or 
flesh-eating  animals  can  withstand  hunger  longer  than  herbivora. 
While  dogs  and  cats  have  lived  until  their  weights  were  decreased 
33  to  40  per  ct.,  horses  and  ruminants  will  die  when  their  weight 
has  been  reduced  20  to  25  per  ct.1  The  age  of  the  animal  also  in- 
fluences the  time  at  which  death  occurs  from  starvation,  old  ani- 
mals withstanding  the  effects  of  hunger  better  than  young  ones, 
the  latter  losing  weight  more  rapidly  and  dying  after  a  smaller  loss 
of  weight  than  old  ones.2 

1 M.  Wilckens  in  v.  d.  Goltz,  Hand.  d.  ges.  Landw.,  Ill,  p.  88. 
2  Halliburton,  Chem.  Physiol.,  p.  834. 

53 


54  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

75.  Feeding  protein  only. — "We  have  seen  that  during  starvation 
there  is  a  small  but  steady  waste  of  the  protein  tissues  of  the  body, 
both  thru  natural  wear  and  the  heavier  loss  due  to  the  effort  to 
support  life  by  using  the  energy  these  tissues  furnish  on  being 
oxidized. 

On  the  basis  of  the  theory  of  circulating  protein,  it  is  assumed 
that  the  protein  of  the  body  tissues,  such  as  the  muscles,  is  nor- 
mally subject  to  only  slow  oxidation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cir- 
culating protein,  which  is  relatively  large  in  the  well  nourished 
body,  but  which  rapidly  disappears  during  starvation,  is  easily 
and  quickly  decomposed,  and  furnishes  by  far  the  larger  part  of 
the  nitrogen  waste  of  the  liberally  fed  animal.  If  a  mature  starv- 
ing animal  is  fed  a  limited  amount  of  practically  pure  protein  sub- 
stance, such  as  washed  lean  meat,  the  circulating  protein  in  the 
body  will  be  increased,  with  a  proportionately  greater  nitrogen 
waste.  Even  tho  the  food  consumed  contains  more  protein  than 
balances  the  daily  waste  from  the  tissues,  there  will  be  no  storage 
of  nitrogen  during  the  feeding  of  this  one-sided  ration. 

When  protein  is  fed  far  in  excess  of  the  waste  of  the  starving 
body,  nitrogen  equilibrium  may  be  established;  that  is,  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  excreted  will  equal  but  not  exceed  that  consumed  in 
the  food.  If  the  supply  of  protein  given  to  a  mature  animal  be 
still  further  increased  after  nitrogen  equilibrium  is  reached,  the 
excess  of  protein  fed  will  not  be  stored  in  the  body  as  protein, 
thereby  increasing  the  muscular  tissues,  but  will  still  be  decom- 
posed, and  the  nitrogen  excreted  in  the  urine.  Thus  the  nitrogen 
waste  keeps  pace  with  the  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  food.  This 
does  not  mean,  however,  that  the  food  value  of  the  protein  so  de- 
composed has  been  entirely  lost  to  the  animal.  After  the  splitting 
off  of  the  nitrogen  from  the  protein  molecules  the  non-nitrogenous 
residue  which  remains  may  be  converted  into  glucose  and  finally 
into  glycogen  or  fats. 

Supplying  a  heavy  exclusive  protein  ration  not  only  tends  to 
check  the  waste  of  the  fat  already  stored  in  the  body,  but  probably 
with  flesh-eating  animals  at  least,  fat  may  be  formed  from  the  pro- 
tein of  the  food  and  stored  as  body  fat  during  such  exclusive  pro- 
tein feeding.  (83)  It  is  probable,  then,  that  the  carnivora  or  flesh- 
eating  animals  can  live  on  pure  protein  food  alone,  providing  it  is 
supplied  in  abundance.  Whether  the  herbivora,  or  plant-eating 
animals,  can  live  on  protein  alone  has  not  been  settled,  and  altho 
of  scientific  interest  the  subject  has  no  practical  importance. 


Nutrition  Studies. 


55 


76.  Feeding  fats  and  carbohydrates  only. — Kellner1  points  out  that 
when  animals  are  fed  exclusively  on  nitrogen-free  nutrients,  such 
as  the  sugars,  starches,  fats,  etc.,  the  waste  of  fat  from  the  body  is 
materially  lessened,  and  the  waste  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of  the 
body,  such  as  the  muscles,  is  somewhat  reduced,  tho  not  entirely 
stopped.     On    account    of    this    sparing    of    the    body    substances, 
animals   forced   to    live    on   such    diet    survive    longer    than    those 
wholly   deprived   of  food.     Yet   because   of  the    continuous   small 
waste  of  protein  from  the  tissues  of  the  body,  animals  nourished 
solely  on  fats  and  carbohydrates  cannot  long  survive. 

77.  Feeding  fats  and  carbohydrates  with  protein. — Experiments 
by  Voit2  with  dogs,  and  Kellner3  with  oxen,  show  that  when  animals 
are  fed  fats  or  carbohydrates  in  addition  to  protein,  the  nitrogen 
waste  depends  in  some  measure  upon,  but  does  not  necessarily  keep 
pace  with,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  supplied  in  the  food,  since  the 
fats  and  carbohydrates  protect  the  protein  in  the  body  from  oxida- 
tion,  or  spare  it,   to   some   extent.     The   digestible  portion  of  the 
crude  fiber,  and  likewise  in  all  probability  the  pentosans,  decrease 
the  waste  of  nitrogen  in  some  degree,  as  do  the  more  easily  digested 
sugars  and  starches. 

When  an  excess  of  protein  is  supplied  an  animal,  the  nitrogen 
waste  is  greatly  increased,  as  the  following  experiment  by  Lawes 
and  Gilbert4  shows.  One  of  2  pigs  which  were  similar  in  weight 
and  appearance  was  given  all  it  would  consume  of  lentil  meal, 
which  contains  about  25  per  ct.  of  crude  protein.  The  other  was 
fed  an  unlimited  ration  of  barley  meal,  containing  about  12  per 
ct.  of  crude  protein.  The  nitrogen  consumed  in  the  food  and  ex- 
creted as  urea  was  as  follows : 

Effect  of  an  excess  of  protein  on  the  nitrogen  excretion. 


Periods 

Food 

Nitrogen  in  food 

Urea-nitrog-en 

Days 
3 

No.  1,  Lentil  meal 

Grams 
123.0 

Grams 
62.6 

3 

No.  2,  Barley  meal 

58.9 

28.7 

10 

No.  1,  Lentil  meal 

120.6 

65.8 

10 

No.  2,  Barley  meal 

51.2 

24.3 

The  table  shows  that  the  pig  receiving  lentil  meal  consumed  more 
than  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  one  fed  barley  meal.     It  also 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  125. 

2  Ztschr.  Biol.,  5, 1869,  pp.  352,  431. 

3  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  53, 1900,  pp.  124,  210,  316. 

*  Jour.  Eoy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1895;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  22. 


56  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

excreted  more  than  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  urea  as  did  the  other 
pig,  the  nitrogen  waste  thus  depending  on  the  nitrogen  intake. 

Experiments  show  that  a  pound  of  carbohydrates  has  somewhat 
greater  protein-sparing  action  than  a  pound  of  fat,  a  surprising 
fact  when  we  remember  that,  on  burning,  fat  produces  over  twice 
as  much  energy  as  do  carbohydrates.  Evidently  there  is  no  rela- 
tion between  the  fuel  values  of  these  nutrients  and  their  protein- 
sparing  power.  Landegren1  explains  this  superiority  of  carbohy- 
drates over  fat  as  follows :  For  the  carrying  on  of  their  normal 
functions,  living  cells  need  a  certain  minimum  not  only  of  protein 
but  also  of  carbohydrates,  especially  glucose.  When  carbohydrates 
are  not  supplied,  the  body  forms  the  necessary  glucose  by  decom- 
posing protein.  So  long,  however,  as  there  is  an  ample  supply  of 
carbohydrates  in  the  food,  protein  is  not  used  for  this  purpose.  As 
the  body  can  form  carbohydrates  from  fat  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty, if  at  all,  the  fats  are  less  potent  than  the  carbohydrates  in 
checking  the  protein  wastes  in  the  body. 

78.  Amids. — Some  scientists  hold  that  the  amids  do  not  serve  to 
form  the  protein  tissues  in  the  body  of  farm  animals.     Numerous 
experiments  have  shown  that  asparagin,  a  pure  amid,  cannot  spare 
protein  or  take  its  place  in  the  bodies  of  the  carnivora  and  omniv- 
ora.     It   is    quite   generally   agreed,   however,   that   the   amids   fur- 
nish energy  to  the  body  and  may  in  some  cases  prevent  the  waste 
of  the  protein  tissues.     Nearly  half  the  nitrogen  in  corn  silage,  and 
not  over  15  per  ct.  of  that  in  dried  corn  forage,  is  in  amid  form. 
Yet,  based  on  dry  matter,  corn  silage  is  somewhat  more  valuable 
than  corn  forage  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  which  require  a  liberal 
supply  of  crude  protein.     The  amids  are  abundant  in  grass,  roots, 
and  silage,  all  of  which  feeding  stuffs  are  especially  useful  to  grow- 
ing or  pregnant  animals  and  to  those  producing  milk  and  wool. 
Kellner2    and    Strusiewicz3    have    shown    that    sheep    given   protein- 
poor  rations  gained  in  weight  when  asparagin  was  added.     In  view 
of  such  facts  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  at  least  some  of  the  amids 
can  be  built  up  into  the  protein  tissues  of  the  bodies  of  farm  ani- 
mals. 

79.  Origin  of  body  fat. — The  exact  source  of  the  fat  which  ani- 
mals store  in  their  bodies  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy. 
Kellner,  Armsby,  Hagemann,  and  other  modern  authorities  agree 
that  the  body  fat  of  animals  may  originate  either  from  fat  or  carbo- 

1  Skand.  Archiv.  Physiol.,  14, 1903,  p.  112.  3  Ztschr.  Biol.,  47,  p.  143. 

2  Ztschr.  Biol.,  39, 1900,  p.  313. 


Nutrition  Studies.  57 

hydrates.  Scientists  still  disagree  upon  the  possibility  of  animal 
fat  being  formed  thru  the  decomposition  of  protein.  The  prepon- 
derance of  evidence  favors  such  conclusion,  as  is  later  shown.  (83) 

80.  Body  fat  from  food  fat. — Many  experiments  have  conclu- 
sively shown  that  the  fat  in  food,  which  has  been  acted  on  by  the 
digestive  fluids  in  the  intestines,  may  be  directly  stored  in  the  body 
tissues  when  supplied  in  large  quantity. 

Hofmann1  allowed  a  dog  to  starve  until  its  weight  had  decreased 
from  26.5  to  16  kilograms  and  the  supply  of  fat  in  its  body  had  en- 
tirely disappeared,  as  shown  by  the  increased  decomposition  of  the 
protein  tissues  at  that  time.  For  5  days  this  dog  was  fed  large 
quantities  of  fat  and  only  a  little  fat-free  meat,  during  which  time 
it  gained  4.2  kgms.  in  weight.  When  slaughtered  its  body  con- 
tained 1353  grams  of  fat,  only  131  of  which  could  possibly  have 
come  from  the  protein  fed.  Hence  much  of  the  fat  formed  during 
this  time  must  have  come  from  the  fat  of  the  food. 

Henriques  and  Hansel2  fed  2  three-months-old  pigs  barley  meal 
together  with  oil.  The  first  pig  received  linseed  and  the  second 
cocoanut  oil.  Samples  of  the  body  fat  were  removed  from  the  back 
of  each  pig  thru  incisions,  and  analyzed.  The  fat  which  had 
formed  during  the  feeding  resembled  in  odor,  consistency,  and  com- 
position the  vegetable  fat  which  had  been  fed.  Later,  when  the 
feeds  were  reversed  with  the  2  pigs,  the  body  fat  then  formed 
showed  a  corresponding  change  in  properties. 

All  the  digested  fat  taken  into  the  body  of  the  animal  beyond 
that  required  for  maintenance  cannot,  however,  be  deposited  as 
body  fat,  since  considerable  losses  always  occur  thru  the  energy  ex- 
pended in  digestion  and  metabolism.  Kellner3  states  that  in  the 
case  of  carnivora,  or  flesh-eating  animals,  such  as  the  dog,  not  more 
than  87.3  Ibs.  of  body  fat  can  be  formed  from  100  Ibs.  of  pure  fat 
supplied  in  the  food.  With  herbivora,  or  animals  which  consume 
coarse  forage,  such  as  the  horse,  ox,  etc.,  considerable  losses  are 
caused  by  fermentations  which  take  place  in  the  digestive  organs. 
The  work  of  moving  the  food  thru  the  digestive  tract,  digesting  it, 
and  disposing  of  the  waste  is  also  relatively  large.  Hence  the 
amount  of  body  fat  which  may  be  formed  by  these  animals  from 
100  Ibs.  of  digestible  fat  in  the  food  consumed  is  much  lower  than 
with  the  carnivora,  varying  from  64.4  Ibs.  in  the  case  of  pure  fats 
to  47.4  Ibs.  in  the  fats  of  roughages. 

1  Ztschr.  Biol.,  8,  1872,  p.  153.  3  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  143. 

2  Centbl.  Agr.  Chem.,  29, 1900,  p.  529. 


58  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

81.  Fat  from  carbohydrates. — Scientists  agree  that  the  fat  in  the 

body  of  animals  can  be  formed  from  carbohydrates.  As  early  as 
1842  Liebig  maintained  that  animal  fat  was  formed  mainly  from 
the  carbohydrates,  tho  it  might  also  originate  from  the  protein  of 
the  food.  The  extensive  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  of  the 
Kothamsted  Station,1  conducted  from  1848-1853  with  more  than 
400  animals,  clearly  showed  that  much  more  fat  was  stored  than 
could  be  derived  from  the  fatty  matter  and  protein  of  the  food. 

Soxhlet2  fed  2  full-grown  pigs  a  daily  ration  of  4.4  Ibs.  of  rice 
meal  for  5  days.  One  pig  was  then  killed  and  its  body  analyzed, 
while  the  other  was  fed  4.4  Ibs.  of  rice,  daily,  and  later  a  ration  of 
3.3  Ibs.  of  rice  with  some  meat  extract,  both  foods  which  are  almost 
free  from  fat.  After  82  days  this  pig  was  also  killed  and  its  body 
analyzed.  Assuming  that  the  bodies  of  both  pigs  were  of  similar 
composition  when  the  first  was  killed,  Soxhlet  found  the  quantity 
of  fat  formed  in  the  body  of  the  second  pig  and  its  source  to  be  as 
follows : 

Grams 

Maximum  fat  possible  from  fat  in  food 340 

Maximum  fat  possible  from  protein  in  food 2,488 

Maximum  fat  that  must  have   been  formed  from  carbohy- 
drates in  food 19,352 

Total  fat  from  3  sources 22,180 

It  is  shown  that  during  the  trial  22,180  grams  of  fat  were  formed. 
Deducting  from  this  the  sum  of  the  maximum  amounts  of  fat  which 
could  have  been  derived  from  the  fat  and  the  protein  supplied  in 
the  food,  there  remains  19,352  grams  of  fat  as  the  minimum  which 
must  have  been  formed  from  the  carbohydrates  in  the  food.  Hence 
at  least  87  per  ct.  of  the  fat  formed  by  this  pig  during  the  trial 
was  derived  from  the  carbohydrates  in  the  food. 

The  formation  of  fat  by  ruminants  from  the  carbohydrates  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Kiihn3  with  the  aid  of  a  respiration  appara- 
tus. Oxen  were  fed  for  long  periods  on  meadow  hay  and  starch, 
which  provided  a  ration  low  in  protein  and  fat.  Kiihn  shows  that 
even  if  all  the  carbon  resulting  from  the  digestion  of  the  protein 
and  fat  in  the  food  went  to  form  fat  in  the  body,  there  still  re- 
mained a  large  amount  of  deposited  fat  which  could  only  have 
come  from  the  carbohydrates  of  the  food.  These  conclusions  are 
confirmed  by  later  experiments  by  Kellner,4  also  with  oxen.  In 

1  Jour.  Eoy.  Agr.  Soc.  VI,  Pt.  1, 1895;  Bui.  22,  Office  of  Expt.  Sta. 

2  Jahresber.  Agr.Chem.,  1881,  p.  434. 

3  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  44, 1894,  pp.  1-581. 

4  Land.  Vers.  Stat.,  53, 1900,  pp.  1-450. 


Nutrition  Studies.  59 

these  later  trials  it  is  shown  that  100  Ibs.  of  digested  starch  or 
digested  fiber  yielded  about  24.8  Ibs.,  and  100  Ibs.  of  digested  cane 
sugar  only  18.8  Ibs.,  of  body  fat. 

82.  Fat  from  pentosans. — Tho  no  experiments  have  yet  been  car- 
ried on  to  show  that  body  fat  may  be  formed  from  pure  pentosans, 
it  is  certain  that  these  carbohydrates  aid  in  its  formation.     Kell- 
ner1  fed  oxen  straw  in  which  pentosans  furnished  33  per  ct.  of  the 
energy.     The  large  deposits  of  fat  which  followed  must  have  come 
in  part  from  the  pentosans  of  the  food. 

83.  Fat  from  protein. — When  a  liberal  protein  diet  supplies  the 
animal  with  more  energy  than  is  necessary  for  its  maintenance,  not 
only  may  a  part  of  the  excess  protein  be  deposited  in  the  body  as 
flesh,  but  the  non-nitrogenous  portion  resulting  from  the  cleavage 
of  protein  may  be  converted  into  body  fat  or  glycogen.     Since  body 
fat  may  be  derived  from  the  carbohydrates,  and  since  glucose  and 
glycogen  may  be  formed  from  the  proteins,  it  is  reasonable  to  hold 
that  body  fat  may  be  formed  from  the  protein  of  the  food.     Dem- 
onstration of  the  direct  formation  of  body  fat  from  food  protein  is 
difficult,  however,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  induce  animals  to 
consume  any  large  quantity  of  pure  protein  food.     The  consump- 
tion of  protein  must  be  relatively  large  to  maintain  the  nitrogen 
equilibrium  of  the  body,  and  so  usually  but  a  small  excess  avail- 
able for  the  formation  of  fat  remains  above  body  requirements. 

Investigations  by  Cramer2  with  cats,  and  by  Voit3  and  Gruber4 
with  dogs  which  were  fed  large  amounts  of  lean  meat,  show  that 
the  protein  it  contained  must  have  been  the  source  of  the  fat  which 
was  stored  in  their  bodies  during  the  trials.  Henneberg,5  working 
with  dogs,  concluded  that  100  Ibs.  of  protein  may,  upon  decomposi- 
tion, yield  51.4  Ibs.  of  fat.  Rubner,6  likewise  experimenting  with 
dogs,  has  shown  that  owing  to  the  losses  of  energy  which  occur  in 
the  decomposition  of  protein  not  more  than  34.7  Ibs.  of  fat  can  be 
formed  from  100  Ibs.  of  protein  in  the  food. 

Herbivora — the  ox,  horse,  sheep,  etc. — cannot  be  fed  exclusively 
on  protein,  since  such  feeding  causes  intestinal  disorders.  Kell- 
ner,7  experimenting  with  steers,  added  wheat  gluten,  which  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  vegetable  proteins,  to  a  ration  which  was 
already  causing  a  considerable  deposition  of  fat.  The  feeding  of 
100  Ibs.  of  gluten  caused  the  deposition  of  only  23.5  Ibs.  of  fat 

1  Loc.  cit.  5  Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  20, 1877,  p.  394. 

2  Ztschr.  Biol.,  38, 1899,  p.  307.  6  Ztschr.  Biol.,  21, 1885,  p  250. 

3  Jahresber.  Tier-Chem.,  22, 1892,  p.  34.  7  Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  53, 1900,  p.  452. 

4  Ztschr.  Biol.,  42,  1901,  p.  407. 


60  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

above  the  amount  due  to  the  basal  ration.  Kellner  maintains  that 
this  additional  deposit  was  derived  from  the  protein  fed  in  the 
wheat  gluten.  Less  body  fat  was  formed  by  the  steers  from  100 
Ibs.  of  protein  than  would  have  been  formed  by  dogs,  on  account  of 
the  large  losses  which  occur  thru  fermentations  in  the  digestive 
organs  of  ruminants.  As  above  shown,  Kellner  found  that  because 
of  the  large  losses  which  occur  thru  fermentations  in  the  digestive 
organs  of  herbivora,  only  23.5  Ibs.  of  fat  can  be  formed  by  these 
animals  from  100  Ibs.  of  protein  in  the  food. 

84.  The  source  of  fat  in  milk. — By  an  ingenious  experiment  Jor- 
dan and  Jenter  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Station1  proved  that  the 
cow  can  form  the  fat  of  milk  from  substances  other  than  the  fat  in 
her  food.  A  thousand  Ibs.  of  hay  and  1500  Ibs.  each  of  corn  meal 
and  ground  oats  were  sent  to  a  new-process  oil-meal  factory,  where 
nearly  all  the  fat  was  extracted  from  these  feeds  with  naphtha  in 
the  percolators  employed  for  extracting  the  oil  from  crushed  flax 
seed.  The  almost  fat-free  feeds  were  returned  to  the  Station  and 
afterwards  fed  to  a  cow  which  had  freshened  about  4  months  be- 
fore. For  95  days  the  cow  lived  on  these  nearly  fat-free  feeds, 
yet  during  this  period  she  gave  62.9  Ibs.  of  fat  in  her  milk.  The 
food  she  consumed  contained  but  11.6  Ibs.  of  fat,  of  which  only  5.7 
Ibs.  was  digested.  Hence  at  least  57.2  Ibs.  of  the  fat  found  in  the 
milk  must  have  been  derived  from  some  other  source  than  the  fat 
in  the  food.  This  fat  could  not  have  come  from  the  body  of  the 
cow,  for  Jordan  writes:  "The  cow's  body  could  have  contained 
scarcely  more  than  60  Ibs.  of  fat  at  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment; she  gained  47  Ibs.  in  weight  during  this  period  with  no  in- 
crease of  body  nitrogen,  and  was  judged  to  be  a  much  fatter  cow 
at  the  end;  the  formation  of  this  quantity  of  milk  fat  from  the 
body  fat  would  have  caused  a  marked  condition  of  emaciation, 
which,  because  of  an  increase  in  the  body  weight,  would  have  re- 
quired the  improbable  increase  in  the  body  of  104  Ibs.  of  water  and 
intestinal  contents." 

Jordan  concludes  that  not  over  17  Ibs.  of  the  fat  produced  during 
the  trial  could  possibly  have  been  produced  from  the  protein  sup- 
plied in  the  food.  It  is  most  evident  that  a  large  part  of  all  the 
fat  produced  by  this  cow  must  have  come  from  the  carbohydrates 
in  her  feed,  and  so  a  long  disputed  question  is  at  length  settled. 

1  Bui.  132. 


Nutrition  Studies.  61 

85.  Body  fat  from  nutrients. — The  following  table  from  Kellner1 
summarizes  his  studies  on  the  amount  of  fat  which  may  possibly  be 
formed  in  the  body  of  the  growing  ox  from  100  Ibs.  of  digestible 
matter  of  the  several  nutrients  fed  in  combination  with  a  basal 
ration  already  exceeding  the  maintenance  requirements  of  the  ani- 
mal: 


Fat 

Energy  available 
for  fat  formation 
Therms 
204  259 

Possible  fat 
Lbs. 
47  4  59  8 

Protein 

102 

23  5 

Starch  and  fiber 

107 

24.8 

Cane  sugar    . 

81 

18.8 

The  table  shows  that  if  an  ox  is  getting  enough  food  for  main- 
tenance, supplying  100  Ibs.  of  fat  in  addition  may  result  in  the 
storage  of  from  47.4  to  59.8  Ibs.  of  body  fat.  For  the  other  nutri- 
ents there  is  a  smaller  deposit,  cane  sugar  forming  only  18.8  Ibs. 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  158. 


CHAPTER  V. 


NUTRITION  STUDIES  CONTINUED. 
I.  ADDITIONAL  REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  ANIMAL. 

86.  Air. — The  first  and  most  vital  requirement  of  animals  is  air. 
The  amount  of  air  breathed  by  farm  animals,  as  given  by  King,1  is 
placed  in  the  first  division  of  the  table  below.  The  second  division 
shows  the  quantity  of  fresh  air  that  must  pour  into  a  room  where 
animals  are  confined,  in  order  to  provide  substantially  pure  air,  or 
that  which  does  not  contain  over  3.3  per  ct.  of  air  that  has  been  pre- 
viously breathed. 

Air  breathed  by  animals,  and  air  required  for  good  ventilation. 


Animal 

Air  breathed 

Ventilation  require- 
ment per  animal 

Hourly 

Per  24  hrs. 

Hourly 

Per  24  hrs. 

Horse  __ 

Cu.  ft. 
142 

in 

46 
30 

Cu.  ft. 
3,401 
2,804 
1,103 
726 

Lbs. 

272 
224 

89 

58 

Cu.  ft. 
4,296 
3,542 
1,392 
917 

Cu.  ft. 
103,104 

85,008 
33,408 

22,008 

Cow  _. 

Pig-   

Sheep 

The  table  shows  that  the  horse  breathes  hourly  142  cu.  ft.  of  air, 
and  daily  about  3,400  cu.  ft.,  which  weighs  about  272  Ibs.  To  pro- 
vide the  horse  in  confinement  with  air  not  more  than  3.3  per  ct.  of 
which  has  been  previously  breathed,  there  must  hourly  pass  into 
the  room  not  less  than  4,296  cu.  ft.,  or  over  103,000  cu.  ft.  each  24 
hours. 

The  cow  gives  off  about  19  therms  of  heat  each  24  hours,  or 
enough  to  raise  79,603  cu.  ft.  of  dry  air  from  0°  F.  to  50°  F.  As 
shown  in  the  preceding  table,  proper  ventilation  for  the  cow  re- 
quires that  about  85,000  cu.  ft.  of  air  be  brought  into  the  stable 
each  24  hours.  This  is  only  a  little  more  air  than  the  natural  heat 
from  her  body  will  raise  from  0°  F.  to  50°  F.,  which  is  a  desirable 
winter  temperature  for  cow  stables  in  cold  climates. 

87.  Water. — Animals  can  live  much  longer  without  solid  food 
than  without  water,  and  an  insufficiency  of  water  in  the  body  causes 
serious  disturbances.  The  processes  of  mastication,  digestion,  ab- 

1  Ventilation  for  Dwellings,  Eural  Schools  and  Stables. 

62 


Nutrition    Studies.  63 

sorption,  and  assimilation  are  hindered ;  the  intestines  are  not  prop- 
erly flushed,  and  waste  matter  remains  too  long  therein;  the  blood 
thickens;  and  the  body  temperature  is  increased.  Thru  these  com- 
plications death  may  result.  Animals  partially  deprived  of  water 
i'or  a  long  period  lose  their  appetite  for  solid  food,  and  vomiting 
and  diarrhea  may  occur,  the  latter  also  often  taking  place  wThen 
water  is  again  supplied. 

Under  normal  conditions  animals  consume  a  fairly  uniform  quan- 
tity of  water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  eaten;  Kellner  places 
the  amount  at  4  to  6  Ibs.  for  milch  cows,  4  to  5  Ibs.  for  oxen,  2  to 
3  Ibs.  for  horses  and  sheep,  and  for  swine  7  to  8  Ibs.,  which  seems 
excessive.  Possibly  due  to  their  laxative  nature,  feeds  rich  in 
crude  protein — bran,  linseed  meal,  peas,  etc. — cause  a  greater  de- 
mand for  water  than  starchy  feeds.  Kellner1  found  that  for  each 
100  Ibs.  of  water  drank  and  in  the  food,  the  stabled  ox  passed  46.3 
Ibs.  in  the  solid  excrement,  29.2  in  the  urine,  and  24.5  in  the  breath 
and  perspiration.  Water  is  an  important  regulator  of  the  temper- 
ature of  the  animal  body.  A  large  amount  of  heat  is  absorbed  in 
converting  water  into  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  lungs  and  skin, 
and  when  sweat  evaporates  it  carries  much  heat  from  the  body. 
(105) 

The  free  drinking  of  water  does  not  diminish  the  gains  of  ani- 
mals nor  increase  the  breaking  down  of  protein  in  the  body,  tho 
flushing  the  intestines  with  much  water  may  at  first  cause  a  more 
complete  removal  of  the  nitrogenous  waste  therefrom.  With  ani- 
mals which  continue  to  drink  freely,  the  nitrogenous  waste  soon 
becomes  normal  again.  Scientists  now  agree  that  farm  animals 
should  have  all  the  water  they  will  drink,  for  they  do  not  take  it 
in  excess  unless  they  are  forced  to  live  on  watery  foods  or  are  given 
salt  irregularly.  The  excess  of  water  taken  into  the  body  is  dis- 
charged thru  the  urine. 

Water  taken  into  the  body  must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of 
the  body.  Warington2  points  out  that  during  winter  sheep  in  the 
turnip  fields  of  England  consume  about  20  Ibs.  of  roots  daily,  con- 
taining over  18  Ibs.  of  water,  or  about  15  Ibs.  more  than  is  needed. 
To  raise  15  Ibs.  of  water  from  near  the  freezing  point  to  the  body 
temperature  requires  the  heat  evolved  in  the  body  by  burning 
nutrients  found  in  the  turnips,  equivalent  to  3  oz.  of  glucose,  or 
about  11  per  ct.  of  their  total  food  value.  In  addition  the  equiva- 

1  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  53, 1900,  p.  404.  2  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 


64  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

lent  of  more  than  2  oz.  of  glucose  must  be  burned  for  each  Ib.  of 
water  vapor  given  off  from  the  lungs  and  skin.  Warming  cold 
water  taken  into  the  body  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  more  food 
must  be  burned,  for  animals  evolve  a  large  amount  of  heat  in  the 
work  of  digesting  food  and  converting  the  digested  matter  into 
body  products  or  work.  (104)  Due  to  this,  many  animals  have  an 
excess  of  body  heat.  Comfortably-housed  and  well-fed  steers  and 
dairy  cows  burn  more  food  than  is  needed  to  keep  their  bodies 
warm,  and  such  excess  may  go  to  warm  the  water  they  drink,  so 
that  no  food  is  directly  burned  for  that  purpose. 

Armsby1  points  out  that  in  winter  farm  animals,  watered  but 
once  daily,  then  drink  freely.  The  sudden  demand  for  heat  caused 
by  taking  into  the  body  this  large  quantity  of  cold  water  may  ex- 
ceed the  available  supply,  with  the  result  that  some  of  the  food 
nutrients  or  body  tissues  are  burned  to  meet  it.  Animals  unduly 
exposed  to  cold  and  those  sparingly  fed  or  with  scant  coats  may  be 
directly  helped  by  watering  frequently  or  by  warming  their  drink- 
ing water.  In  cold  regions  in  order  to  induce  animals,  especially 
cows,  to  drink  freely  in  winter,  it  is  usually  best  to  warm  the  water, 
which  should  be  comfortably  accessible. 

When  entirely  oxidized  in  the  body,  100  Ibs.  of  starch  or  cellu- 
lose will  yield  55.5  Ibs.  of  water  and  163  Ibs.  of  carbon  dioxid,  and 
fats  over  twice  as  much  water  as  starch.  The  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds yield  a  little  less  than  the  carbohydrates  because  they  are 
not  entirely  oxidized  in  the  body.  This  shows  that  a  very  consid- 
erable amount  of  water  comes  to  the  animal  body  from  the  dry 
matter  of  the  food  they  consume.  It  is  probable  that  the  water 
which  results  from  the  breaking  down  of  the  food  is  used  in  the 
anabolism,  or  building  processes,  of  the  body,  rather  than  that 
water  which  the  animal  drinks,  tho  this  is  not  definitely  known. 

88.  Mineral  matter. — The  ash  of  feeding  stuffs  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  animals.  This  is  shown  by  feeding  them  rations 
freed  as  far  as  possible  from  mineral  matter,  in  which  case  they 
sooner  or  later  die  of  mineral  starvation.  During  mineral  starva- 
tion the  nervous  system  first  suffers  in  a  perceptible  manner; 
marked  weakness  of  the  limbs,  trembling  of  the  muscles,  convul- 
sions, and  great  excitability  result;  and  the  animal  generally  dies 
sooner  than  when  no  food  is  given.2 

1  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  p.  439. 

2  Kellner,  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  169. 


Nutrition  Studies.  65 

Howell1  states  that  the  mineral  salts  of  the  body  direct  its  metab- 
olism, tho  in  what  manner  is  not  known.  The  blood  serum  is  rich 
in  common  salt  and  other  salts  of  sodium,  while  the  red  blood  cor- 
puscles are  rich  in  potassium  compounds.  The  nervous  system  and 
the  nuclei  of  all  cells  are  rich  in  phosphorus,  and  the  skeleton  is 
composed  largely  of  calcium  or  lime,  combined  with  phosphorus. 
The  power  of  the  blood  to  carry  oxygen  is  due  to  hemoglobin,  an 
iron-protein  compound  in  the  red  corpuscles.  Blood  deprived  of 
its  calcium  does  not  coagulate  or  clot.  In  the  stomach  the  pepsin 
acts  only  in  the  presence  of  an  acid,  normally  hydrochloric,  de- 
rived from  the  salts  of  this  acid  present  in  the  circulation.  It  is 
probable  that  the  animal  organism  is,  by  reason  of  its  perfection, 
able  to  use  many  of  these  mineral  substances  over  and  over  again 
for  the  same  functions,  taking  them  back  into  the  circulation  after 
they  have  once  been  used.  In  spite  of  this  frugal  economy,  how- 
ever, losses  of  mineral  matter  from  the  body  constantly  occur,  even 
during  starvation.  Ordinarily  the  rations  of  farm  animals  con- 
tain all  the  necessary  mineral  matters  in  small  quantities,  and  since 
the  body  retains  these  with  great  tenacity  when  the  supply  is 
meager,  these  small  amounts  usually  suffice.  Common  salt,  lime, 
and  phosphorus  are  often  needed  in  such  large  amounts  that  they 
may  fall  short  in  certain  rations,  and  hence  must  be  added  if  nor- 
mal results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Appendix  Table  V  sets  forth  the  mineral  constituents  of  feeding 
stuffs  so  far  as  it  has  been  possible  to  secure  them. 

89.  Lime  and  phosphorus. — Large  amounts  of  lime  are  deposited 
in  the  bones  of  animals,  chiefly  as  phosphate  and  in  smaller  amount 
as  carbonate.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  a  long-continued 
lack  of  lime  and  phosphorus  in  the  food  is  harmful  to  the  skeleton. 

Hart,  McCollum,  and  Humphrey  of  the  Wisconsin  Station2  have 
shown  that  the  animal  skeleton  acts  as  a  reserve  storehouse  of  min- 
eral matter,  doling  out  lime,  phosphorus,  etc.,  when  the  supply  in 
the  food  is  below  requirements,  in  order  that  the  metabolic  pro- 
cesses of  the  body  may  be  maintained.  Under  such  conditions  the 
lime  and  phosphorus  content  of  the  flesh  and  other  soft  parts  re- 
mains as  high  as  in  animals  liberally  supplied  with  these  mineral 
matters.  In  an  experiment  by  these  investigators  it  was  found 
that  a  cow,  fed  a  ration  deficient  in  lime,  during  a  period  of  3.5 
months  gave  off  5.5  Ibs.  more  lime  in  milk  and  excrements  than  was 

1  Text  Book  of  Physiology,  p.  832. 

2  Kesearch  Bui.  5;  Am.  Jour.  Physiol.,  1909. 

6 


66  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

in  the  food.  This  was  fully  25  per  ct.  of  all  the  lime  in  her  body, 
including  the  skeleton,  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial.  (604) 

Such  withdrawal  of  mineral  matter  from  the  skeleton  produces 
porosity  and  brittleness  of  bone.  In  certain  localities  where  the 
hay  and  other  roughages  are  especially  low  in  lime  and  phos- 
phorus,1 farm  animals  are  so  affected  by  the  lack  of  these  mineral 
substances  that  their  bones  are  broken  easily  and  in  seemingly  in- 
explicable ways,  serious  losses  often  occurring.  Often  this  brittle- 
ness  of  bone  is  noticeable  only  in  years  when  the  normal  absorp- 
tion of  lime  and  phosphorus  by  the  roots  of  plants  is  hindered  by 
drought.  Of  grown  animals,  those  carrying  their  young  are  most 
apt  to  suffer  from  the  lack  of  these  substances,  since  considerable 
amounts  are  deposited  in  the  fetus.  Growing  animals  whose  bones 
are  rapidly  increasing  in  size  suffer  from  a  lack  of  lime  or  phos- 
phorus sooner  than  grown  animals.  Voit2  found  that  young  ani- 
mals receiving  a  ration  low  in  lime  are  soon  attacked  by  rickets, 
the  joints  swelling,  the  limbs  and  the  spinal  column  becoming 
crooked,  the  teeth  remaining  small  and  soft,  the  animal  finally  be- 
ing unable  to  walk.  Pigs,  because  of  restricted  diet,  suffer  from 
insufficient  lime  and  phosphorus  more  often  than  do  calves,  colts, 
and  lambs,  which  usually  receive  enough  of  these  mineral  matters 
in  their  hay  and  other  food. 

The  superior  value  of  such  leguminous  roughages  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  cowpea  hay  with  farm  animals  has  in  the  past  been 
ascribed  to  their  high  content  of  protein.  Ingle3  holds  that  in 
such  concentrates  as  linseed  oil  cake,  Indian  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and 
barley,  and  in  such  roots  and  roughages  as  turnips,  swedes,  man- 
gels, corn  stover,  wheat  straw,  etc.,  there  is  generally  an  excess  of 
phosphorus  over  calcium  or  lime.  He  holds  that  this  excess  of 
phosphorus  tends  to  waste  or  carry  the  lime  out  of  the  body  to 
an  excessive  degree  and  is  therefore  unfavorable  to  normal  nutri- 
tion. The  leguminous  roughages  contain  a  large  excess  of  lime 
over  phosphorus,  and  accordingly  supplying  legumes  with  the 
other  feeds  named  makes  good  such  wastage  of  lime.  To  this 
high  content  of  lime  as  well  as  to  the  high  protein  content  we 
must  hereafter  ascribe  the  beneficent  effects  of  clover,  alfalfa, 
vetch,  and  other  leguminous  roughages  on  the  growth,  milk  yield, 
and  bone  development  of  farm  animals. 

1  Kellner,  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  185. 

*  Ztschr.  Biol.,  16, 1880,  p.  70. 

3  Jour,  of  Comparative  Pathology  and  Therapeutics,  Mar.  1907. 


Nutrition  Studies.  67 

In  forming  rations  the  lime  and  phosphorus  content  of  the 
feeds  should  be  considered.  Straw,  chaff,  the  various  root  crops, 
molasses,  and  the  cereals  and  their  by-products,  such  as  bran  and 
middlings,  are  all  low  in  lime.  On  the  other  hand,  the  legumes, 
as  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.,  the  meadow  grasses,  and  many  leguminous 
seeds,  such  as  peas,  beans,  etc.,  are  high  in  lime.  Straw,  chaff, 
beet  pulp,  potatoes,  and  molasses  are  low  in  phosphorus,  while 
the  cereals  and  brans,  malt  sprouts,  oil  cakes,  brewers'  grains, 
and  slaughter-house  and  fish  waste  carry  it  in  abundance.  In 
many  cases  where  soft  water  is  drunk,  there  may  be  a  lack  of  lime 
only,  in  others  both  lime  and  phosphorus  may  be  deficient. 

90.  Inorganic  phosphorus. — Kohler1  found  that  lambs  can  assim- 
ilate   and    use    calcium    phosphate,    bone    ash,    and    steamed  bone. 
J.  Neumann2  fed  calcium  carbonate  and  calcium  phosphate  to  calves 
with   good   results.     Experiments   at  Mockern3   indicate   beneficial 
results  from  the  use  of  30  to  50  grams  of  calcium  phosphate  in 
the  daily  ration  of  steers  which  had  shown  marked  brittleness  of 
bone.     At   the    Wisconsin    Station,4    Hart,    McCollum,    and   Fuller 
found  that  pigs  were  able  to  assimilate  inorganic  phosphorus  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  precipitated  calcium  phosphate,  bone  ash,  or 
ground  rock  phosphate.  (122) 

Other  experiments  are  somewhat  contradictory  in  results,  but 
on  the  whole  it  appears  well  established  that  mineral  matter  in 
inorganic  form  may  be  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract  of  farm 
animals.  Animals  suffering  from  lack  of  lime  and  phosphorus 
absorb  calcium  phosphate  with  beneficial  results,  and  even  with 
normal  rations  the  addition  of  calcium  phosphate  causes  increased 
bone  formation.  Hence  when  a  ration  must  be  used  which  is  de- 
ficient in  either  lime  or  phosphorus,  or  both,  lime  may  be  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  calcium  carbonate  in  wood  ashes  or  ground 
limestone,  or  phosphorus  and  lime  in  the  form  of  precipitated 
calcium  phosphate,  bone  ash,  or  ground  rock  phosphate.  This 
latter  is  by  far  the  cheapest  form  of  phosphorus  easily  available 
for  such  purposes. 

91.  Common  salt. — The  hunger  of  herbivorous  animals  for  com- 
mon salt  is  well  known,  but  practical  men  have  differed  as  to  the 
necessity  or  advantage  of  adding  it  to  the  ration.     In  spite  of  the 
earlier  belief  that  salt  increased  the  digestibility  of  food,  numer- 
ous  experiments  have  shown  that  the   digestibility  of  the  ration 

1  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  61, 1905 ;  65, 1907.  3  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  57, 1902,  p.  239. 

2  Jour.  Land.,  41, 1893,  p.  343.  *  Research  Bui.  1. 


63  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

is  neither  increased  nor  diminished  thereby.  Rather  than  in- 
creasing the  waste  of  protein  from  the  body,  as  earlier  investiga- 
tors believed,  salt  appears  to  slightly  lessen  protein  decomposi- 
tion. Kellner1  states  that  besides  the  physiological  action  of  salt, 
it  serves  as  a  spice  or  condiment  which  stimulates  the  appetite 
and  increases  the  palatability  of  many  foods.  It  also  stimulates 
the  secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids,  increases  and  hastens  the  cir- 
culation of  the  fluids  of  the  body,  and  prevents  digestive  disturb- 
ances. 

Excessive  consumption  of  salt  must  be  guarded  against,  since 
it  greatly  increases  the  amount  of  water  excreted  in  the  urine. 
On  account  of  the  consequent  abnormal  thirst,  animals  will  then 
drink  exceedingly  large  quantities  of  water,  which  will  injure 
digestion  and  lead  to  other  disturbances.  If  sufficient  water  is  not 
supplied,  the  water  content  of  the  body  will  be  lessened  by  the 
increased  loss  thru  the  kidneys,  leading  to  increased  breaking  down 
of  protein.  (87)  If  animals  are  allowed  free  access  to  salt  or  sup- 
plied with  it  at  frequent  and  regular  intervals,  they  will  consume 
only  enough  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  body. 

Of  the  numerous  salt-feeding  experiments,  only  those  of  Bab- 
cock  and  Carlyle  of  the  Wisconsin  Station2  are  satisfactory  and 
conclusive.  In  these  trials  dairy  cows,  well  nourished  otherwise, 
were  given  no  common  salt  (sodium  chlorid)  for  long  periods — 
more  than  a  year  in  some  instances.  The  following  conclusions 
were  reached:  "In  every  case  the  cows  exhibited  an  abnormal 
appetite  for  salt  after  having  been  deprived  of  it  for  2  or  3  weeks, 
but  in  no  case  did  the  health  of  the  animal,  as  shown  by  the  gen- 
eral appearance,  the  live  weight,  or  the  yield  of  milk,  appear  to 
be  affected  until  a  much  longer  time  had  elapsed.  This  period  of 
immunity  varied  with  individual  cows  from  less  than  a  month  to 
more  than  a  year.  There  was  finally  reached  a  condition  of  low 
vitality  in  which  a  sudden  and  complete  breakdown  occurred. 
This  stage  was  marked  by  loss  of  appetite,  a  generally  haggard 
appearance,  lusterless  eyes,  a  rough  coat,  and  a  very  rapid  decline 
in  both  live  weight  and  yield  of  milk."  If  salt  was  supplied  at 
this  period  recovery  was  rapid.  In  one  case  potassium  chlorid 
was  given  instead  of  common  salt  (sodium  chlorid).  Consider- 
able of  the  potassium  salt  was  eaten,  tho  cows  ordinarily  refuse 
to  touch  it,  and  recovery  followed  as  quickly  as  when  common 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  173.  2  Ept.  1 905. 


Nutrition  Studies.  69 

salt  was  supplied — evidence  that  not  the  lack  of  sodium  but  the 
lack  of  chlorin  was  responsible  for  the  troubles.  The  break- 
down due  to  the  lack  of  salt  usually  occurred  after  calving-  when 
the  milk  flow  was  heavy,  and  generally  the  cows  giving  the 
largest  amount  of  milk  were  the  first  to  show  distress. 

Babcock  points  out  that  the  amount  of  salt  required  in  the 
ration  will  vary  greatly  in  different  localities.  Soils  which  con- 
tain large  quantities  of  salt  doubtless  produce  feeding  stuffs 
containing  more  salt  than  those  poor  in  this  ingredient ;  and  again 
the  water  of  streams  and  wells  varies  greatly  in  its  salt  content. 
These  facts  doubtless  account  for  the  disagreement  among  experi- 
menters in  different  parts  of  the  world  as  to  the  importance  and 
value  of  salt.  Cows  in  milk  and  sheep  show  the  greatest  need  of 
salt;  fattening  cattle,  horses,  dry  cows,  and  stock  cattle  require 
less  salt;  and  pigs  but  little. 

92.  Light. — Graffenberger,1  experimenting  with  young  and  full- 
grown  rabbits   confined  in   a  dark  room  for  long  periods,   found 
that  the  hemoglobin  content  of  the  blood  was  lowered  and  the 
amount  of  blood  in  the  body  was  decreased  by  from  9  to  22  per  ct. 
thru   such   confinement.     An   increased   formation   of   fat   was   ob- 
served, which  was  especially  marked  in  the  case  of  mature  ani- 
mals.    If  confined  too  long  in  the  dark  the  increase  was  relatively 
small.     Graffenberger  does  not  advocate  entire  darkness  for  fat- 
tening animals,  but  rather  the  partial  absence  of  light,  which  tends 
to  quiet  and  hence  favors  fattening.     The  development  of  the  skel- 
eton and  the  liver  is  retarded  by  darkness,  so  that  the  prolonged 
absence   of   light   has  a   deleterious   effect   on   animals.     Darkened 
quarters    are    not    advisable    for   fattening    animals    fed   for   long 
periods,   and  in  no   case  for  young  ones  designed  ultimately  for 
work,  milk  production,  or  breeding. 

93.  Quiet. — Farm  animals  are  creatures  of  habit,  and  once  ac- 
customed to   a  routine   of  living   show  unrest   with   any  change. 
The  feed  stable  or  feed  lot  should  be  free  from  disturbance,  and 
the  administration  of  feed  and  water  should  be  uniform  in  time 
and  manner.     Animals  soon  learn  when  these  are  to  occur,  and  as 
feeding   time    approaches   the   secretions   begin   pouring   from   the 
various  glands  in  anticipation  of  the  coming  meal.     The  system  of 
feeding  and  watering  and  the  character  of  the  rations  should  be 
changed  gradually  and  only  for  good  cause.     In  feeding  opera- 
tions a  changing  period  is  usually  a  losing  period. 

1  Arch.  Physiol.  (Pfliiger),  53, 1893,  p.  238. 


TO  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

II.  GROWTH,  MAINTENANCE,  FATTENING. 
1.  Growth. 

94.  Flesh  formation. — The  lean-meat  tissues  of  the  animal  body 
are  composed  mostly  of  muscular  fibers.  Any  increase  of  flesh 
tissues  can  be  caused  solely  by  an  increase  in  number  or  by  the 
thickening  of  these  fibers.  These  fibers  increase  in  number  by 
dividing  lengthwise,  which  process  occurs  with  farm  animals  only 
while  young  and  growing.  The  fibers  of  the  muscles  can  thicken 
to  a  limited  extent  only,  and  hence  the  muscular  tissues,  or  lean 
meat,  of  the  mature  animal  cannot  be  increased  beyond  a  narrow 
limit. 

According  to  Rubner,1  the  storage  of  protein  tissue  by  mature 
animals  is  accompanied  by  more  rapid  breathing,  a  rise  in  temper- 
ature, and  more  rapid  oxidation  of  the  circulating  protein.  Kell- 
ner2  states  that  a  full-grown  66-lb.  dog  may  easily  store  2  Ibs.  of 
fat  in  his  body  without  the  food  requirements  or  bodily  functions 
being  materially  changed.  If  the  same  amount  of  protein,  having 
but  one-half  the  energy  value  of  the  fat,  is  built  up  into  protein 
body  tissue,  an  extraordinary  amount  of  food  and  energy  must  be 
expended,  and  marked  changes  will  then  be  observed  in  the  be- 
havior of  the  animal.  Nearly  all  the  protein  consumed  by  mature 
animals  which  are  neither  pregnant  nor  producing  wool  or  milk  is 
burned  or  broken  down  in  the  body,  yielding  heat  and  energy,  or 
is  partially  decomposed  and  forms  fat  and  glycogen,  which  may 
be  stored  in  the  body.  Mature  animals  do  not  store  over  10  to  15 
per  ct.  of  the  digested  protein  as  protein  tissue,  and  often  none 
at  all. 

The  bones  are  partly  and  the  muscles,  ligaments,  tendons,  nerv- 
ous system,  and  viscera  of  animals  almost  wholly  protein.  During 
youth  all  these  parts  of  the  body  steadily  increase  in  size.  Thus 
growing  animals  store  large  amounts  of  protein  in  their  bodies. 
Weiske3  found  that  5-months-old  lambs  stored  over  22  per  ct.  of  all 
the  protein  digested  from  their  food,  and  Soxhlet4  found  that  suck- 
ing calves  used  for  the  formation  of  flesh  72.6  per  ct.  of  the  digested 
protein  of  the  milk  consumed.  The  large  and  long-continued  stor- 
age of  protein  in  young  animals  does  not  cause  changes  in  the  body 
which  lead  to  increased  oxidation,  such  as  occur  in  mature  animals. 

1  Gesetze  Energieverbrauch,  1902,  p.  305. 

2  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  119. 

3  Landw.  Jahrb.,  9, 1880,  p.  205. 

4  Ber.  land.  chem.  Vers.  Stat.  Wien,  1878,  p.  133. 


Nutrition  Studies.  71 

A  healthy  growing  person  with  poor  muscular  development  may 
by  suitable  food  and  exercise  materially  strengthen  and  increase 
the  size  of  his  muscles  thru  the  thickening  of  the  individual  fibers. 
Caspari,1  studying  working  dogs,  and  Bornstein,2  experimenting 
with  himself,  found  that  when  a  considerable  amount  of  muscular 
work  was  performed,  if  the  body  was  supplied  with  an  abundance 
of  protein-rich  food  there  was  a  small  but  continued  gain  of  body 
protein.  An  animal  whose  muscles  have  wasted  away  thru  lack  of 
food  or  thru  sickness  will  repair  its  tissues  upon  a  return  to  favor- 
able conditions,  thereby  storing  protein.  The  storage  of  fat  in  the 
body  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  a  very  slight  increase  of  body 
protein,  due  to  the  growth  of  the  tissues  holding  the  fatty  matter. 
The  framework  of  bone,  partly  of  protein  but  largely  of  mineral 
matter,  is  in  general  subject  to  the  laws  that  govern  the  formation 
of  protein  tissues.  Differing  from  protein,  the  water  and  especially 
the  fatty  matter  of  the  body  may  vary  greatly  in  total  and  relative 
amounts  according  to  heredity,  the  abundance  and  character  of  the 
food,  exercise,  etc. 

95.  The  growing  animal. — The  body  of  the  young,  growing  ani- 
mal undergoes  a  rapid  increase  in  protein  tissues  and  bone,  but 
that  of  the  mature  animal  is  normally  in  equilibrium,  i.  e.  the  pro- 
tein outgo  equals  the  protein  intake,  there  being  neither  increase 
nor  loss  of  protein  tissue.  Equilibrium  is  not  possible  with  young 
animals.  Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station,3  experimenting  with 
yearling  steers,  has  shown  that  young  animals  fed  scanty  rations 
increase  in  height,  even  tho  losing  in  weight.  With  insufficient 
food  some  of  the  organs  or  parts  may  continue  to  grow  at  the  ex- 
pense of  others,  a  process  which,  if  long  continued,  results  in  injury 
or  death.  An  abundant  supply  of  protein  is  essential  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  protein  tissues  of  the  body,  and  mineral  matter  is 
necessary  for  the  framework  of  bone. 

The  suckling  utilizes  its  food  most  economically.  At  the  Wis- 
consin Station,  lambs  fed  cow's  milk  gained  1  Ib.  in  weight  for  each 
0.75  Ib.  of  dry  matter  consumed.  In  respiration  studies  with  a  calf 
2  to  3  weeks  old,  Soxhlet4  found  a  storage  in  the  body  of  72.6  per 
ct.  of  the  protein,  96.6  per  ct.  of  the  lime,  and  72.6  per  ct.  of  the 
phosphorus  fed  in  the  milk,  showing  that  the  young  animal  stores  a 
large  portion  of  the  digested  food  nutrients,  including  protein.  As 

1  Archiv.  Physiol.,  83, 1901,  p.  535. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  548. 

8  Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.  1908. 

*  Eer.  landw.  chem.  Vers.  Stat.  Wien,  1878,  p.  101. 


72 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


it  grows  and  takes  more  exercise,  the  processes  which  lead  to  the 
breaking  down  of  the  nutrients  and  their  waste  from  the  body  be- 
come more  pronounced,  and  the  proportion  of  food  which  forms 
body  substances  steadily  diminishes. 

Gain  in  body  substances  by  well-nourished  young  animals  is  rel- 
atively much  greater  than  by  mature  animals  even  when  fattening. 
The  unweaned  calf  may  increase  2  to  3  Ibs.  daily  for  each  100  Ibs. 
of  body  weight,  while  a  gain  of  0.3  to  0.4  Ib.  daily  per  100  Ibs.  of 
body  weight  is  large  for  the  mature  fattening  ox.  The  more  rapid 
increase  in  weight  of  young  animals  is  due  to  several  causes — their 
flesh  contains  more  water;  their  food  is  more  digestible  and  con- 
centrated; and  they  consume  more  food  in  proportion  to  live 
weight.  As  growth  continues,  the  total  quantity  of  food  eaten  in- 
creases, but  the  amount  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight  diminishes.  The 
daily  gain  and  the  consequent  returns  from  food  consumed  also 
steadily  decrease  until  maturity  is  reached,  when  there  is  no 
further  gain  whatever  unless  from  the  laying  on  of  fat. 

The  following  table  by  Armsby1  shows  the  gain  of  protein,  mostly 
muscular  tissues,  by  the  growing  ox  at  various  ages : 

Storage  of  protein  ~by  the  growing  ox. 


Daily  gain  of  protein  to  the  body 

Average  age 
of  animal 

Authority 

Per  1000  Ibs,  of 

Computed  on  total 

live  weight 

protein  in  body 

Days 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

8 

Soxhlet 

3.99 

2.35 

15 

Soxhlet 

3.55 

2.08 

32 

Soxhlet 

2.76 

1.69 

50 

Neumann 

1.84 

1.08 

100 

De  Vries 

1.19 

0.71 

840 

Jordan 

0.09 

0.06 

The  table  shows  that  when  8  days  old  a  calf  stored  daily  in  its 
body  tissues  protein  equal  to  2.35  per  ct.  of  the  total  protein  then  in 
its  body,  or  about  4  Ibs.  daily  per  1000  Ibs.  of  live  weight.  The 
storage  of  protein,  which  practically  measures  the  growth  of  muscu- 
lar tissues  in  the  body,  steadily  decreased  with  age  and  growth  until 
the  100-day-old  calf  stored  1.19  Ibs.,  or  less  than  one-third  as  much 
as  the  8-day-old  calf.  When  28  months  old  and  nearly  mature,  the 
steer  stored  but  0.09  Ib.  of  protein  daily  per  1000  Ibs.  of  body 
weight.  It  is  thus  shown  that,  as  the  animal  matures,  the  quan- 
tity of  protein  built  up  in  the  body  steadily  diminishes. 

1  TJ.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  108. 


Nutrition  Studies.  73 

2.  Maintenance. 

96.  Maintenance  rations  for  mature  animals. — The  maintenance 
ration  must  furnish  sufficient  nutrients  to  cover  the  requirements 
of  the  body  for  heat,  to  furnish  the  energy  expended  in  the  work  of 
the  heart,  lungs,  digestive  and  other  internal  organs,  and  in  the 
slight  movements  of  the  body  always  occurring,  as  well  as  to  fur- 
nish material  for  repairs.  The  heat  requirements  of  the  resting 
animal  are  ordinarily  in  excess  of  the  energy  requirements  for  in- 
ternal work.  Hence  the  maintenance  ration  of  farm  animals,  ex- 
cept the  pig,  may  consist  largely  of  roughages,  such  as  hay  and 
straw,  which  furnish  much  heat  but,  being  of  rather  low  availa- 
bility, do  not  yield  much  net  energy.  (70)  The  supply  of  protein 
must  suffice  to  replace  the  small  necessary  daily  loss  of  nitrogenous 
body  tissues,  and  also  to  furnish  material  for  the  growth  of  the 
nitrogenous  hair,  hoofs,  wool,  etc.  As  this  demand  for  protein  is 
relatively  small,  the  ration  may  have  a  wide  nutritive  ratio,  nine- 
tenths  or  more  of  the  nutrients  consisting  of  carbohydrates  used 
solely  as  fuel.  The  most  economical  maintenance  ration  provides 
no  excess  of  protein,  for  such  excess  causes  a  greater  waste  of  pro- 
tein from  the  body.  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  main- 
tenance requirements  of  different  individuals  of  the  same  size  and 
species  kept  under  the  same  conditions,  due  to  differences  in  tem- 
perament. Restlessness  causes  greater  muscular  activity,  and 
thereby  increases  the  demand  for  food  fuel.  A  quiet  animal  re- 
quires less  food  for  maintenance  than  a  nervous,  active  one.  Dur- 
ing experiments  with  a  horse  in  a  respiration  chamber,  Zuntz  and 
Hagemann1  found  that  the  presence  of  flies  caused  the  animal  to 
give  off  over  10  per  ct.  more  carbonic  acid  gas  than  normally,  which 
means  that  this  much  more  food  fuel  was  burned.  Work  is  ex- 
pended in  merely  maintaining  the  position  of  the  body,  especially 
when  the  animal  is  standing.  Armsby2  found  that  the  ox  in  the 
respiration  chamber  produced  over  30  per  ct.  more  heat  when 
standing  than  when  lying  down.  The  physical  condition  of  the 
animal  also  affects  the  maintenance  requirement.  Kellner3  shows 
that  the  ox  in  good  condition,  especially  when  fat,  requires  a  larger 
ration  for  maintenance  than  a  lean  one  of  the  same  body  surface. 

Maintenance  requirements  vary  with  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
animal.  The  loss  of  heat  and  energy  from  the  body  is  not  propor- 

1  Landw.  Jahrb.,  23, 1894,  p.  161. 

2  Proe.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.,  1902. 

8  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  50, 1898,  245 ;  53, 1900,  14. 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


tional  to  the  size  or  weight,  but  rather  to  the  body  surface.  This 
is  shown  by  Rubner,1  who  determined  the  quantity  of  heat  given 
off  daily  by  fasting  dogs  of  different  sizes  but  in  the  same  bodily 
condition,  as  reported  in  the  following  table : 

Heat  given  off  ~by  fasting  dogs  of  different  sizes. 


Body  weight 

Body  surface 

Heat  evolved  daily 

Per  kgm.  wt. 

Per  sq.  m.  surface 

Kgms. 

Sq.  m. 

Cal. 

Cal. 

3.2 

0.24 

88.1 

1212 

6.5 

0.37 

66.1 

1153 

9.6 

0.53 

65.2 

1183 

18.2 

0.77 

46.2 

1097 

24.0 

0.88 

40.9 

1112 

31.2 

1.07 

36.6 

1036 

It  is  shown  that  while  the  heat  evolved  daily  per  square  meter 
of  body  surface  remained  nearly  constant,  the  larger  the  animal 
the  smaller  was  the  daily  loss  per  kilo  of  body  weight.  This  is  be- 
cause large  bodies  have  less  surface  in  proportion  to  their  weight 
than  small  ones,  and  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  body  is  largely  de- 
termined by  its  relative  surface.  Hence  maintenance  rations  should 
be  proportional  to  the  surface  of  the  body  rather  than  its  weight. 
Since  it  is  difficult  to  actually  measure  the  surface  of  an  animal's 
body,  the  maintenance  ration  for  animals  of  different  sizes  may  be 
computed  by  the  well-known  geometrical  law  that  the  surfaces  of 
solids  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  cube  roots  of  their 
weights.  The  protein  requirement  for  maintenance  depends  not 
upon  the  surface  of  the  body  of  the  animal,  but  directly  upon  its 
weight.2 

The  temperature  of  the  animal's  surroundings  also  influences  the 
amount  of  food  required  for  maintenance,  tho  not  to  the  degree 
often  supposed.  Since  with  the  mature  animal  at  rest  and  on  main- 
tenance the  fuel  value  of  all  digested  food  is  finally  liberated  as 
heat,  the  heat  furnished  by  the  maintenance  ration  is  usually  amply 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  body  temperature.  At  an  unusually  low 
temperature  the  animal  on  a  mere  maintenance  diet  may  require 
additional  food  to  keep  the  body  warm. 

97.  Minimum  protein  requirement. — In  view  of  the  high  cost  and 
relative  scarcity  of  crude  protein  in  feeding  stuffs,  it  is  desirable 
to  know  the  minimum  requirement  of  crude  protein  by  farm  ani- 

1  Ztschr.  Biol.,  19, 1883,  p.  535. 

2  KelJner,  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  410. 


Nutrition  Studies.  75 

mals.  C.  Voit1  found  that  from  1200  to  1500  grams  of  lean  meat 
per  day  was  required  to  keep  a  dog  in  nitrogen  equilibrium  while 
on  an  exclusive  protein  diet ;  when  carbohydrates  or  fat  was  added, 
only  from  one-half  to  one-third  as  much  lean  meat  was  needed.  By 
feeding  rations  exceedingly  rich  in  carbohydrates  to  animals,  some 
investigators  have  succeeded  in  reducing  the  requirement  of  nitroge- 
nous matter  to  slightly  more  than  the  normal  nitrogen  waste  of 
the  body  during  starvation.  At  the  Pennsylvania  Station2  Armsby 
found  in  experiments  with  steers,  covering  70  days,  that  from  0.4 
to  0.6  Ib.  of  digestible  protein  daily  per  1000  Ibs.  of  live  weight  was 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  equilibrium.  Contrary  to  the 
observations  of  some  of  the  earlier  investigators,  no  ill  effects  fol- 
lowed this  small  supply  of  protein.  Wintering  cattle  on  feeds  poor 
in  crude  protein— straw,  inferior  hay,  corn  stover,  etc.— as  prac- 
ticed by  many  farmers,  confirms  this  finding.  During  many  years 
of  patient  study,  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station  found  that  dairy 
cows  under  good  care  and  otherwise  liberal  feeding  would  for  long 
periods  continue  a  good  flow  of  milk  on  a  surprisingly  small  allow- 
ance of  crude  protein.  After  some  years  of  such  feeding,  however, 
their  vitality  was  so  depleted  that  they  became  physical  wrecks 
years  before  their  time.  These  studies  led  Haecker  to  raise  his 
crude  protein  standard  for  the  dairy  cow  above  his  earlier  allow- 
ance. As  elsewhere  shown,  such  allowance  is,  however,  still  below 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard.  (140)  The  proportion  of  digestible 
protein  in  a  ration  should  always  be  large  enough  to  insure  the 
proper  digestion  of  the  ration.  (60) 

It  is  a  physiological  axiom  that  protein  is  a  cell  stimulant.  Hence 
we  may  conclude  that  growing  animals  and  those  undergoing  severe 
exertion,  as  cows  in  milk,  horses  at  hard  work,  sheep  producing 
wool,  and  pregnant  animals,  need  considerably  more  digestible  crude 
protein  than  the  minimum  on  which  they  may  barely  subsist.  Tho 
the  protein  requirement  for  such  animals  is  certainly  lower  than  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards  set  forth,  it  is  highly  desirable  and  ulti- 
mately essential  that  they  be  given  a  liberal  supply  of  digestible 
crude  protein. 

3.  Fattening. 

98.  The  object  of  fattening. — According  to  Armsby,3  the  accumu- 
lation of  fatty  tissue,  as  such,  is  only  of  secondary  importance  in 

1  Ztschr.  Biol.,  5, 1869,  p.  352. 

2  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  1903,  p.  142. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  108. 


76 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


fattening,  the  main  object  being  to  otherwise  improve  the  quality 
of  the  lean  meat.  To  some  extent  during  growth,  and  especially 
during  fattening,  there  is  a  deposition  of  fat  in  the  lean-meat  tis- 
sue. A  small  portion  of  this  may  be  deposited  within  the  muscular 
fibers  themselves,  but  the  larger  part  is  stored  between  the  bundles 
of  fibers,  constituting  the  so-called  "marbling"  of  meat.  This 
deposition  of  fat  adds  to  the  tenderness,  juiciness,  flavor,  and  diges- 
tibility of  the  meat,  besides  increasing  its  nutritive  value.  It  seems 
possible  that  there  is  also  an  increase  in  the  soluble  or  circulating 
protein  and  in  other  extractives  of  the  muscles,  resulting  in  a 
further  betterment  of  the  quality  of  the  meat  as  a  secondary  advan- 
tage from  fattening. 

99.  Increase  during  fattening. — The  changes  in  the  composition 
of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  during  fattening  were  extensively 
studied  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  of  the  Rothamsted  Station1  from  anal- 
yses of  the  entire  bodies  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  pigs  slaughtered  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  fattening.  They  give  data  from  which  the  follow- 
ing table  is  derived : 

Percentage  composition  of  the  increase  of  fattening  animals. 


Animal 

Protein 

Fat 

Mineral 
matter 

Total  dry 
substance 

Water 

Ox_ 

Per  cent 

7.7 

Per  cent 
66.2 

Per  cent 
1.5 

Per  cent 
75.4 

Per  cent 
24.6 

Sheep 

7.1 

70.4 

2.3 

79.9 

20.1 

Pig- 

6.4 

71.5 

0.1 

78.0 

22.0 

In  most  cases  the  animals  studied  had  not  entirely  finished  their 
growth  when  the  tests  began.  The  table  shows  that  in  100  Ibs.  of 
live-weight  gain  made  by  the  fattening  ox,  7.7  Ibs.  was  lean-meat 
tissue,  66.2  fat,  and  1.5  mineral  matter.  In  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain  75.4 
Ibs.  was  dry  substance  and  24.6  water.  The  sheep  resembles  the  ox 
in  character  of  increase  during  fattening,  but  stores  more  mineral 
matter,  due  to  the  growth  of  wool.  The  fattening  pig  stores  very 
little  mineral  matter. 

Henneberg  and  Kern2  selected  3  mature  wethers  for  a  study  of 
the  body  changes  which  occur  during  fattening.  One  was  slaugh- 
tered at  the  beginning  of  the  trial  while  in  lean  condition;  another 
after  70  days  of  fattening  when  half  fat ;  and  the  third  at  the  end 
of  203  days  when  extra  fat,  with  results  as  follow: 

1  Phil.  Trans.,  Part  11, 1859 ;  Jour.  Boy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1860. 

2  Jour.  Land.,  26, 1878,  p.  549. 


Nutrition  Studies.  77 

Effect  of  fattening  on  the  carcasses  of  mature  sheep. 


Lean  meat 

Fat 

Lean  wether 

Lbs. 
26.2 

Lbs. 
11.9 

Half-fat  wether  

25.9 

33.2 

Extra  fat  wether 

26.7 

41.9 

It  is  shown  that,  during-  fattening,  these  mature  sheep  made  prac- 
tically no  gain  in  muscle  or  lean  meat,  the  increase  being  almost 
wholly  fat.  These  results  show  that  the  fattening  of  animals  is 
what  the  term  implies — the  laying  on  of  fat. 

100.  Factors  influencing  fattening. — The  deposition  of  fat  in  an 
animal  depends  primarily  upon  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  in 
excess  of  maintenance  and  growth  requirements.  Fattening  may 
take  place  at  any  age,  tho  the  tendency  of  young  animals  to  grow 
greatly  reduces  the  proportion  of  food  usually  available  for  that 
purpose.  Since  the  process  of  fattening  depends  upon  the  excess 
of  digested  nutrients  over  the  wants  of  the  body,  it  is  evident  that 
anything  that  decreases  the  waste  due  to  external  work  or  to  excess 
of  exercise,  and  which  lessens  the  internal  work  of  digestion  and 
assimilation,  may  aid  in  fat  formation.  Exertion  of  any  kind  in- 
creases the  oxidations  going  on  in  the  body.  Vigorous  exercise 
must  therefore  be  avoided  in  the  case  of  fattening  stock  and  milch 
cows.  Supplying  an  abundance  of  feeds  that  are  palatable,  concen- 
trated, and  largely  digestible  tends  to  rapid  fattening,  because  a 
large  surplus  of  nutrients  then  remains  after  supplying  the  body 
needs,  which  surplus  may  go  to  the  formation  of  fat. 

The  disposition  of  an  animal  to  fatten  depends  upon  breed  and 
temperament.  While  a  wild  animal,  nervous  and  active,  can  be  fat- 
tened only  with  extreme  difficulty,  domesticated  animals  are  more 
quiet  and  usually  fatten  readily.  The  restless  animal  is  rarely  a 
good  feeder,  while  the  quiet  one  which  is  inclined  to  "eat  and  lie 
down"  will  show  superior  gains.  This  is  not  due  to  difference  in 
digestive  or  assimilative  powers,  but  rather  to  the  fact  that  the 
quiet  animal  has,  from  a  given  amount  of  food,  a  greater  surplus  of 
nutrients  available  for  fat  building. 

The  oxidations  and  decompositions  taking  place  in  the  body  de- 
pend on  the  amount  of  oxygen  taken  up  by  the  blood.  The  amount 
of  oxygen  that  can  be  absorbed  by  the  blood  is  limited  by  the  quan- 
tity of  blood  and  by  its  content  of  hemoglobin,  the  characteristic 
coloring  matter  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles.  A  small  ameuat  of 


78 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


blood  and  a  small  hemoglobin  content  therefore  favor  fattening. 
Because  of  this,  in  some  parts  of  Europe  fattening  animals  are  some- 
times bled  to  hasten  the  process. 

101.  Comparative  fattening  qualities. — Lawes  and  Gilbert1  state 
that  for  the  whole  fattening  period  farm  animals  require  the  fol- 
lowing average  quantities  of  feed  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain  : 

Ox,  250  Ibs.  oil  cake,  600  Ibs.  clover  hay,  3500  Ibs.  swedes  (tur- 
nips). 

Sheep,   250  Ibs.   oil  cake,   300   Ibs.   clover  hay,  4000  Ibs.   swedes. 

Pig,  500  Ibs.  of  barley  meal. 

The  table  which  follows  is  based  on  feeding  these  allowances. 

Comparative  returns  from  the  ox,  sheep,  and  pig. 


Average  live 
weight 

Per  head  per  week 

Dry  food 
eaten 

Digested 
organic  matter 

Increase  in 
live  weight 

Dry  matter  in 
manure  and  urine 

Ox 

Lbs. 
1200 
130 
175 

Lbs. 
151 
21 

48 

Lbs. 
106 
16 
40 

Lbs. 
13.6 
2.3 
11.3 

Lbs. 
60 
7 
11 

Sheep___ 
Pig  

Per  1000  pounds  live  weight  per  week 

Required  to  produce  100  pounds 
increase 

Dry  food 
eaten 

Digested 
organic  matter 

Increase  in 
live  weight 

Dry  food 
eaten 

Digested 
organic  matter 

Ox  

Lbs. 
125 
160 
270 

Lbs. 
88 
121 
227 

Lbs. 
11.3 
17.6 
64.3 

Lbs. 
1109 
912 
420 

Lbs. 

777 
686 
353 

Sheep... 
Pig_. 

The  upper  table  shows  that  the  average  1200-lb.  fattening  ox  will 
consume  during  one  week  151  Ibs.  of  dry  food  and  gain  13.6  Ibs. 
Similar  data  follow  for  the  sheep  and  pig.  The  second  table  shows 
that  1000  Ibs.  of  fattening  ox  will  consume  about  125  Ibs.  of  dry 
food  each  week,  and  from  this  will  gain  11.3  Ibs.  in  live  weight.  In 
one  week  1000  Ibs.  of  pigs  will  gain  64.3  Ibs.,  or  nearly  6  times  as 
much,  while  consuming  220  Ibs.  of  food,  or  only  about  2.2  times  as 
much  as  does  the  ox.  The  ox  has  3.2  Ibs.  of  stomach  for  each  100 
Ibs.  live  weight,  the  sheep  2.5  Ibs.,  and  the  pig  but  0.7  Ib.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  pig  has  a  much  greater  proportion  of  intestines, 
in  which  digestion  mostly  occurs  with  this  animal.  (28)  The  pig 
requires  far  less  food  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  increase  than  either  the 

1  Warington,  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 


Nutrition  Studies. 


79 


ox  or  sheep,  but  its  food  is  much  more  concentrated  and  digestible. 
Therefore  a  smaller  proportion  is  consumed  in  the  work  of  diges- 
tion and  assimilation,  leaving  a  larger  surplus  for  producing  gain. 
102.  Returns  from  feed. — The  following  by  Jordan1  shows  the 
amount  of  food  suitable  for  man  returned  by  the  different  classes  of 
farm  animals  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter  consumed. 

Human  food  produced  ~by  farm  animals  from  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter 

consumed. 


Animal 

Marketable 
product 

Edible 
solids 

Animal 

Marketable 
product 

Edible 
solids 

Cow  (milk) 

Lbs. 
139.0 

Lbs. 
18.0 

Poultry  (egg's) 

Lbs. 
19.6 

Lbs. 
5.1 

Pig  (dressed). 

25.0 

15.6 

Poultry  (dressed)  . 

15.6 

4.2 

Cow  (cheese) 

14.8 

9.4 

Lamb  (dressed)  

9.6 

3.2 

Calf  (dressed) 

36.5 

8.1 

Steer  (dressed)  

8.3 

2.8 

Cow  (butter) 

6.4 

5.4 

Sheep  and  lamb  (dressed) 

7.0 

2.6 

The  table,  which  presents  one  side  of  a  most  complicated  problem, 
shows  that  for  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  nutrients  consumed : 

The  cow  yields  about  139  Ibs.  of  milk,  containing  18  Ibs.  of  solids, 
practically  all  digestible. 

The  pig  produces  about  25  Ibs.  of  dressed  carcass.  Allowing  for 
water,  bone,  and  gristle,  there  remains  over  15  Ibs.  of  edible  dry 
meat. 

The  steer  and  sheep  yield  less  than  10  Ibs.  of  dressed  carcass, 
nearly  half  of  which  is  water.  Deducting  this  and  the  bone  and 
gristle,  there  remains  only  from  2.6  to  3.2  Ibs.  of  water-free  edible 
meat. 

The  cow  easily  leads  all  farm  animals  in  her  power  to  convert  the 
crops  of  the  field  into  human  food,  with  the  pig  second,  poultry  fol- 
lowing, and  the  steer  and  sheep  coming  lowest. 

1  The  Feeding  of  Animals. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PKODUCTION  OF  HEAT  AND  WOEK. 

Science  teaches  that  no  energy  is  ever  lost.  The  various  forms 
of  energy,  whether  latent  energy  or  that  of  electricity,  light,  heat, 
or  motion,  may  all  be  changed  one  into  the  other,  but  no  loss  of 
total  energy  ever  occurs.  Food  consumed  by  the  animal  contains 
latent  energy  derived  from  the  sun.  When  complex  food  nutrients 
or  body  tissues  are  decomposed  or  broken  down  in  the  body  into 
simple  compounds,  this  latent  energy  is  released  as  active  muscular 
energy  or  as  heat.  Thus  all  the  energy  used  by  the  animal  in  main- 
taining its  body  temperature,  and  in  the  performance  both  of  the 
internal  work  of  the  body  and  of  all  external  work,  is  derived  in- 
directly from  the  energy  of  the  sun. 

I.  HEAT. 

103.  Body  temperature. — Cold-blooded  animals  maintain  their 
bodies  at  but  little  above  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  or 
water.  With  warm-blooded  animals  the  body  temperature  is  usually 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air  and  quite  independent  of  it.  The 
normal  body  temperature  of  the  principal  farm  animals  is  as  fol- 
lows r1 

Deg-.  Cent.  Deg.  Fahr. 

Horse..                                                                     36.9-38.2  98.4-100.8 

Ox                                                                 38.0-39.3  100.4-102.8 

Sheep 38.4-41.0  101.3-105.8 

Pig 38.2-40.7  100.9-105.4 

The  wide  difference  between  the  normal  temperatures  of  differ- 
ent animals  of  the  same  species  is  remarkable,  and  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  the  sheep.  The  temperature  of  the  indi- 
vidual animal  may  vary  within  narrow  limits  even  when  the  animal 
is  perfectly  healthy,  but  a  variation  of  even  1  degree  from  normal 
with  any  farm  animal  generally  indicates  some  bodily  derangement. 

A  high  stable  temperature  for  animals  increases  the  amount  of 
water  drank,  induces  sweating,  and  leads  to  loss  of  appetite.  Too 
low  a  temperature  is  likewise  objectionable,  since  more  food  is 
needed  to  maintain  the  heat  of  the  body.  Animals  that  are  being 
wintered  over  and  are  merely  holding  their  own,  dairy  cows,  young 

1  Smith,  Man.  Vet.  PhysioL,  p.  339. 

80 


Production  of  Heat  and  Work.  81 

and  tender  animals,  and  those  with  thin  coats  need  more  shelter 
and  a  higher  stable  temperature  than  mature  heavily-coated  animals 
or  those  laying  on  fat.  Over  large  portions  of  America,  particu- 
larly in  the  West,  where  there  is  much  sunshine  and  but  scant  pre- 
cipitation during  winter,  mature  and  fattening  animals  thrive  in 
the  open  if  protected  from  the  wind.  Animals  exposed  to  cold  rains 
or  snow  not  only  suffer  therefrom  but  require  more  food,  because 
the  cold  water  which  falls  on  them  must  be  warmed  and  evaporated 
from  their  bodies  by  heat  generated  thru  the  burning  of  food. 

104.  Heat  production. — Heat  is  produced  by  all  the  decomposi- 
tions or  oxidations  occurring  in  the  body,  whether  in  the  muscular 
tissues,  the  alimentary  tract,  or  the  glands.  Air  breathed  into  the 
lungs  brings  oxygen  to  the  blood.  Floating  in  the  blood  are  myr- 
iads of  microscopic  bodies  called  red  corpuscles.  These  contain 
hemoglobin  in  which  there  is  iron,  the  latter  giving  to  blood  its  red 
color.  The  hemoglobin  absorbs  the  inspired  oxygen  and  holds  it 
loosely.  The  oxygen-laden  blood,  as  it  permeates  the  capillary  sys- 
tem, gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the  cells  of  the  tissues,  where  it  is  used 
for  the  combustion  of  a  portion  of  the  body  nutrients  with  the  re- 
sult that  heat  is  formed.  Unlike  the  burning  of  fuel  in  a  stove,  the 
oxidations  in  the  body  take  place  at  a  low  temperature.  In  the 
case  of  combustion  in  the  body  where  before  there  were  glucoses, 
fats,  and  proteins  in  the  tissues,  there  now  remain  carbonic  acid  gas, 
water,  and  urea,  the  latter  substance  representing  the  principal 
nitrogenous  waste  of  the  protein  nutrients. 

So  long  as  there  is  a  normal  supply  of  oxygen  the  rate  of  burn- 
ing of  the  food  nutrients  is  independent  of  the  supply  of  air,  but  is 
under  the  control  of  the  nervous  system.  The  muscular  work  which 
necessarily  accompanies  enforced  breathing  leads  to  some  increase 
in  oxidation  and  consequently  to  increased  heat  production.  An  in- 
creased supply  of  oxygen  does  not  of  itself,  however,  lead  to  in- 
creased oxidation.  In  this  respect  body  oxidations  differ  radically 
from  ordinary  fuel  combustion,  where  the  rate  of  burning  is  almost 
proportional  to  the  oxygen  supply.  All  the  energy  expended  in  the 
various  form  of  internal  work  of  the  body  appear  as  heat,  a  consid- 
erable amount  being  thus  evolved.  Most  of  the  heat  generated 
within  the  body  is  produced  in  the  muscular  tissues,  four-fifths  of 
the  heat  produced  daily  in  the  human  body  being  there  generated. 
The  muscles  are  not  always  actively  contracting,  yet  heat  is  always 
being  produced  in  them.  This  production  of  heat  in  the  muscles  is 
under  the  control  of  the  nervous  system.  The  heat  produced  in  the 

7 


82  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

different  parts  of  the  body  is  more  or  less  equalized,  chiefly  by  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  Generally,  however,  the  temperature  of 
the  body  in  its  different  parts  varies  somewhat  according  to  the 
activities  of  the  parts. 

An  increase  in  the  amount  of  work  performed  will  result  in  an 
increased  production  of  heat  within  the  body.  All  the  heat  gen- 
erated within  the  animal  body  is,  as  it  were,  a  by-product  of  inter- 
nal or  external  work,  but  is  available  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
body  temperature.  Some  eminent  physiologists  hold  that  the 
amount  of  heat  evolved  in  the  production  of  internal  and  external 
work  is  sufficient  to  warm  the  body  under  all  conditions,  and  that 
there  is  no  production  of  heat  in  the  body  to  simply  keep  it  warm. 
Convincing  proof  of  this  theory  is  lacking,  and  it  seems  reasonable 
to  believe,  as  do  many  eminent  scientists,  that,  at  least  when  there 
is  an  unusual  demand  for  heat,  caused  by  a  low  external  tempera- 
ture, the  heat  generated  as  a  result  of  internal  and  external  work 
is  not  sufficient,  and  food  or  body  tissue  is  burned  up  for  the  direct 
and  sole  purpose  of  warming  the  body. 

105.  Heat  regulation. — As  heat  is  constantly  being  produced  in 
the  body,  if  means  were  not  provided  for  its  escape  and  for  the  regu- 
lation of  body  temperature,  the  temperature  would  steadily  rise 
until  the  animal  was  destroyed.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  horse 
at  rest  produces  sufficient  heat  in  two  days  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  body  to  the  boiling  point.1  However,  the  body  possesses 
means  for  controlling  both  the  production  and  the  loss  of  heat,  this 
twofold  heat  regulation  being  under  the  control  of  the  nervous 
system. 

The  production  of  heat  in  the  body  is  regulated  by  increasing  or 
decreasing  the  oxidations  taking  place  therein,  this  regulation  be- 
ing known  as  chemical  regulation.  Heat  production  is  controlled 
more  or  less  voluntarily  by  regulating  the  exercise  taken  and  the 
amount  of  food  consumed.  The  degree  of  external  heat  or  cold  also 
causes  an  involuntary  rise  or  fall  in  the  amount  of  heat  produced 
in  the  body.  For  instance,  as  a  result  of  nervous  stimuli  more  fuel 
is  burned  in  the  body  during  extreme  cold  than  normally. 

The  second  means  of  heat  regulation,  called  physical  regulation, 
is  by  controlling  the  amount  of  heat  lost  from  the  body.  This  is 
accomplished  in  part  by  varying  the  distribution  of  the  blood  on  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  thus  controlling  the  amount  of  heat  lost 
from  the  skin  by  radiation  and  conduction.  The  loss  of  heat  is 

1  Smith,  Man.  of  Vet.  Physiol.,  p.  343. 


Production  of  Heat  and  Work.  83 

further  regulated  by  the  production  of  sweat  and  the  vaporization 
of  water  from  the  lungs.  The  clothing  of  man  and  the  thick  skin, 
hair,  wool,  and  feathers  of  animals  also  check  and  control  the  loss 
of  heat. 

According  to  Howell,1  the  heat  lost  from  the  human  body  escapes 
as  follows : 

Heat  lost 
Avenue  of  escape  Per  ct. 

By  urine  and  feces 1.8 

By  warming  expired  air 3.5 

By  vaporizing  water  from  lungs 7.2 

By  evaporation  of  water  from  skin 14.5 

By  radiation  and  conduction  from  skin 73.0 

Total 100.0 

The  relative  importance  of  these  channels  of  heat  loss  depends 
upon  various  conditions  and  upon  the  species  of  animal.  Animals 
that  do  not  sweat  give  off  more  heat  by  the  lungs  and  less  by  the 
skin.  In  proportion  to  their  weight  small  animals  lose  relatively 
more  heat  by  radiation  than  do  larger  ones  of  the  same  species.  (96) 
High  external  temperature  tends  to  diminish  the  loss  by  radiation 
and  increase  that  due  to  evaporation  from  the  skin  or  vaporization 
from  the  lungs.  Violent  exercise  calls  for  the  rapid  burning  of 
food  and  tissue  fuel,  with  a  consequent  increase  of  body  heat.  This 
heat  passes  off  by  the  more  rapid  breathing  and  by  the  increased 
losses  from  the  skin. 

In  humans  the  loss  of  heat  is  largely  controlled  by  the  clothing 
worn.  As  a  consequence,  man  has,  in  some  measure,  lost  his  power 
of  heat  regulation.  With  many  of  the  warm-blooded  animals,  how- 
ever, the  reverse  is  true,  as  is  admirably  shown  by  the  following 
table  of  Rubner2  giving  the  heat  lost  by  a  small  dog  before  and  after 
the  removal  of  his  coat  of  long  hair. 

Loss  of  heat  by  a  dog  before  and  after  being  shaved. 


Heat  lost  per  Ib.  live  weight 

Temperature  of  the  air 

Normal  coat 

Coat  shaved  off 

Degrees  F. 

Cal. 

Cal. 

68 

25.4 

37.4 

77 

24.6 

27.8 

86 

25.5 

23.6 

The  table  shows  that  the  coat  of  the  dog  prevented  the  loss  of  heat 
from  his  body,  so  that  no  more  heat  was  lost  at  a  temperature  of 

1  Text  Book  of  Physiol.,  1907,  p.  861. 

2  Gesetze  des  Energieverbrauchs,  1902,  p.  14. 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


68°  F.  than  at  86°  F.  When  he  was  clipped,  the  loss  of  heat  from 
his  body  rose  from  23.6  to  37.4  Calories,  an  increase  of  58  per  ct. 
To  cover  the  increased  heat  loss  at  the  lower  temperature,  an  in- 
crease in  the  rate  of  combustion  or  burning  of  fuel  in  the  body  was 
produced  thru  the  nervous  system  by  the  sensation  of  chill. 

II.  WORK. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  muscular  exertion  or  external  body 
work  greatly  increases  the  amount  of  food  material  burned  or 
broken  down  in  the  body,  but  scientists  have  disagreed  widely  as  to 
whether  one  or  all  of  the  three  classes  of  nutrients — protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, or  fat — furnishes  the  energy.  Liebig  held  that  the  pro- 
tein of  the  muscular  tissues  was  the  only  material  broken  down  in 
producing  the  voluntary  and  involuntary  motions  of  the  body, 
whether  of  the  limbs,  heart,  or  other  viscera. 

106.  Waste  of  protein  tissues  during  work.— That  protein  is. not 
an  important  source  of  body  energy  was  shown  by  Professors  Fick 
and  Wislicenus,1  who  in  1865  ascended  the  Faulhorn,  an  Alpine 
mountain.  While  ascending  the  mountain  these  investigators  con- 
sumed only  non-protein  food,  i.  e.  starch,  sugar,  and  fat,  and  during 
this  time  they  collected  all  the  urine  passed.  The  amount  of  nitro- 
gen excreted  in  the  urine  during  the  trial  follows : 

Nitrogen  excretions  during  mountain  climbing. 


Total  nitrogen  excreted 

Nitrogen  excreted  per  hour 
(average) 

Fick 

Wislicenus 

Fick 

Wislicenus 

Night  before  ascent. 
During'  ascent 

Grams 
6.92 
3.31 
,   2.43 

4.82 

Grams 
6.68 
3.13 
2.42 
5.35 

Grams 
0.63 
0.41 
0.40 
0.45 

Grams 
0.61 
0.39 
0.40 
0.51 

After  ascent 

Night  after  ascent.  _ 

The  table  shows  that  only  about  two-thirds  as  much  nitrogen  was 
excreted  per  hour  during  and  immediately  after  the  climb  as  prior 
to  it,  when  there  was  more  or  less  residue  in  the  system  from  the 
previous  meal  containing  protein.  Had  the  nitrogenous  tissues  or 
the  muscles  of  the  body  been  broken  down  directly  in  proportion  to 
the  labor  performed,  there  would  have  been  a  large  increase  in  the 
nitrogen  excretion  during  and  following  this  fatiguing  work;  but 

1  Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1895 ;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agrv  Office  of  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  22. 


Production  of  Heat  and  Work.  85 

such  was  not  the  case.  Measured  by  the  nitrogen  in  the  urine,  the 
protein  broken  down  during  the  trial  could  not  possibly  have  fur- 
nished energy  for  more  than  one-third  of  the  work  done  by  these 
men  in  lifting  their  bodies  to  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

From  this  trial  and  experiments  by  Voit,  Pettenkof  sr,  and  Parks, 
it  was  decided  that  only  carbohydrates  and  fats  were  oxidized  and 
burned  in  the  production  of  muscular  energy.  Still  later  experi- 
ments by  Argutinsky,  Zuntz,  and  others  have  shown  that  when 
carbohydrates  and  fat  are  sufficient  in  amount  they  furnish  all  the 
muscular  energy,  and  in  such  cases  the  breaking  down  of  protein  is 
not  increased  during  work.  However,  if  the  supply  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fat  in  the  food  is  insufficient,  some  of  the  energy  for  the 
production  of  work  may  be  furnished  thru  the  breaking  down  of 
protein,  with  a  resultant  increase  in  the  nitrogen  excretion  in  the 
urine. 

107.  Excretion  of  carbon  dioxid.— Whether  the  material  burned 
to  furnish  muscular  energy  be  carbohydrates,  fat,  or  the  non-nitrog- 
enous part  of  the  protein  molecule,  carbonic  acid  gas  will  be  pro- 
duced, the  quantity  directly  depending  upon  the  amount  of  work 
done.     This  was  shown  by  Smith,1  who  determined  the  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  exhaled  by  the  horse  when  at  rest  and  perform- 
ing labor  as  follows  : 

Cubic  feet 
Form  of  work  per  hour 

At  rest.  _  1.03 

Walking 1.10 

Trotting 2.95 

Cantering 4.92 

Galloping 14.97 

Thus,  unlike  the  nitrogen  excretion,  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid 
exhaled  per  hour  is  increased  by  the  performance  of  work,  and  de- 
pends upon  the  work  done  in  that  time. 

108.  Production  of  muscular  energy. — We  know  that  in  doing 
work  the  muscles  of  the  body  contract,  that  is,  become  shorter  and 
thicker.     Yet  in  spite  of  all  the  study  of  scientists  we  do  not  yet 
know  definitely  the  direct  cause  of  muscular  contraction.     In  just 
what  manner  the  energy  stored  in  the  food  is  converted  into  the 
energy  of  muscular  action  is  still  an  unsolved  question.     We  do 
know,  however,  some  of  the  processes  which  take  place  in  the  work- 
ing muscles. 

The  most  significant  change  which  takes  place  during  muscular 
contraction  is  the  increased  production  of  carbon  dioxid  already 

1  Jour.  Physiol.,  1890,  No.  1 ;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  22. 


86  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

noted,  which  seems  to  bear  a  definite  relation  to  the  amount  of  in- 
ternal and  external  work  performed.  There  is  also  a  large  increase 
in  the  amount  of  oxygen  taken  up  by  the  muscles  from  the  blood 
during  work.  The  increase  in  oxygen  consumed  and  carbon  dioxid 
given  off  might  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  activity  of  the  mus- 
cle during  contraction  is  due  to  simple  oxidation,  such  as  occurs 
when  fuel  is  burned.  Certain  facts  which  cannot  be  dwelt  upon 
here  lead  scientists,  however,  to  believe  that  the  chemical  changes  by 
which  energy  is  liberated  are  not  simple  oxidations,  but  are  more  in 
the  nature  of  sudden  decompositions  or  cleavages  of  some  complex 
substance  or  substances  built  up  in  the  muscle  during  rest,  carbon 
dioxid  being  evolved  in  such  cleavage.1  Part  of  the  energy  liber- 
ated in  this  decomposition  appears  as  heat,  and  another  part  as  me- 
chanical work. 

Glycogen,  or  animal  starch,  is  stored  in  the  muscle  during  rest, 
forming  between  0.5  and  0.9  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  well-nourished 
muscle  in  the  resting  condition.  (52)  A  smaller  quantity  of  glu- 
cose is  also  found  in  the  muscular  tissues.  During  muscular  activ- 
ity, this  stored  glycogen  and  glucose  disappear  more  or  less  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  and  duration  of  the  contractions,  so  that  after 
prolonged  muscular  activity  or  hard  work  the  supply  may  be  en- 
tirely exhausted.  Tho  the  amount  of  these  carbohydrates  in  the 
body  tissues  at  any  one  time  is  small,  the  supply,  especially  of  glu- 
cose, is  being  continuously  produced  from  the  food  nutrients  or 
body  tissues  to  replace  that  oxidized  in  the  production  of  work.  As 
the  larger  part  of  the  food  of  farm  animals  consists  of  carbohy- 
drates, the  oxidation  of  the  glucose  formed  from  them  probably  fur- 
nishes most  of  the  energy  for  the  production  of  heat  and  work  by 
these  animals. 

To  supply  the  muscles  with  the  necessary  oxygen  and  also  carry 
away  the  waste  products  formed  during  muscular  exertion,  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  must  be  hastened  and  larger  quantities  of  air 
be  taken  in  by  the  lungs. 

109.  Source  of  muscular  energy.— All  the  organic  nutrients  ab- 
sorbed from  the  food,  not  only  the  carbohydrates  and  fats,  but  also 
the  proteins  and  apparently  the  pentosans,  serve  as  the  source  of  en- 
ergy to  the  body.  Under  normal  conditions  the  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  and  the  glycogen  are  first  drawn  upon  for  the  produc- 
tion of  work,  no  more  protein  being  broken  down  than  during  mus- 
cular rest.  If  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  do  not  suffice  for  the 

1  Armsby,  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  1903,  p.  187. 


Production  of  Heat  and  Work.  87 

production  of  muscular  energy,  then  the  body  fat  is  next  drawn 
upon  for  this  purpose.  If  this  is  insufficient  in  amount  or  is  much 
diminished  by  continued  work,  then  as  the  last  resort  the  protein 
tissues  or  muscles  will  be  called  upon  to  furnish  the  needed  energy. 

110.  Relative  value  of  nutrients.— Investigations  by  Zuntz  and  his 
associates  have  clearly  shown  that  the  value  of  each  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  food  nutrients  for  the  production  of  work  depends 
upon  the  total  energy  it  contains.     In  one  experiment1  the  diet  of 
a  man  turning  a  wheel  consisted,  during  separate  periods,  chiefly 
of  either  fat,  carbohydrates,  or  protein.     For  1  kgm.  of  work  the 
following  amounts  of  energy  were  expended : 

Energ-y  expended 

Period         Nutrient  eaten  per  kgm.  of  work 

Cal. 

I  Protein 11.92 

II  Carbohydrate 11.54 

III  Fat 9.53 

IV  Protein 10.78 

V  Fat 9.25 

It  is  shown  that  approximately  the  same  fuel  rations  were  re- 
quired to  produce  a  given  amount  of  work  whether  the  fuel  was 
protein,  carbohydrates,  or  fat.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  energy 
expended  was  less  in  the  last  trials  on  account  of  the  proficiency 
which  had  been  attained  in  the  work. 

111.  Energy  requirements  for  work.— The  total  energy  required 
to  produce  a  certain  amount  of  external  work  depends  upon  many 
factors.     Experiments  by  Zuntz2  with  the  horse  show  that  an  in- 
crease in  the  speed  at  which  work  is  performed  results  in  an  in- 
creased expenditure  of  energy  per  unit  of  work.     Practice  in  per- 
forming a  certain  work  lessens  the  energy  expenditure  for  that  par- 
ticular form  of  labor.    In  experiments  upon  himself  Gruber3  found 
that  in  climbing  a  tower  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  exhaled  and 
hence  the  energy  expended  was  decreased  by  20  per  ct.  after  train- 
ing  for   2   weeks.      In   experiments  by   Lowy*   on   himself,   and   by 
Zuntz5  upon  horses,  fatigue  caused  an  increase  of  from  14  to  41  per 
ct.  in  the  amount  of  energy  expended  in  performing  a  given  amount 
of  work.     This  increased  expenditure  of  energy  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that  with  increasing  fatigue  the  muscles  normally  called 
into  use,  which  are  the  most  efficient  in  performing  the  given  work. 

1  Arch.  Physiol.  (Pfliiger),  83, 1901,  p.  564. 

2  Landw.  Jahrb.,  27, 1898,  tSup.  III. 

3  Ztschr.  Biol.,  38, 1891,  p.  466. 

4  Arch.  Physiol.  (Pfliiger),  49, 1891,  p.  413. 
6  Loc.  cit. 


88  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

are  put  out  of  use  and  other  less  used  muscles  are  called  upon  to  a 
constantly  increasing  degree.  These  muscles  cannot  perform  the 
work  so  efficiently  or  economically. 

The  part  of  the  expended  energy  appearing  in  useful  work  varies 
in  accordance  with  the  build  of  the  animal,  the  development  of  its 
muscular  apparatus,  and  the  structure  of  its  extremities  which 
bring  about  the  work.  Zuntz  found  great  variations  in  the  energy 
expended  by  different  horses  of  the  same  weight  in  traveling  upon 
a  level  track,  a  lame  horse  expending  99  per  ct.  more  energy  than  a 
sound  one.  In  the  work  of  climbing  a  grade  he  found  a  variation 
with  different  horses  of  as  much  as  52  per  ct.  in  the  proportion  of 
the  total  energy  expended  which  appeared  as  useful  work.  An  ani- 
mal which  is  able  to  accomplish  one  form  of  work  most  economically 
may  have  to  expend  an  unusual  amount  of  energy  at  other  kinds  of 
work.  Horses  bred  for  generations  to  the  saddle  can  carry  the 
rider  with  smaller  expenditure  of  energy  than  those  whose  breed- 
ing, form,  and  qualities  specially  fit  them  for  draft  purposes. 

Certain  forms  of  labor  are  performed  with  greater  economy  of 
energy  than  others.  Katzensstein1  found  in  experiments  with  men 
that  about  65  per  ct.  more  energy  was  used  in  turning  a  wheel  a 
given  number  of  times  with  the  arms  than  was  required  when  the 
same  work  was  done  with  the  legs. 

112.  The  animal  as  a  machine.— The  extensive  investigations  by 
Zuntz  and  associates  with  men,  dogs,  and  horses  show  that  aside 
from  small  variations,  due  to  the  nature  of  the  work  and  other  fac- 
tors, the  part  of  the  energy  expended  which  is  actually  transformed 
into  external  work  is  quite  constant  for  each  class.  With  animals 
at  moderate  work  the  part  of  the  energy  which  appeared  in  exter- 
nal work  varied  from  28.8  to  36.6  per  ct.  of  the  total  energy  ex- 
pended. On  the  average  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  with  men  and 
animals  about  one-third  of  the  energy  consumed  in  muscular  ex- 
ertion is  recovered  as  external  work.  The  rest  takes  the  form  of 
heat  within  the  body,  and  is  lost  so  far  as  the  production  of  work  is 
concerned.  This  does  not  take  into  account  the  energy  lost  in  the 
excreta,  nor  that  expended  for  digestion,  assimilation,  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  body  during  rest.  Atwater2  found  that  a  man 
returned  19.6  per  ct.  of  the  fuel  value  of  his  food  as  external  work. 
The  best  steam  engines  have  about  the  same  efficiency,  while  the 
average  engine  falls  below  10  per  ct.  Gasoline  engines  range  in 
efficiency  from  18  to  25  per  ct.  Thus  as  a  mere  machine  the  animal 

1  Wolff,  Farm  Foods,  p.  81  2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  136. 


Production  of  Heat  and  Work.  89 

body  compares  favorably  with  the  best  modern  engines.  In  addi- 
tion to  performing  external  work  the  body  must  prepare  its  own 
fuel,  store  and  transport  it  until  needed,  make  all  repairs,  and  main- 
tain a  definite  temperature,  as  well  as  direct,  move,  and  control 
itself.  When  all  these  functions  are  considered,  the  marvelous 
perfection  of  the  animal  body  as  a  machine  becomes  apparent. 

113.  The  body  not  a  heat  machine.— The  animal  body  is  not  an 
engine  which  converts  heat  into  mechanical  work.  As  Armsby1 
points  out,  the  mechanical  work  of  a  steam  engine  is  derived  di- 
rectly from  the  heat  produced  by  the  burning  coal,  but  in  the  ani- 
mal body  the  energy  of  the  food  is  transformed  into  work  in  quite 
another  way.  While  the  fuel  value  of  a  food  represents  the  total 
amount  of  energy  it  can  liberate  in  the  body,  a  varying  part  of  this 
total  energy  is  always  set  free  in  the  body  as  heat,  and  this  heat 
can  do  no  external  work,  tho  it  warms  the  body.  Only  that  part 
of  the  food  energy  which  is  liberated  in  other  forms  than  heat  can 
be  utilized  for  the  production  of  either  internal  or  external  work. 
By  processes  still  unknown  the  animal  machine  produces  muscular 
energy,  heat,  light,  and  electricity  with  an  efficiency  greater  than 
any  machine  made  by  man.  With  animals  the  fuel  is  burned  at 
low  temperature.  The  glow  worm  and  firefly  produce  light  with- 
out sensible  loss  of  heat  or  other  energy,  and  the  torpedo  fish  and 
electric  eel  generate  electricity  by  means  unknown.  Scientists  and 
inventors  alike  are  baffled  by  the  mysterious  and  wonderful  pro- 
cesses continuously  occurring  in  the  animal  body. 

As  the  horse  is  the  principal  animal  machine  for  performing 
work,  this  subject  is  appropriately  continued  in  Chapter  XVII. 

1  Penn.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  84. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


MISCELLANEOUS   STUDIES  BEAKING  ON  NUTKITION  PKOB- 

LEMS. 

114.  Wide  and  narrow  rations.— At  the  Maine  Station1  Jordan 
studied  the  influence  of  a  ration  rich  in  crude  protein  and  of  one 
poor  in  crude  protein  on  the  rate  of  growth  and  character  of  the 
flesh  formed  by  growing  steers.  Four  high-grade  Shorthorn  steer 
calves,  from  5  to  7  months  old  when  the  trial  began,  were  used. 
Two  were  fed  a  liberal  ration  rich  in  crude  protein,  while  the 
others  received  one  equally  ample  in  total  nutrients,  but  poorer 
in  crude  protein.  One  steer  in  each  lot  was  slaughtered  at  the 
end  of  17  months  and  the  remaining  two  at  the  end  of  27  months, 
all  carcasses  being  analyzed  to  determine  whether  any  difference 
existed  therein.  The  concentrates  fed  were  as  follows : 


Lot  I. 
Narrow  ration 
Linseed  meal,  2  parts. 
Corn  meal,  1  part. 
Wheat  bran,  1  part. 

Nutritive  ratio,  1:5.2. 


Lot  II. 
Wide  ration 
Corn  meal,  2  parts. 
Wheat  bran,  1  part. 

Nutritive  ratio,  1:9.7. 


The  roughage,  the  same  for  all,  consisted  mostly  of  timothy  hay, 
some  corn  fodder  and  corn  silage  being  fed  during  the  first  win- 
ter only.  It  is  seen  that  Lot  I  received  a  narrow  ration,  rich  in 
crude  protein  and  mineral  matter,  while  Lot  II  was  fed  a  wide 
ration  with  much  less,  tho  sufficient,  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
Both  lots  were  liberally  fed,  tho  there  was  no  attempt  to  force 
growth. 

Results  of  feeding  wide  and  narrow  rations  to  growing  steers. 


Total 

Dig-estible 
matter  for 

Composition  of  entire  body  except  skin 

gain 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Steer  fed  17  months 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

On  narrow  ration. 

737 

495 

59.02 

17.89 

18.53 

4.56 

On  wide  ration  ___ 

552 

686 

56.30 

17.82 

20.27 

5.61 

Steer  fed  27  months 

On  narrow  ration. 

962 

773 

51.91 

16.93 

25.  86 

5.30 

On  wide  ration  ___ 

1005 

708 

52.16 

17.10 

25.  32 

5.42 

1  Kpt.  1895. 


90 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems.  91 

The  table  shows  that  during  the  first  17  months  the  steer  on  the 
narrow  ration  gained  185  Ibs.  more  than  the  other  on  the  wider 
one  and  that  a  given  gain  was  made  on  less  feed.  The  carcasses 
of  both  steers  showed  practically  the  same  percentage  of  protein 
or  lean-meat  tissue,  while  that  of  the  one  getting  the  narrow  ra- 
tion had  more  water  and  less  fat  and  ash.  Of  the  steers  fed  27 
months,  the  one  on  the  wide  ration  made  the  larger  total  gain  and 
required  less  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  water,  protein,  and 
ash  in  the  bodies  of  these  2  steers  were  practically  the  same.  Thus 
it  appears  that  when  there  is  fed  a  ration  as  wide  as  1 :  9.7,  pro- 
vided it  contains  sufficient  crude  protein  for  the  demands  of  the 
body,  the  animal  fed  thereon  will  conserve  and  utilize  the  nutri- 
ents in  such  manner  as  to  make  economically  a  normal  growth 
in  all  particulars.  Giving  an  excess  of  protein  does  not  lead  to 
any  material  increase  in  the  size  or  weight  of  the  muscular  tissues, 
but  rather  to  a  storage  of  somewhat  less  fat  and  more  water,  espe- 
cially with  young  animals. 

From  these  and  other  data  we  may  conclude  that  rations  hav- 
ing a  narrow  nutritive  ratio  are  conducive  to  the  rapid  growth  and 
fine  general  appearance  of  the  young,  growing  animal.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  body  is  partly  or  largely  grown,  the  largest 
gains,  which  are  then  mostly  fat,  come  from  liberal  feeding  with 
rations  which  are  rich  in  digestible  carbohydrates  and  rather  lim- 
ited in  crude  protein — in  other  words,  having  a  comparatively  wide 
nutritive  ratio. 

115.  Exclusive  corn  feeding.— In  1884  Sanborn  of  the  Missouri 
Agricultural  College1  conducted  studies  in  which  growing  pigs  fed 
exclusively  on  corn  meal  were  compared  with  others  fed  on  corn 
meal  and  either  wheat  middlings  or  dried  blood.  The  corn-meal 
ration  furnished  an  abundance  of  easily  digested  carbohydrates  and 
fat,  but  was  deficient  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter.  The 
addition  of  dried  blood  or  wheat  middlings  to  corn  meal  formed  a 
ration  rich  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter  as  well  as  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat.  Sanborn  showed  that,  compared  with  the  corn- 
fed  pigs,  those  getting  rations  rich  in  crude  protein  had  a  larger 
muscular  development  and  more  blood,  and  that  some  of  their  in- 
ternal organs  were  larger. 

Realizing  the  fundamental  importance  of  Sanborn 's  studies,  the 
author  conducted  numerous  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station2  in 
which  dried  blood,  wheat  middlings,  field  peas,  and  skim  milk,  with 

1  Buls.  10,  14,  19.  2Kpts.  1886,  '87,  '88,  '89. 


92  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

or  without  corn  meal,  were  fed  in  opposition  to  corn  meal  alone. 
Shelton  of  the  Kansas  Station1  fed  pigs  a  mixture  of  wheat  shorts 
and  wheat  bran  in  opposition  to  corn  meal,  potatoes,  and  tallow. 
At  the  Alabama  Station2  Duggar  fed  cowpeas,  which  are  rich  in 
crude  protein,  against  corn  meal.  In  France  Fortier3  duplicated 
a  trial  by  the  author,  feeding  skim  milk,  dried  blood,  and  wheat 
middlings  in  opposition  to  corn  meal.  Thus  at  5  widely  separated 
points  pigs  were  fed  rations  rich  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  mat- 
ter, usually  containing  some  corn  meal,  in  opposition  to  corn  meal 
alone,  which  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  fat  but  low  in  crude 
protein  and  mineral  matter.  The  table  on  the  next  page  summarizes 
the  findings  of  two  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  and  one  at  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion, these  being  typical  of  all. 

The  upper  division  of  the  table  shows  that  the  pigs  fed  rations 
rich  in  crude  protein  made  heavier  gains,  and  also  that  the  weight 
of  their  blood,  livers,  kidneys,  etc.,  was  greater  than  that  of  others 
fed  rations  poor  in  crude  protein.  The  tenderloin  muscles  were 
dissected  from  the  carcasses  and  weighed,  and  the  thigh  bones  were 
dissected  from  the  hams  and  their  relative  breaking  strength  de- 
termined. As  the  pigs  were  of  different  weights  at  the  time  of 
slaughter,  the  second  division  of  the  table  is  given  to  show  the 
weights  of  the  different  organs  and  parts  in  percentages  of  dressed 
carcass.  It  is  shown  that  the  carcasses  of  the  pigs  getting  the 
rations  rich  in  crude  protein  shrank  more  than  those  getting  the 
corn-meal  rations,  in  part  due  to  the  larger  amount  of  blood  and 
heavier  livers  and  other  organs  of  the  pigs  fed  the  heavy  crude 
protein  ration,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  nitrogenous  rations 
produced  more  watery  tissues. 

In  the  first  Wisconsin  trial  the  pigs  getting  milk,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, and  dried  blood  had  over  54  oz.,  or  nearly  3.5  Ibs.,  of 
blood  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  dressed  carcass,  while  those  getting  only 
corn  meal  had  less  than  42  oz.,  or  but  little  over  2.5  Ibs.  The  livers 
and  kidneys  of  the  pigs  fed  the  rations  rich  in  crude  protein  were 
in  all  cases  relatively  heavier.  The  tenderloin  muscles,  lying  along 
the  back,  were  also  relatively  heavier,  showing  that  a  superior  mus- 
cular development  was  associated  with  the  larger  internal  organs, 
more  blood,  etc.  The  corn-fed  pigs,  on  the  other  hand,  had  stored 
more  fat,  as  the  proportion  of  leaf  lard  shows. 

1  Bui.  9.      2  Bui.  82.     3  Ext.  Trav.  Soc.  Cent,  d '  Agr.,  Dept.  Seine-Inf .,  1889, 1890. 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems. 


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Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  strength  of-  the  thigh  bones  was  determined  in  the  following 
manner:  The  two  rounded,  iron  supporting  edges  of  a  machine 
used  for  testing  the  breaking  strength  of  materials  were  set  four 
inches  apart.  On  these  a  thigh  bone  was  placed,  the  rounded  edge 
of  the  breaking-bar  pressing  down  on  the  bone  from  above,  mid- 
way of  its  length.  The  downward  pressure  was  gradually  in- 
creased, being  measured  by  the  tilting  beam  of  the  machine.  Under 
the  steadily  increasing  pressure  the  bone  finally  broke,  its  resist- 
ance at  the  time  of  breaking  being  recorded.  The  trials  showed 
that  the  pigs  fed  the  ration  rich  in  crude  protein  had  the  strongest 
bones.  In  the  first  Wisconsin  trial,  as  the  table  shows,  the  bones 
of  the  corn-fed  pigs  broke  at  an  average  pressure  of  380  Ibs.  for 
each  100  Ibs.  of  carcass,  while  those  of  the  pigs  fed  milk,  dried 
blood,  and  middlings  broke  at  about  500  Ibs.— a  difference  of  32  per 
ct.  in  favor  of  the  pigs  getting  the  ration  rich  in  crude  protein. 
Analyses  of  the  organs  and  parts  of  the  pigs  used  in  the  second 
Wisconsin  trial  showed  further  that  the  corn-fed  pigs  had  propor- 
tionately less  dry  matter  in  their  blood  and  kidneys  and  a  smaller 
amount  of  dry  lean-meat  tissue  than  those  on  the  narrow  ration. 

Later  investigations  show  that  the  differences  produced  by  the 
exclusive  corn  rations  and  those  rich  in  crude  protein  were  not  en- 
tirely due  to  the  difference  in  the  supply  of  crude  protein.  In-  each 
case  the  ration  rich  in  crude  protein  was  also  the  richer  in  mineral 
matter,  for  corn  is  not  only  rather  low  in  crude  protein  but  it  also 
lacks  mineral  matter. 

116.  Effect  on  tenderloins  of  exclusive  corn  feeding.— At  the  Mis- 
souri Station1  Forbes  fed  6  lots,  each  of  five  120-lb.  pigs,  on  un- 
limited rations  for  60  days.  One  lot  was  fed  corn  only,  while  the 
others  received  corn  supplemented  with  the  various  by-feeds  shown 
below.  All  rations  but  the  one  exclusively  of  corn  had  the  same 
nutritive  ratio.  On  slaughtering  the  pigs,  portions  of  the  tender- 
loin muscles  were  analyzed,  with  the  results  shown  below : 

Composition  of  the  tenderloin  muscles  of  pigs  variously  fed. 


Supplement  fed  per  100  Ibs.  of  corn 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Lot      I, 
Lot    II, 
Lot  III, 
Lot  IV, 
Lot    Y, 
Lot  YI, 

Corn  only                               

Per  cent 
71.5 
72.9 
74.1 
72.9 
73.7 
73.5 

Per  cent 
19.2 
20.7 
20.5 
20.9 
19.8 
20.5 

Per  cent 
7.28 
5.04 
4.01 
4.79 
5.17 
4.67 

Per  cent 
1.11 
1.15 
1.18 
1.13 
1.13 
1.08 

Wheat  middlings,  81.  8  Ibs. 

Linseed  meal,  n.  p.,  17.8  Ibs  
Soybeans,  19.6  lbs._         

Tankage,  8.  1  Ibs. 

Germ  oil  meal,  39.  4  Ibs. 

Bui.  81. 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems.  95 

It  is  shown  that  the  muscles  resulting  from  exclusive  corn  feed- 
ing had  more  fat  and  less  water  and  protein  than  the  others.  The 
corn  ration  and  the  corn  and  germ  oil  meal  ration,  both  low  in 
mineral  matter,  produced  muscle  lower  in  ash  than  the  other  ra- 
tions. While  the  muscles  from  the  pigs  fed  exclusively  on  corn 
contained  less  protein  than  the  others  and  were  therefore  really 
smaller  in  size,  because  of  the  high  percentage  of  fat  they  carried 
they  would,  on  cooking,  furnish  meat  which  would  be  more  juicy 
and  toothsome  than  that  of  the  other  lots. 

117.  Discussion  of  the  pig-feeding  experiments.— In  analyzing  the 
two  preceding  experiments  we  should  hold  that  the  pigs  given  feeds 
rich  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter  developed  bodies  that 
were  normal  in  skeleton,  muscles,  and  all  internal  organs.  Those 
fed  corn  exclusively  were  prevented  from  building  a  normal  body 
structure  because  of  the  insufficient  supply  of  crude  protein  and 
mineral  matter  in  their  food.  We  should  not  forget  that  all  parts 
of  the  normally  nurtured  body  attain  a  certain  normal  develop- 
ment which  cannot  be  materially  increased  beyond  a  constitutional 
limit.  Only  in  a  small  degree  can  the  stockman  in  a  single  gen- 
eration increase  by  what  he  may  feed  the  size  of  the  bones  and 
the  muscles  of  the  animals  under  his  care.  On  the  other  hand, 
Nature  sets  no  'such  close  limitations  on  the  amount  of  fat  that  may 
be  stored.  This  varies  according  to  inheritance,  the  nature  and 
abundance  of  the  food,  the  amount  of  exercise,  etc.  The  skeleton, 
the  muscles,  and  all  the  organs  of  the  body  increase  during  the 
plastic  stage  of  youth  and  cannot  be  augmented  in  the  mature  ani- 
mal. (95)  The  quantity  of  fat  which  the  animal  may  lay  on  is 
limited  during  youth  and  is  more  easily  and  largely  stored  after 
maturity  has  been  reached.  (100) 

These  experiments  should  impress  upon  the  stockman  the  plastic 
nature  of  the  bodies  of  young,  growing  animals.  They  show  it  pos- 
sible for  immature  animals  living  on  unsuitable  food  to  survive  a 
long  time  and  develop  bodies  that  are  dwarfed  in  size  and  made  un- 
naturally fat.  They  help  to  show  that  Nature's  plan  is  to  first 
grow  the  body  framework  and  afterwards  to  lay  on  the  fat.  They 
point  to  the  reasonable,  important,  and  far-reaching  conclusion  that 
it  a  pig  or  other  young  animal  is  improperly  fed  so  as  to  modify 
its  bones,  muscles,  and  vital  organs  even  a  very  little,  and  the 
process  is  repeated  during  several  generations,  the  cumulative  ef- 
fects will  be  marked  and  permanently  injurious.  The  practical 
lesson  is  taught  that  young  animals  should  be  nurtured  on  a  com- 


96  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

bination  of  feeding  stuffs  that  will  develop  the  normal  framework 
of  bone,  muscle,  and  all  body  organs.  This  is  accomplished  thru 
an  ample  supply  of  feeding  stuffs  reasonably  rich  in  crude  protein 
and  mineral  matter.  Having  developed  the  proper  framework 
of  bone,  together  with  the  enveloping  muscular  system  and  all  the 
organs  of  the  body,  the  food  supply  may  then  consist  largely  of  car- 
bohydrates and  fat,  which  are  the  cheap  and  abundant  sources  of 
animal  fat. 

In  America  corn  is  the  common  feeding  stuff  for  swine,  and  pigs 
show  such  fondness  for  it  that  harm  often  results  because  the  prac- 
tice of  the  feeder  and  breeder  is  guided  by  the  appetite  of  the  ani- 
mal rather  than  by  a  knowledge  of  the  composition  and  limitations 
of  feeds.  Let  us  not  despise  corn  because,  when  wrongly  and  ex- 
cessively used  as  it  purposely  was  in  these  experiments  with  young, 
growing  pigs,  it  fails  to  develop  the  normal  framework  of  bone 
and  muscle.  Each  feed  has  its  function  in  the  nutrition  of  animals, 
and  only  by  its  abuse  can  unfavorable  results  follow. 

118.  Feeding  concentrates  only.— In  1874  a  Mr.  Miller1  of  New 
York  reported  that  for  several  years  he  had  successfully  maintained 
dry  dairy  cows  in  winter  for  a  period  of  about  8  weeks  by  giving 
to  each  animal  as  its  sole  feed  not  above  3  quarts  of  finely-ground 
corn  meal  daily.  It  was  his  practice  to  cut  off  the  hay  supply  when 
meal  feeding  began.  At  first  the  cows  were  restless,  but  soon 
quieted  down,  all  rumination  or  chewing  of  the  cud  ceasing  and 
only  a  small  quantity  of  water  being  drunk.  He  further  claimed 
that  the  animals  remained  in  fair  flesh  and  that  the  calves  from 
cows  so  maintained  were  strong  and  healthy.  In  the  spring  on 
changing  back  to  normal  feeding  a  limited  amount  of  hay  was  at 
first  given,  and  the  supply  gradually  increased. 

A  committee  of  the  American  Dairyman's  Association,  on  visit- 
ing Mr.  Miller's  stables,  reported  that  cows  weighing  about  900 
Ibs.  each  had  been  fed  exclusively  on  corn  meal  for  7  weeks  pre- 
vious to  the  time  of  inspection,  each  animal  receiving  on  the  aver- 
age 3  quarts  of  meal  daily.  They  stated  that  the  cows  did  not 
ruminate,  were  quiet,  and  evinced  no  inordinate  desire  for  food 
when  hay  was  shown  them.  They  were  much  more  quiet  than 
cows  fed  meal  and  4  or  5  Ibs.  of  hay  daily.  The  committee  saw  no 
signs  of  suffering  or  unrest.  On  a  second  visit  13  days  after  hay 
feeding  had  been  resumed  in  the  spring  the  cows  were  filled  up 

1  Ept.  Am.  Dym'ns  Assn.  1874;  Meal  Feeding  and  Animal  Digestion,  2d  ed., 
Linus  W.  Miller  (out  of  print) ;  Armsby,  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding. 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems.  97 

and  did  not  appear  different  from  others  wintered  in  the  usual 
way.  The  calves  from  these  cows  were  fleshy,  strong,  active, 
healthy,  and  of  more  than  ordinary  size.  This  report  excited  much 
discussion  in  the  agricultural  press  at  the  time,  but  the  practice 
has  never  become  general. 

119.  Sanborn's   studies. — At   the   Utah   Station1   Sanborn   main- 
tained a  calf  for  6  weeks  in  winter  on  grain  and  milk,  when,  thru 
its  craving  for  roughage,  the  sawdust  used  for  bedding  was  eaten, 
causing    death.     Sheep    were    successfully    maintained    for    several 
months  on  grain  and  roots  only.     They  shrank  in  weight  at  first, 
but  after  the  paunch  was  cleared  of  coarse  food  made  fair  gains. 
A  2-year-old  steer  weighing  635  Ibs.  was  fed  grain  and  water  only 
for  nearly  8  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  weighed  825  Ibs. 
Rumination  ceased  upon  the  withdrawal  of  coarse  food,  and  gains 
were  made  on  about  the  same  amount  of  feed  as  pigs  required. 
Little  water  was  drunk,  and  a  larger  proportion  was  voided  as 
urine.     The  first  and  second  stomachs  of  the  sheep  and  cattle  so 
fed  weighed  less  than  the  average  for  such  animals,  the  first  stom- 
ach notably  so.     When  the  steer  was  slaughtered  the  first  stomach 
was  found  hardly  half  full,  and  the  blood  weighed  more  and  the 
lungs  less  than  the  average. 

120.  Davenport's   findings.— At   the   Illinois   Station2  Davenport 
maintained  calves  on  skim  milk,  with  or  without  grain,  for  long 
periods.     A  calf  was  fed  skim  milk  exclusively  for  7  months,  by 
which  time  it  refused  its  feed,  could  not  hold  up  its  head,  and  ap- 
peared nearly  dead.     When  straw  and  hay  were  placed  before  it 
they  were  greedily  consumed,  and  3  hours  later  the  calf  was  rumi- 
nating   in    contentment,    thereafter    making    satisfactory    gains    on 
mixed  feed.     In  a  second  experiment  a  May  calf  subsisted  on  skim 
milk  alone  until  September,  when,  altho  consuming  70  Ibs.  daily,  it 
showed  great  unrest.     Some  grain  was  then  fed  in  addition  to  the 
milk,  with  still  unfavorable  indications.     In  October  when  hay  was 
offered   it   was   greedily  eaten,    and   rumination   began   some   five 
hours  later.     Another  calf  was  maintained  from  June  until  Septem- 
ber upon  milk  and  mixed  grains.     By  the  latter  date  it  evinced  no 
desire  for  feed  and  would  not  rise ;  later  it  suddenly  died.     Altho 
enormous  quantities  of  milk  or  milk  and  grain  were   consumed, 
there  was  no  fat  on  the  carcass  or  about  its  kidneys,  and  the  mus- 
cles, tho  plump,  were   exceedingly  dense   and  rigid.     From  these 

1  Bui.  21.  2  Bui.  46. 

8 


98  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

several  trials  we  may  conclude  that  mature  ruminants  can  be  main- 
tained for  considerable  periods,  if  not  indefinitely,  on  a  limited 
amount  of  ground  grain  with  no  roughage,  and  if  liberally  sup- 
plied with  grain  only,  they  may  make  fair  gains  in  weight.  With 
young  ruminants  Nature  seems  less  yielding.  Apparently  calves 
cannot  be  brought  to  maturity  upon  grain  and  skim  milk,  either 
separately  or  combined,  as  their  sole  feed,  but  they  must  have  some 
coarse  forage,  without  which  rumination  is  impossible. 

121.  McCollum's  experiment.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  McCol- 
lum  placed  a  23-lb.  sow  pig  in  a  dry  lot  with  shelter,  and  fed  it 
from  May  to  July  of  the  following  year,  at  first  on  whole  milk  and 
skim  milk,  and  later  on  skim  milk  alone.     The  sow  remained  in 
excellent  condition,  and  at  about  1  year  of  age,  when  weighing 
406  Ibs.,  gave  birth  to  8  living  pigs  averaging  2.3  Ibs.  each,  and  2 
dead  ones,  all  normal.     Before  winter,  the  pigs  made  an  average 
daily  gain  of  0.39  Ib.  each,  reaching  an  average  weight  of  18.6  Ibs. 
in  6  weeks. 

This  shows  that  milk  alone  will  support  the  pig,  and  indicates 
that  the  failure  of  Davenport  to  maintain  calves  on  skim  milk  and 
grain  was  probably  due  to  the  physiological  requirement  of  her- 
bivora  for  coarse  food  to  fill  the  first  three  stomachs  in  order  that 
they  may  develop  normally.  (32)  The  pig  has  no  such  peculiarity 
in  the  structure  of  its  digestive  tract,  and  hence  no  physiological 
disturbances  result  from  taking  liquid  food  alone  in  the  form  of 
milk. 

122.  Inorganic  phosphorus  for  pigs.— Hart,  McCollum,  and  Fuller 
of    the    Wisconsin    Station2    conducted    experiments    to    determine 
whether  animals  can  assimilate  inorganic  phosphorus  compounds— 
a  point  in  dispute  among  scientists. 

Wheat  bran  contains  about  6  per  ct.  of  phytin,  an  organic  com- 
pound of  lime,  phosphorus,  magnesia,  and  potash.  By  washing  a 
quantity  of  bran  with  warm  water  the  phytin  was  dissolved  and 
removed.  After  drying,  the  material  was  mixed  with  wheat  gluten 
and  rice,  which  are  both  extremely  poor  in  mineral  matter.  To 
this  mixture  was  added  sugar  to  give  palatability,  also  a  quantity 
of  sodium  chlorid,  magnesium  chlorid,  and  potassium  sulfate  suffi- 
cient to  replace  the  amount  of  these  salts  washed  from  the  bran. 
The  combination  formed  a  basal  ration  poor  in  phosphorus. 

1  Unpublished  data.  2  Research  Bui.  1. 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems.  99 

The  pigs  in  the  experiment  were  fed  as  follows : 

Lot     I,    Basal  ration,  poor  in  phosphorus. 
Lot    II,    Basal  ration -f-  precipitated  calcium  phosphate. 
Lot  III,    Basal  ration -j-  bone  ash. 
Lot  IV,    Basal  ration -j- ground  rock  phosphate. 

Lot    V,    Eation  of  unwashed  wheat  bran,  rice,  and  wheat  gluten,  used 
as  a  check. 

For  a  considerable  period  all  the  pigs  throve  fairly  well,  tho  no 
ration  was  entirely  satisfactory.  As  time  went  on,  those  in  Lot  I 
fell  behind  the  others;  they  had  no  appetite  and  remained  lying 
down;  later  they  lost  control  of  their  hind  quarters  and  had  to  be 
carried  to  the  trough  at  feeding  time:  they  had  reached  a  broken- 
down  condition.  At  the  end  of  4  months  when  a  pig  of  each  lot 
was  slaughtered,  the  findings  given  below  were  obtained: 

Feeding  scant  and  full  allowance  of  organic  and  inorganic  phosphorus  to 

pigs. 


Lot  I 

Lot  II 

Lot  III 

Lot  IV 

Lot  V 

No  phos- 
phorus 
added 

Precip. 
calc. 
phos- 
phate 

Bone  ash 

Ground 
rock  phos- 
phate 

Unwashed 
wheat  bran 

Av.  amt.  phosphorus  fed  daily, 

grams 

1.12 

5.29 

5.45 

5.20 

5.28 

Weight  of  pig  at  slaughter,  Ibs. 

77 

87 

85 

82 

87 

Average  gain  per  pig  Ibs 

32 

42 

35 

43 

58 

Weight  of  skeleton,  grams 

870 

950 

950 

1495 

850 

Breaking    strength    of    thigh 
bone,  per  sq.  millimeter,  Ibs.  . 

0.87 

1.70 

1.77 

1.65 

1.86 

Diam.  of  thigh  bones,  millim'rs 

16 

16 

15.5 

20 

17 

Specific  gravity  of  thigh  bone_. 
Ash  in  thigh  bone,  per  cent  

0.98 
33 

1.15 

46 

1.12 

53 

1.19 

57 

1.14 

54 

The  pigs  of  the  first  lot,  getting  little  phosphorus,  had  light, 
weak  thigh  bones,  of  low  specific  gravity  and  low  in  ash.  The 
ones  getting  a  liberal  supply  of  inorganic  phosphorus,  especially 
those  fed  ground  rock  phosphate,  had  heavier  skeletons  than  either 
the  low-phosphate  lot  or  even  those  getting  organic  phosphate  in 
the  unwashed  bran.  The  thigh  bones  of  the  rock-phosphate  lot 
were  the  largest  in  size  and  the  highest  in  ash  and  specific  gravity. 

In  general  the  pigs  getting  inorganic  phosphorus— precipitated 
calcium  phosphate,  bone  ash,  or  ground  rock  phosphate — grew  as 
fast  as  or  faster  than  those  fed  organic  phosphorus  supplied  in  the 
unwashed  wheat  bran.  From,  this  it  seems  settled  that  pigs,  at 
least,  can  digest  and  build  into  their  skeletons  inorganic  phos- 
phorus and  lime  when  supplied  in  such  forms  as  precipitated  cal 


100 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


cium  phosphate,  burned  bone,  or  ground  rock  phosphate.  And 
what  is  true  of  pigs  is  doubtless  true  with  other  farm  animals. 
This  is  most  helpful  information  to  stockmen,  especially  in  the 
corn-growing  districts  of  America  where  feeding  stuffs  available 
for  swine  and  other  farm  animals  are  often  low  in  lime  and  phos- 
phorus. Ground  rock  phosphate,  or  floats,  will  apparently  supply 
the  needed  phosphorus  and  also  lime  at  nominal  cost. 

123.  Rich  and  poor  milk  for  young  animals. — Beach  of  the  Con- 
necticut (Storrs)  Station1  fed  calves,  pigs,  and  lambs  on  three 
grades  of  milk — skimmed  milk,  ordinary  milk  containing  from  3 
to  3.5  per  ct.  fat,  and  rich  milk  containing  from  5.1  to  5.7  per  ct. 
of  fat.  The  lambs  also  received  a  small  quantity  of  hay.  The 
table  shows  the  milk  solids,  including  fat,  required  to  produce  1  Ib. 
of  gain: 

Milk  solids  consumed  per  Ib.  of  gain  ~by  calves,  pigs,  and  lambs. 


Length  of  feeding  period 

Skim  milk 

Milk  poor 
in  fat 

Milk  rich 
in  fat 

Calves  fed  45  days              

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
1.03 

Lbs. 
1.18 

Pigs  fed  40  days  (1st  trial) 

1.36 

1.78 

Pigs  fed  30  days  (2d  trial) 

1.48 

1.40 

1.56 

Lambs  fed  60  days 

1.08* 

1.37* 

*0.42  Ib.  digestible  matter  in  hay,  additional. 

It  is  seen  that  in  every  case  milk  rich  in  fat  was  less  valuable 
per  Ib.  of  dry  matter,  fat  included,  than  was  milk  poor  in  fat,  or 
even  skim  milk.  Beach  reports  that  the  pigs  fed  rich  milk  suf- 
fered loss  of  appetite  and  were  attacked  by  diarrhea,  finally  not 
eating  enough  to  sustain  life.  Those  fed  skim  milk  or  milk  low  in 
fat,  but  under  otherwise  identical  conditions,  throve.  The  lambs 
on  rich  milk  also  showed  lack  of  appetite. 

In  Europe  studies  on  infant  feeding  lead  to  the  same  conclu- 
sion. They  show  that  cow's  milk  rich  in  fat  tends  to  produce  in- 
testinal disturbances  and  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
human  infant  as  poorer  milk.  The  following  explanation  of  this 
harmful  effect  of  excess  of  fat  in  the  food  of  infants  has  been  of- 
fered: The  general  capacity  of  an  organism  for  the  absorption  of 
fat  is  strictly  confined  within  narrow  limits,  and  consequently  any 
excess  is  not  absorbed  but  remains  in  the  intestine.  There  it  is 
converted  into  soaps,  composed  of  part  of  the  fats  and  an  alkali, 
and  as  such  eliminated  from  the  bodv  in  the  excreta.  This  ex- 


1  Bui.  31. 


Miscellaneous  Studies — Nutrition  Problems. 


101 


cretion  of  soap  brings  about  a  heavy  loss  from  the  body  of  alka- 
line bases,  such  as  soda,  potash,  lime,  etc.,  which,  if  continued,  re- 
sults in  disturbed  nutrition.  On  an  exclusive  diet  of  milk  con- 
taining about  3.5  per  ct.  fat,  the  supply  of  alkaline^  bases  ;is  only 
sufficient  for  normal  development.  Milk  that  is  rich  in  f^at  does 
not  likewise  contain  proportionally  more  of  the  alkaline ;  bm^v  ior 
man  has  bred  and  selected  cows  only  to  meet  the  demands  for 
more  milk  and  for  that  which  is  richer  in  fat. 

123a.  Growth  under  adverse  conditions. — At  the  Missouri  Sta- 
tion1 Waters  kept  15  steers,  varying  from  fat  show  animals  to  those 
in  ordinary  farm  condition,  for  long  periods  of  time  on  rations 
sufficient  for  maintenance.  Below  are  given  the  results  obtained 
with  4  yearling  steers  kept  at  constant  body  weight: 

Growth  of  steers  maintained  at  constant  body  weight. 


Age  at 
beginning 

Length 
of  period 

Increase  in 

Decrease 
in  width 
of  chest 

Decline  in  condition 
from— 

Height 
at  withers 

Length 
of  head 

Depth 
of  chest 

Months 

Months 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

11 

7 

10.2 

11.1 

5.6 

10.1 

Good  to  com. 

9.5 

12 

9.9 

19.7 

8.5 

12.1 

Med.  to  thin 

16.5 

12 

6.8 

12.0 

6.0 

10.6 

Prime  to  com. 

17 

12 

5.8 

9.6 

1.1 

9.4 

Prime  to  com. 

The  table  shows  that  in  each  case  there  was  a  marked  increase 
in  the  height  of  the  animal  at  the  withers,  the  length  of  head,  and 
the  depth  of  chest,  denoting  a  growth  of  the  skeleton.  The  de- 
crease in  width  of  chest  shows  a  thinning  of  the  flesh  covering  the 
skeleton,  indicating  that  the  stored  fat  was  reabsorbed  or  with- 
drawn from  the  tissues  in  the  effort  to  continue  growth  on  insuffi- 
cient food.  Examination  of  the  fat  cells  of  these  animals  showed 
a  uniform  reduction  in  their  size  as  compared  with  those  of  animals 
receiving  liberal  rations. 

After  a  feeding  trial  lasting  6  months  in  which  one  steer  was 
liberally  fed,  one  given  a  maintenance  ration,  and  another  fed  less 
than  enough  to  maintain  its  weight,  chemical  analysis  of  the  fatty 
tissues  showed  the  composition  given  in  the  table. 

The  table  shows  that  while  the  withdrawal  of  stored  fat  had 
not  progressed  far  enough  to  use  up  all  the  fat  of  the  body,  a  de- 
cided emptying  of  the  fat  cells  had  occurred,  the  fatty  tissues  of 

1  Proe.  Soe.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.,  1908. 


102 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


the  animal  which  had  received  less  than  a  maintenance  ration  con- 
taining only  about  one-half  as  much  fat  as  that  of  the  liberally 
fed  steer. 

'•'.  "l  '„  *  •'  *  \  Composition  of  fatty  tissues  of  growing  steers. 


•  '  *t  <     '  •  i  ',       i   *  Amount  fed 

Water 

Fat 

Protein 

Ash 

Liberal  ration                                   -  -- 

Per  cent 
20.05 

Per  cent 
72.90 

Per  cent 
7.76 

Per  cent 
0.99 

Maintenance  ration 

25.49 

62.82 

9.21 

0.93 

Less  than  maintenance  ration 

42.37 

37.69 

13.84 

0.93 

In  the  process  of  fattening,  the  fat  is  laid  on  the  body  in  a  cer- 
tain order,  being  deposited  first  and  most  rapidly  in  certain  re- 
gions, while  in  others  little  is  stored  until  fattening  is  well  ad- 
vanced. Waters  states  that  the  reabsorption  or  withdrawal  of  fat 
from  the  tissues  occurs  in  the  reverse  order  from  which  it  was  laid 
on — that  first  deposited  being  the  last  to  be  absorbed. 

The  skeleton  is  not  affected  by  poor  nutrition  until  practically 
all  the  fat  has  been  removed  from  the  muscles  and  other  organs. 
After  the  removal  of  fat  from  the  muscles  and  other  organs  the 
principal  effect  caused  by  poor  nutrition  is  the  removal  of  the  fat 
or  marrow  from  the  skeleton  and  the  replacement  of  this  with 
water.  In  the  case  of  a  steer  kept  on  submaintenance  for  11 
months,  the  marrow  had  nearly  all  disappeared,  and  in  its  place 
was  a  watery,  ill-smelling  liquid.  The  reabsorption  of  fat  takes  place 
from  all  parts  of  the  skeleton. 

An  experiment  with  two  8-months-old  steers,  one  on  full  feed 
and  the  other  on  a  maintenance  ration,  showed  that  on  the  whole 
the  animal  on  full  feed  increased  in  height  more  rapidly  than  the 
one  on  maintenance.  However  for  a  considerable  period  the  poorly 
fed  steer  grew  as  rapidly  as  the  other.  Waters  states  that  the 
length  of  the  period  during  which  poorly  fed  animals  gain  as 
rapidly  in  height  as  well  nourished  ones  ranges  from  70  to  120 
days,  depending  on  the  constitutional  vigor  of  the  individual  and 
the  excess  fat  with  which  it  starts.  After  this  period  the  increase 
in  height  becomes  less  rapid,  ceasing  altogether  in  from  6  months 
to  a  year  and  a  half,  by  which  time  the  animal  has  become  quite 
thin  and  has  reabsorbed  all  fat  not  necessary  to  its  life.  For  5 
months  a  steer  fed  less  than  a  maintenance  ration  and  losing  in 
weight  grew  in  height  as  fast  as  one  on  full  feed. 


Miscellaneous  Studies.  103 

Growth  on  scanty  rations  is  not  due  directly  to  the  fat  reabsorbed 
from  the  body.  The  animal  burns  its  stored  fat  to  support  the 
body,  and  the  protein  in  its  food  is  used  for  building  body  tissue. 
The  supply  of  mineral  matter  in  the  maintenance  ration  used  in 
these  studies  was  probably  sufficient  to  provide  an  excess  for 
growth.  The  steers  also  developed  depraved  appetites  in  a  short 
time  after  being  placed  on  scanty  rations  and  ate  considerable 
earth,  possibly  making  use  of  some  of  its  mineral  matter. 

Waters  concludes  that  the  young  animal  may  advance  to  nor- 
mal size  by  any  or  all  of  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  growing  steadily  from  birth  to  maturity. 

2.  By  storing  fat  in  a  period  of  abundant  food  supply  to  assist 
in  tiding  over  a  limited  period  of  sparse  food  supply  without  seri- 
ous interruption  of  growth. 

3.  By  prolonging  the  growth  period. 

4.  By  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  growth  during  a  period  of  lib- 
eral feeding  following  a  period  of  low  nourishment  and  low  gain. 

5.  By   conserving   the   cost.     Apparently   the   animal   when   kept 
for  a  long  period  on  scanty  food  gets  on  a  more  economical  basis 
than  when  more  liberally  fed.    A  ration  which  is  at  first  insufficient 
to  maintain  the  animal  may  be  capable  later  of  keeping  the  animal 
at  a  constant  body  weight,  and  still  later  of  causing  gain. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FEEDING   STANDARDS— CALCULATING   RATIONS. 
I.  HISTORY  OF  FEEDING  STANDABDS. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  almost  nothing  was  known 
concerning  the  chemistry  of  plants  and  animals.  At  that  time  the 
farmer  gave  his  ox  hay  and  corn  without  the  least  conception  of 
what  there  was  in  this  provender  that  nourished  the  animals.  But 
science  soon  permeated  every  line  of  human  activity,  and  agricul- 
ture was  benefited  with  all  the  other  arts.  Davy,  Liebig,  Boussin- 
gault,  Henneberg,  Wolff,  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  and  other  great  scien- 
tists were  early  laying  the  foundations  for  a  rational  agricultural 
practice  based  on  chemistry,  and  animal  feeding  gained  with  the 
rest. 

124.  Hay  equivalents. — The  first  attempt  to  systematically  com- 
pare the  feeding  values  of  different  feeding  stuffs  was  by  Thaer1 
of  Germany,  who  in  1810  published  a  table  of  hay  equivalents  in 
which    meadow    hay    served    as    the    standard.     According    to    this 
writer  the  amounts  of  various  other  feeding  stuffs  required  to  equal 
100  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay  were : 

91  Ibs.  clover  hay  417  Ibs.  rutabagas 

91  Ibs.  alfalfa  hay  602  Ibs.  cabbages 

200  Ibs.  potatoes  625  Ibs.  mangels 

Naturally  opinions  on  feed  values  varied,  and  so  there  were  about 
as  many  tables  of  hay  equivalents  as  there  were  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

125.  The  first  feeding  standard. — Chemistry  having  paved   the 
way,  Grouven2  in  1859  proposed  the  first  feeding  standard  for  farm 
animals,  based  on  the  crude  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in  feed- 
ing stuffs.     This,  however,  was  imperfect  since  it  was  based  on  the 
total  instead  of  the  digestible  nutrients. 

126.  The  Wolff  feeding  standards.— In  1864  Dr.  Emil  von  Wolff, 
the  great  German  scientist,  presented  for  the  first  time  in  the  Ment- 
zel  &  von  Lengerke's  Agricultural  Calendar3  for  that  year  a  table 

1  Landwirtschaf  t,  New  ed.,  1880,  p.  211. 

2  Feeding  Standard   for   Dom.   Anim.,    Expt.    Sta,   Eec.,   IV;    also   Agricultur- 
chemie,  Koln,  1889,  p.  834. 

*  Published  annually  by  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  Germany. 

104 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations.  105 

of  feeding  standards  based  on  the  digestible  nutrients  contained  in 
feeding  stuffs.  These  standards  set  forth  the  amount  of  digestible 
crude  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  required  daily  by  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  farm  animals. 

The  value  and  importance  of  the  Wolff  standards  were  at  once 
recognized;  and  with  their  promulgation  and  adoption  came  the 
first  widespread  effort  toward  the  rational  feeding  of  farm  animals. 
The  Wolff  standards  were  first  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
American  people  in  1874  by  Atwater,1  America's  worthy  pioneer 
in  the  science  of  animal  nutrition.  Armsby's  Manual  of  Cattle 
Feeding,  based  on  Wolff's  book2  on  the  same  subject,  appeared  in 
1880. 

The  Wolff  standards  are  still  popular  among  progressive  Ameri- 
can farmers  and  stockmen  and  have  been  used  wherever  agricul- 
tural science  is  recognized.  Their  abiding  popularity  is  due  to  their 
simplicity,  ease  of  application,  and  the  positive  nature  of  the  state- 
ments made.  In  these  standards,  accompanied  by  tables  of  the 
composition  and  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs,  the  stockman  has 
all  the  data  necessary  to  formulate  rations  for  the  different  farm 
animals,  little  or  nothing  being  left  to  uncertainty. 

The  Wolff  feeding  standards  appeared  annually  in  the  Mentzel- 
Lengerke  Calendar  down  to  1896.  From  1897  to  1906  they  were 
presented  by  Dr.  C.  Lehmann  of  the  Berlin  Agricultural  High 
School  with  but  slight  modification.  In  1907,  however,  Dr.  O.  Kell- 
ner,  the  talented  director  of  the  Mockern  (Germany)  Experiment 
Station,  took  charge  of  this  portion  of  the  Calendar  and  substituted 
tables  and  feeding  standards  based  on  starch  values,  as  elsewhere 
briefly  presented  in  this  work. 

In  this  chapter  are  set  forth  the  other  feeding  standards  which 
have  followed  those  of  Wolff,  all  seeking  the  same  end  in  some- 
what different  ways.  In  their  efforts  to  avoid  the  weaknesses  of 
the  Wolff  system,  each  gains  in  some  particulars  and  loses  in  others. 
In  this  work  the  Wolff  standards  are  given  first  place  because  of 
their  historical  and  foundational  importance.  The  student  of  feed- 
ing problems  should  begin  by  familiarizing  himself  with  them,  no 
matter  where  he  closes  his  studies. 

II.  TABLES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  AND  THE  WOLFF-LEHMANN  STANDARD 

KATIONS. 

127.  Nutrients.— The  term  nutrient  is  applied  to  any  food  con- 
stituent, or  group  of  food  constituents  of  the  same  general  chemical 

1  Ept.  Me.  State  Bd.  Agr.,  1874;  Ept.  Conn.  Bd.  Agr.,  1874-5. 

2  Futterungslehre,  1st  ed.,  1874. 


106 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


composition,  that  may  aid  in  the  support  of  animal  life.  Crude  pro- 
tein, the  carbohydrates,  and  fat  constitute  the  generally  recognized 
classes  of  nutrients,  altho  air,  water,  and  mineral  matter  might 
likewise  be  so  termed.  Gluten,  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  are  also  nutri- 
ents. The  relative  availability  and  therefore  usefulness  and  value 
of  any  given  nutrient  is  necessarily  not  fixed,  but  varies  with  cir- 
cumstances. Fiber  is  a  nutrient,  yet  the  fiber  in  hay  is  almost 
valueless  to  the  calf  when  very  young,  because  its  digestive  organs 
cannot  utilize  it.  With  the  horse  the  same  material  is  partially, 
and  with  the  ox  still  more  largely,  digestible.  The  term  digestible 
nutrient  covers  that  portion  of  each  nutrient  which  is  digested  and 
taken  into  the  body,  as  determined  by  digestion  trials  with  various 
mature  animals. 

128.  Nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs. — From  the  extensive  data  given 
in  Table  I  of  the  Appendix,  showing  the  total  nutrients  in  feeding 
stuffs,  Example  Table  I  follows  for  illustration : 

Example  Table  I,  showing  the  total  nutrients  in  100  Ibs.  of  various  com- 
mon feeding  stuffs. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Crude 
protein 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fat 

Boughages 
Corn  stover,  field  cured___  
Red  clover  hay 

Lbs. 

40.5 
15.3 

Lbs. 

3.8 

12.3 

Lbs. 

19.7 

24.8 

Lbs. 

31.5 
38.1 

Lbs. 

1.1 
3.3 

Timothy  hay 

13.2 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

Oat  straw 

9.2 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2.3 

Concentrates 
Corn        _.  

10.6 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

Oats             

10.4 

11.4 

10.8 

59.4 

4.8 

Wheat  bran  __  

11.9 

15.4 

9.0 

53.9 

4.0 

Linseed  meal,  o.  p.  .-. 

9.8 

33.9 

7.3 

35.7 

7.8 

The  table  shows  that,  on  the  average,  100  Ibs.  of  field-cured  corn 
stover  contains  40.5  Ibs.  of  water,  while  the  same  weight  of  oat 
straw  has  but  9.2  Ibs.  The  next  column  shows  that  100  Ibs.  of 
stover  contains  3.8  Ibs.  of  crude  protein,  while  the  same  weight  of 
oat  straw  has  4  Ibs.  Were  it  not  for  the  large  amount  of  water  in 
stover  its  crude  protein  would  exceed  that  of  straw.  Stover  con- 
tains 19.7  Ibs.  of  fiber,  while  oat  straw  has  nearly  twice  that  amount, 
and  corn  grain  but  2.2  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  Among  the  grains,  oats 
are  relatively  high  in  fiber  because  of  the  woody  hull  which  sur- 
rounds the  kernels.  One  hundred  Ibs.  of  corn  contains  70.4  Ibs. 
of  nitrogen-free  extract,  principally  starch.  The  roughages  are 
usually  low  in  fat,  while  corn  and  oats  are  relatively  high. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


107 


129,  Coefficients  of  digestibility.— The  digestible  portion  of  each 
nutrient  in  a  feeding  stuff,  expressed  in  per  cent,  is  termed  its 
coefficient  of  digestibility.  The  nutrients  of  feeds  are  not  wholly 
digestible,  a  part  always  passing  thru  the  animal  without  having 
been  dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids  and  thereby  being  made 
usable.  Digestion  trials  showing  what  per  cent  of  each  nutrient  in 
feeds  is  digestible  have  been  collected  in  Table  II  of  the  Appendix, 
from  which  the  following  data  are  taken': 

Example  Table  II,  showing  the  digestion  coefficients  of  the  feeding  stuffs 

given  in  Table  I. 


Feeding  stuffs 

No.  of 
trials 

Dry 

matter 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Roughages 
Corn  stover 

31 
18 
64 
11 

12 
6 
11 
3 

Per  cent 

57 
57 
55 

48 

91 
70 

66 
79 

Per  cent 

36 

58 
48 
33 

76 

77 
77 
89 

Per  cent 

64 
54 
50 
54 

58 
31 
41 
57 

Per  cent 

59 

64 
62 
46 

93 

77 
71 

78 

Per  cent 
67 
55 
50 
36 

86 
89 
63 
89 

Red  clover  hay    .__  

Timothy  hay  

Oat  straw  _ 

Concentrates 
Corn                   ... 

Oats 

Wheat  bran 

Linseed  meal,  o.  p. 

The  first  line  of  the  table  shows  that,  taking  the  average  of  31 
digestion  trials  with  corn  stover,  36  per  ct.  of  the  crude  protein,  64 
per  ct.  of  the  fiber,  59  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  67 
per  ct.  of  the  fat  are  digestible.  The  concentrates — corn,  oats,  etc.— 
are  usually  much  more  digestible  than  the  roughages — corn  stover, 
oat  straw,  etc. 

130.  Digestible  nutrients. — The  digestible  nutrients  in  a  feeding 
stuff  are  found  by  multiplying  the  pounds  of  each  nutrient  it  con- 
tains by  the  numerical  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  that  nutrient 
in  the  given  feed.  Example  Table  III  on  the  next  page  is  a  fragment 
of  the  extensive  Table  III  of  the  Appendix.  Its  data  are  derived 
by  multiplying  the  nutrients  in  each  feed  as  given  in  Table  I  by 
their  corresponding  coefficients  of  digestibility  given  in  Table  II. 
After  determining  the  several  digestible  nutrients  it  is  customary 
to  combine  the  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract  under  the  group-term 
carbohydrates. 

Table  I  shows  that  average  corn  stover  contains  3.8  Ibs.  of  crude 
protein,  36  per  ct.  of  which  is  digestible  according  to  Table  II. 


108 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Thirty-six  per  et.  of  3.8  Ibs.  is  1.4  Ibs.,  which  sum  is  placed  in  Table 
III  as  the  digestible  crude  protein  in  100  Ibs.  of  corn  stover. 

In  Tables  I  and  II  the  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract  are  given 
in  separate  columns,  since,  tho  of  the  same  chemical  composition, 
they  often  differ  materially  in  digestibility.  The  digestible  por- 
tion of  each  is  determined  separately  and  then  combined  under  the 
term  "carbohydrates"  in  the  following  table: 

Example  Table  III,  showing  the  digestible  nutrients  in  100  Ibs.  of  the 
feeding  stuffs  in  Table  I. 


Feeding1  stuffs 

Total 
dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive  ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates* 

Fat 

Roughages 
Corn  stover 

Lbs. 

59.5 

84.7 
86.8 
90.8 

89.4 
89.6 
88.1 
90.2 

Lbs. 

1.4 

7.1 
2.8 
1.3 

7.8 
8.8 
11.9 
30.2 

Lbs. 

31.  2 
37.8 
42.4 
39.5 

66.8 
49.2 
42.0 
32.0 

Lbs. 

0,7 
1.8 
1.3 
0.8 

4.3 
4.3 
2.5 

6.9 

1:23.4 
1:  5.9 
1:16.2 
1:31.8 

1:  9.8 
1:  6.7 
1:  4.0 
1:  1.6 

Red  clover  hay 

Timothy  hay  

Oat  straw  

Concentrates 
Corn 

Oats  

Wheat  bran 

Linseed  meal,  o.  p. 

*Nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber  combined. 

According  to  Table  I,  there  are  19.7  Ibs.  of  fiber  in  100  Ibs. 
of  corn  stover,  64  per  ct.  of  which  is  digestible,  according  to  Table  II. 
Likewise  there  are  31.5  Ibs.  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  59  per  ct.  of 
which  is  digestible.  Multiplying  in  each  case  and  adding  the  two 
products,  we  have  31.2  Ibs.,  which  is  placed  in  the  column  marked 
"digestible  carbohydrates"  in  Table  III.  The  digestible  fat  is  ob- 
tained in  the  same  manner  as  the  digestible  crude  protein.  For  ex- 
ample, 1.1  Ibs.  of  fat  in  corn  stover  multiplied  by  67,  the  factor  of 
digestibility,  gives  0.7  lb.,  which  is  entered  in  Table  III  as  the  diges- 
tibile  fat  in  100  Ibs.  of  corn  stover. 

131.  Nutritive  ratio. — By  nutritive  ratio  is  meant  the  ratio  which 
exists  in  any  given  feeding  stuff  between  the  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein and  the  combined  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat.  It  is  de- 
termined in  the  following  manner:  The  digestible  fat  in  100  Ibs. 
of  the  given  feed  is  multiplied  by  2.25,  because  fat  has  that  heat 
value  compared  with  the  carbohydrates,  and  the  product  is  then 
added  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates.  The  sum  of  the  two  divided 
by  the  amount  of  digestible  crude  protein  gives  the  second  factor 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


109 


of  the  ratio.     The  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  stover  given  in  Table  III 
is  thus  found: 


Diges.  fat 
0.7 


Heat  equiv. 
2.25 


Diges.  carbohy. 
31.2 


Second  factor  of 
nutritive  ratio 

23.4 


1.4 

Diges.  crude  protein 

Nutritive  ratios  are  expressed  with  the  colon,  thus,  1 : 23.4.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  corn  stover  is  therefore  1 : 23.4 ;  i.  e.  for  each  Ib. 
of  digestible  crude  protein  in  corn  stover  there  are  23.4  Ibs.  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  or  fat  equivalent.  A  feed  or  ration  having 
much  crude  protein  in  proportion  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  com- 
bined is  said  to  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio;  if  the  reverse,  it  has  a 
ivide  nutritive  ratio.  Oat  straw  has  the  wide  nutritive  ratio  of 
1 : 31.8,  corn  the  medium  one  of  1 : 9.8  and  protein-rich  linseed 
meal  the  very  narrow  ratio  of  1 : 1.6,  the  carbohydrates  being  less 
than  twice  the  crude  protein. 

132.  Concerning  rations.— On  the  farm  a  ration  is  the  feed  allowed 
or  set  apart  to  maintain  a  given  animal  during  a  day  of  24  hours, 
whether  all  thereof  is  administered  or  fed  at  one  time  or  in  portions 
at  different  times. 

A  balanced  ration  is  the  feed  or  combination  of  feeds  furnishing 
the  several  nutrients— crude  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat— in 
such  proportion  and  amount  as  will  properly  and  without  excess  of 
any  nutrient  nourish  a  given  animal  for  24  hours. 

A  maintenance  ration  is  one  that  furnishes  a  sufficiency  of  each 
and  all  of  the  several  nutrients  but  no  more  than  is  required  to 
maintain  a  given  resting  animal,  so  that  it  will  neither  gain  nor 
lose  in  weight. 

133.  The  Wolff -Lehmann  feeding  standards.— Example  Table  IV, 
given  below,  taken  from   Table  IV  of  the  Appendix,  presents  the 
nutrients  required  by  certain  farm  animals  according  to  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  feeding  standards : 

Example  Table  IV,  showing  digestible  nutrients  required  daily  by  farm 
animals  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 


Animal 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive  ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Pat 

Ox,  at  rest  

Lbs. 
18 
30 
29 
24 

Lbs. 
0.7 
2.5 
2.5 
2.0 

Lbs. 
8.0 
15.0 
13.0 
11.0 

Lbs. 
0.1 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 

1:11.8 
1:  6.5 
1:  5.T 
1:  6.2 

Fattening  cattle,  1st  period.. 
Cow,  yielding  22  Ibs.  milk____ 
Horse,  at  medium  work 

110  Feeds  and  Feeding, 

The  table  shows  that  according  to  Wolff's  teachings  a  1000-lb. 
ox  at  rest,  neither  gaming  nor  losing  in  weight,  requires  for  1  day's 
maintenance  18  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  containing  the  following  diges- 
tible nutrients  :  0.7  Ib.  crude  protein,  8.0  Ibs.  carbohydrates,  and  0.1 
Ib.  fat,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  :  11.8.  Tho  the  ox  is  resting,  work 
is  still  being  performed  ;  the  beating  of  the  heart,  mastication,  diges- 
tion, standing,  breathing—  all  the  manifestations  of  life  in  fact— 
imply  internal  work  and  call  for  energy  and  for  repair  material. 

When  the  animal  is  growing,  fattening,  giving  milk,  or  doing  ex- 
ternal work,  a  larger  quantity  of  nutrients  must  be  supplied  than 
for  maintenance,  as  the  table  shows.  For  the  cow  yielding  22  Ibs. 
of  milk  daily,  the  standard  calls  for  the  following  quantities  of  the 
several  digestible  nutrients:  Crude  protein  2.5  Ibs.,  carbohydrates 
13.0  Ibs.,  and  fat  0.5  Ib.  These  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.7, 
which  is  much  narrower  than  for  the  ox  at  rest.  In  his  effort  to 
attain  the  proper  standard  Wolff1  reasoned  that,  since  pasture  grass 
is  the  natural  food  of  the  dairy  cow,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  such 
grass  might  most  properly  serve  as  the  chosen  standard. 

III.  CALCULATING  RATIONS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS. 

We  have  now  advanced  to  a  point  where  the  tables  of  nutrients 
and  the  feeding  standards  can  be  put  to  use  in  calculating  rations 
for  farm  animals  according  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. 

134.  Ration  for  a  steer  at  rest.—  In  Example  Tables  III  and  IV 
we  have  the  data  for  calculating  the  feed  required  to  maintain  a 
1000-lb.  ox  at  rest  in  his  stall  when  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in 
weight.  If  for  the  trial  ration  it  is  decided  to  feed  10  Ibs.  of  corn 
stover  and  10  Ibs.  of  oat  straw  for  roughage,  then  the  calculations 
for  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  would  be  as  given  below: 

Corn  stover 


Dry  matter 

In  100 
pound; 

59.5 

> 

-=- 

100 

V 

10 

In  10 
pounds 

=  5.95 

Crude  protein  _  .  

1.4 

-*• 

100 

x 

10 

=  0.14 

Carbohydrates 

31.2 

-7- 

100 

V 

10 

=  3.12 

Fat 

0.7 

-*- 

100 

V 

10 

=  0.07 

Dry  matter 

Oat  straw 
90.8 

100 

V 

10 

—  9.08 

Crude  protein 

1.3 

_. 

100 

V 

10 

=  0.13 

Carbohydrates 

39.5 

-7- 

100 

V 

10 

=  3.95 

Fat  

0.8 

100 

y 

10 

=  0.08 

1  Farm  Foods,  Eng.  ed.,  p.  224. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


Ill 


Arranging  in  tabular  form  the  digestible  nutrients  so  found,  we 
have : 

First  trial  maintenance  ration  for  a  1000-lb.  ox  at  rest. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Corn  stover,  10  Ibs.      

Lbs. 
5.95 
9.08 

Lbs. 
0.14 
0.13 

Lbs. 
3.12 
3.95 

Lbs. 
0.07 
0.08 

Oat  straw,  10  Ibs. 

First  trial  ration 

15.03 
18.00 

0.27 
0.70 

7.07 
8.00 

0.15 
0.10 

1:11.8 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard  _  _ 

Excess  or  deficit 

-2.97 

-0.43 

-0.93 

+0.05 

The  trial  ration  falls  below  the  standard  in  each  nutrient  except 
fat,  the  deficiency  in  crude  protein  being  large.  To  bring  it  nearer 
to  the  standard,  we  add  1  Ib.  each  of  oil  meal  and  oats. 

Second  trial   maintenance  ration  for  a  1000-lb.   ox. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Partial  ration  as  above  .  . 
Oil  meal,  1  Ib. 

Lbs. 
15.030 
0.902 
0.896 

Lbs. 
0.270 
0.302 
0.088 

Lbs. 
7.070 
0.320 
0.492 

Lbs. 
0.150 
0.069 
0.043 

Oats,  1  Ib.  

Second  trial  ration 

16.828 
18.000 

0.660 
0.700 

7.882 
8.000 

0.262 
0.100 

1:12.8 
1:11.8 

Wolfl-Lehmann  standard 

Excess  or  deficit  _  . 

-1.172 

-0.040 

-0.118 

+0.162 

This  trial  ration  falls  below  the  standard  by  more  than  1  Ib.  of 
dry  matter,  but  this  deficiency  is  unimportant.  Dry  matter  is  only 
an  indication  of  the  bulk  or  volume  of  the  ration,  and  may  vary 
greatly  with  different  feeds  and  animals  without  affecting  results. 
In  crude  protein  and  carbohydrates  the  ration  is  slightly  below  the 
standard,  while  the  fat  is  in  excess.  Its  nutritive  ratio  is  1 : 12.8 
This  ration  approximates  the  standard  about  as  closely  as  is  pos- 
sible without  using  fractions  of  pounds,  and  is  near  enough  for 
our  purpose.  We  learn  from  this  that  10  Ibs.  each  of  corn  stover 
and  oat  straw,  with  1  Ib.  each  of  oil  meal  and  oats,  should  furnish 
sufficient  food  to  maintain  a  resting  1000-lb.  ox  for  24  hours  when 
neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight. 


112 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


135.  A  ration  for  the  dairy  cow. — In  formulating  a  ration  for  a 
dairy  cow  yielding  22  Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  as  called  for  by  the  feed- 
ing standard  in  Example  Table  IV,  we  choose  from  Example  Table 
III  8  Ibs.  of  red  clover  hay,  10  Ibs.  of  corn  stover,  and  3  Ibs.  of  oat 
straw  for  roughage,  with  5  Ibs.  each  of  corn  and  wheat  bran  for 
concentrates. 

Calculations  for  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  trial  ration  for  a 

dairy  cow. 


Red  clover  hay 

In  100  In  8 

pounds  pounds 

Dry  matter 84. 7-5-  100x8=6. 776 

Crude  protein. _  7.1-*- 100x8=0. 568 
Carbohydrates..  37. 8-?- 100x8=3. 024 
Fat -_  1.8-^-100x8=0.144 

Oat  straw 

In  100  In  3 

pounds  pounds 

Dry  matter 90.8-5-100x3=2.724 

Crude  protein  ._  1.3-5-100x3=0.039 
Carbohydrates..  39. 5-*- 100x3=1. 185 
Fat..  0.8-5-100x3=0.024 


Corn  stover 


In  10 
pounds 


In  100 
pounds 

Dry  matter 59 . 5-f-100x  10=5 . 95 

Crude  protein  ._  1. 4 -f- 100x10=0. 14 
Carbohydrates..  31.2-5-100x10=3.12 
Fat 0.7-4-100x10=0.07 

Corn 

In  100  In  5 

pounds  pounds 

Dry  matter 89 . 4-5-100x5=4 . 470 

Crude  protein  .  _  7 .  8-5-100  X  5=0 . 390 
Carbohydrates..  66. 8 -H  100x5=3. 340 
Fat__  4.3-5-100x5=0.215 


Bran 

In  100 
pounds 


In  5 
pounds 


Dry  matter  .....  88.  1-j-  100x5=4.  405 
Crude  protein  ..  11.9-5-100x5=0.595 
Carbohydrates  ._  42.0-5-100x5=2.100 
Fat._  .....  ______  2.5-^-100x5=0.125 


Arranging  these  findings  we  have  : 
First  trial  ration  for  a  1000-lb.  cow  yielding 


Ibs.  of  milk  daily. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 

matter 

,  Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Eoughages 
Red  clover  hay,  8  Ibs  — 
Corn  stover,  10  Ibs.  

Lbs. 

6.776 
5.950 
2.724 

4.470 
4.405 

Lbs. 

0.568 
0.140 
0.039 

0.390 
0.595 

Lbs. 

3.024 
3.120 
1.185 

3.340 
2.100 

Lbs. 

0.144 
0.070 
0.024 

0.215 
0.125 

Oat  straw,  3  Ibs. 

Concentrates 
Corn  meal,  5  Ibs. 

Bran,  5  Ibs. 

First  trial  ration 

24.325 

29.000 

1.732 
2.500 

12.769 
13.000 

0.578 
0.500 

1:5.7 

Wolfl-Lehmann  standard  _ 

Excess  or  deficit 

-4.675 

-0.768 

-0.231 

-f  0.078 

Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


113 


This  trial  ration  falls  considerably  below  the  standard,  especially 
in  crude  protein,  and  to  correct  this  3  Ibs.  of  nitrogenous  oil  meal  is 
added. 

Second  trial  ration  for  a  1000-lb.  cow  yielding  22  Ibs.  of  milk  daily. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

First  trial  ration 

Lbs. 
24.325 

2.706 

Lbs. 
1.732 
0.906 

Lbs. 
12.769 
0.960 

Lbs. 
0.578 
0.207 

Oil  meal,  3  Ibs. 

Second  trial  ration 

27.031 
29.000 

2.638 
2.500 

13.729 
13.000 

0.785 
0.500 

1:5.9 
1:5.7 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard. 

Excess  or  deficit  .__.__     - 

-1.969 

+0.138 

+0.729 

+0.285 

The  second  trial  ration  falls  below  the  standard  in  dry  matter, 
which  is  unimportant.  All  the  nutrients  are  in  slight  excess,  and 
the  nutritive  ratio,  1 : 5.9,  is  close  to  the  standard,  1 : 5.7.  We  thus 
learn  that  a  satisfactory  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  1000  Ibs. 
yielding  22  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  may  be  composed  of  8  Ibs.  red  clover 
hay,  10  Ibs.  corn  stover,  5  Ibs.  each  of  corn  and  bran,  and  3  Ibs.  each 
of  oats  and  oil  meal. 

136.  Hints  and  helps.— In  formulating  rations  for  ruminants  it  is 
well  to  start  with  such  an  amount  of  2  kinds  of  roughage  as  will 
furnish  from  16  to  20  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  and  about  10  Ibs.  of  diges- 
tible carbohydrates,  together  with  such  an  amount  of  some  concen- 
trate as  will,  on  rough  calculation,  bring  the  total  crude  protein 
somewhat  under  the  standard.  When  the  nutrients  of  these  3  feeds 
have  been  placed  in  tabular  form,  a  little  study  will  show  the  quan- 
tity and  kind  of  concentrates  still  needed  to  bring  the  ration  to  the 
standard. 

It  is  practically  impossible,  as  well  as  useless,  to  attempt  to  for- 
mulate rations  that  will  exactly  agree  with  the  standard  in  all  nutri- 
ents. It  is  usually  better  to  allow  the  ration  to  fall  somewhat  be- 
low the  standard  in  dry  matter  than  to  use  an  excess  of  low-grade 
roughage  with  its  large  content  of  inert  matter.  There  is  usually 
an  excess  of  fat  over  the  standard,  which  cannot  well  be  avoided. 
When  the  fat  is  much  in  excess,  the  carbohydrates  may  fall  some- 
what below  the  standard  as  an  offset. 

9 


114  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Several  devices  and  expedients  have  been  offered  to  shorten  the 
work  of  calculating  rations.  Willard  of  the  Kansas  Station1  pre- 
sents a  system  based  on  alligation,  while  Spillman  of  the  Washing- 
ton Station2  and  Jeffers3  have  invented  ingenious  mechanical  com- 
puters. It  seems  best  in  this  work  to  show  how  to  perform  the 
calculations  in  the  simplest  and  most  direct  manner.  Thru  such 
drill  the  student  will  become  familiar  with  the  quantity  and  pro- 
portion of  the  several  nutrients  in  common  feeding  stuffs  and  the 
amount  of  these  required  by  farm  animals  according  to  the  stand- 
ards. The  whole  matter  is  less  difficult  and  no  more  fatiguing  than 
the  simpler  arithmetical  operations  of  the  secondary  schools,  while 
the  benefits  should  richly  compensate  the  agricultural  student  for 
the  time  and  effort. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  both  the  table  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents and  the  feeding  standards  are  but  averages  and  approximations — 
something  far  different  from  the  multiplication  table  or  a  table 
of  logarithms.  Those  who  will  regard  them  as  reasonable  approxi- 
mations to  great  vital  facts  and  principles  in  the  nurture  of  farm 
animals  will  be  guided  and  helped  by  what  they  teach. 

137.  Practical  considerations.— It  is  evident  that  the  balanced 
ration  is  only  a  theoretical  possibility  and  can  only  be  approximated 
in  practice.  Indeed,  in  practice  it  is  often  best  to  feed  rations 
which  are  not  balanced  according  to  the  standards,  tho  it  is  rarely 
wise  to  depart  far  from  them.  It  has  been  shown  that  crude  pro- 
tein in  excess  of  the  actual  amount  of  that  nutrient  required  may 
take  the  place  of  the  carbohydrates  in  part  (75)  and  that  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  may  in  some  measure  replace  each  other.  (79)  Un- 
balanced rations  are  often  the  most  economical  financially;  for  ex- 
ample, alfalfa  is  relatively  rich  in  crude  protein,  while  corn  and 
corn  forage  are  rich  in  carbohydrates  but  low  in  crude  protein. 
Where  alfalfa  is  abundantly  grown  it  usually  sells  for  a  low  price, 
and  there  is  advantage  in  giving  rations  rich  beyond  the  standard 
in  crude  protein.  The  allowance  of  crude  protein  given  in  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standards  materially  exceeds  the  possible 
minimum.  In  the  great  corn  districts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
where  protein-rich  feeds  are  in  relatively  low  supply,  the  feeder 
will  naturally  formulate  a  ration  made  up  largely  of  the  corn  plant, 
and  such  rations  will  usually  run  low  in  crude  protein,  with  an  ex- 

1  Bui.  115 ;   Cyclopedia  of  Am.  Agr.,  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  103. 

2  Bui.  48. 

3  H.  W.  Jeffers,  Plainsboro,  N.  J. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations.  115 

cess  of  highly  digestible  carbohydrates.  In  the  latter  case,  pro- 
vided there  is  sufficient  crude  protein  to  meet  the  minimum  re- 
quirement of  the  animal,  such  rations  will  generally  be  found  the 
most  economical.  (97) 

138.  Notes  on  the  Wolff  standards.— Recent  investigations  by  the 
scientists  show  that  the  Wolff  standards  are  only  approximately 
correct.    Kiihn  of  the  Mockern  Station1  found  that  t helDOO-Ib .  ox^ 
can  be  maintained  on  0.7  Ib.  of  digestible  crude  protein  and  6.6 
Ibs.  of  digestible  carbohydrates.     Kellner,  who  is  Kiihn 's  successor, 
has  practically  adopted  the  Kiihn  standard  in  providing  0.6  Ib.  of 
digestible  protein  and  a  starch  value  of  6  Ibs.  for  its  maintenance. 

Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station2  found  that  the  1000-lb.  dry, 
barren  cow  can  be  maintained  on  0.6  Ib.  of  crude  protein,  6  Ibs.  of 
carbohydrates,  and  0.1  Ib.  of  fat,  all  digestible.  For  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  1000-lb.  cow  producing  milk  he  would  allow  0.7  Ib. 
of  crude  protein,  7  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  0.1  Ib.  of  fat,  all 
digestible.  He  found  that  the  Wolff  allowance  of  crude  protein 
for  the  dairy  cow  may  be  advantageously  cut  as  much  as  20  per 
ct.,  unless  feeds  rich  in  that  nutrient  are  available  at  relatively 
low  cost.  Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station3  also  found  that  the  Wolff 
standard  for  dairy  cows  was  higher  in  crude  protein  than  neces- 
sary. 

The  Wolff  allowance  of  crude  protein  for  fattening  animals  may 
generally  be  reduced  by  as  much  as  40  per  ct.  Kellner  and 
Armsby  recognize  this  in  their  standards. 

139.  In  conclusion.— When  the  students  of  feeding  problems  and 
stockmen  conducting  practical  feeding  operations  learn  that  neither 
the  tables  of  digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs  nor  the  Wolff 
feedings   standards   are   exact   and  wholly   reliable,   they   will   be 
tempted  to  cast  them  aside  as  of  no  value.     Due  reflection  will 
check  such  a  course,  for  enormous  gain  has  already  come  to  our 
stock  interests  thru  this  source.     The  Wolff  standards,  coupled  with 
tables  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs,  have  been  pro- 
foundly useful  in  advancing  the  great  art  of  feeding  farm  ani- 
mals.    Both  students  and  stockmen  should  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  Wolff  standards  because  of  their  historical  interest  and 
their   great   general   usefulness.     From  what   is  thus   learned,   all 
are  better  prepared  for  the   study  of  other  more   advanced  sys- 
tems and  standards  now  in  the  process  of  formation. 

1  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  44,  p.  550.  2  Bui.  79.  *Bpt.l894. 


116 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


IV.  THE  HAECKER  STANDARD  FOR  DAIRY  Cows. 

As  the  result  of  long  years  of  intimate  study  with  a  high- 
grade  working  dairy  herd  at  the  Minnesota  Station,1  Haecker  holds 
that  the  feed  requirements  of  the  dairy  cow  vary  not  only  accord- 
ing to  her  weight  and  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded,  but  also  ac- 
cording to  its  quality. 

140.  The  Haecker  standard. — In  his  standard  Haecker  first  sets 
down  the  total  digestible  nutrients  daily  required  to  maintain  the 
1000-lb.  cow,  independent  of  the  milk  she  produces,  as  follows: 
Crude  protein  0.7  lb.,  carbohydrates  7.0  Ibs.,  and  fat  0.1  Ib. 

For  each  100  Ibs.  in  live  weight  the  cow  may  exceed  or  fall 
below  the  1000-lb.  standard  there  is  added  or  subtracted  one-tenth 
of  the  standard  ration. 

To  this  maintenance  provision  the  further  allowance  set  forth 
in  the  table  is  made. 

Haeclcer's  feeding  standard  for  the  dairy  cow. 


Daily  allowance  of 
digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

For  support  of  the  1000-lb.  cow 

Lbs. 
0.700 

Lbs. 
7.00 

Lbs. 
0.100 

To  the  allowance  for  support  add: 
For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  cent  milk  /£tT 

0.040 
0.042 
0.047 
0.049 
0.051 
0.054 
0.057 
0.061 
0.063 

0.19 
0.21 
0.23 
0.26 
0.27 
0.29 
0.31 
0.33 
0.35 

0.015 
0.016 
0.018 
0.020 
0.021 
0.022 
0.024 
0.025 
0.027 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  cent  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  cent  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  cent  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  cent  milk                       .  _ 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  cent  milk                  _  _     _ 

For  each  lb.  of  6.5  per  cent  milk                .     .  _ 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  cent  milk  _    __  __ 

The  table  shows  that  if  a  cow  is  yielding  milk  containing  3 
per  ct.  of  butter  fat,  she  should  be  fed  in  addition  to  the  main- 
tenance ration  0.040  lb.  crude  protein,  0.19  lb.  carbohydrates,  and 
0.015  lb.  fat,  all  digestible,  for  each  lb.  of  milk  she  gives.  If  the 
milk  is  richer  than  3  per  ct.  the  provision  must  be  greater. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  table  there  is  below  formulated  the 
nutrient  allowance  for  a  1100-lb.  cow  producing  25  Ibs.  of  4  per 
ct.  milk  daily: 

1  Buls.  35,  67,  71,  79,  and  information  to  the  author. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations.  117 

Digestible  nutrients  required  daily  T}y  a  1100-lb.  cow  yielding  25  Ibs.  of  4 

per  ct.  milk. 


Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

For  maintenance 

Lbs. 
0.77 

Lbs. 

7.7 

Lbs. 
0.11 

For  25  Ibs.  of  4  per  cent  milk 

1.18 

5.75 

0.45 

Total  

1.95 

13.45 

0.56 

In  the  above  there  is  first  set  down  the  maintenance  allowance 
for  the  1000-lb.  cow,  increased  by  one-tenth  because  this  cow 
weighs  100  Ibs.  more  than  the  standard;  this  is  0.77  Ib.  crude  pro- 
tein, 7.7  Ibs.  carbohydrates,  and  0.11  Ib.  fat,  all  digestible.  The 
previous  table  shows  the  daily  nutrient  allowance  for  each  Ib.  of 
4  per  ct.  milk  to  be  0.047  Ib.  crude  protein,  0.23  Ib.  carbohydrates, 
and  0.018  Ib.  fat,  all  digestible.  Since  this  cow  is  yielding  25  Ibs. 
of  milk  daily,  the  foregoing  numbers  multiplied  by  25  are  placed 
in  the  second  line  of  the  table.  Thus  it  is  shown  that  the  pro- 
duction of  25  Ibs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  calls  for  1.18  Ibs.  of  crude  pro- 
tein, 5.75  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  0.45  Ib.  of  fat,  all  digestible. 
Adding  these  nutrients  to  those  for  maintenance,  we  have  prac- 
tically 2  Ibs.  (1.95  Ibs.)  of  digestible  protein,  13.5  Ibs.  (13.45  Ibs.) 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.6  Ib.  (0.56  Ib.)  of  digestible 
fat  as  the  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  required  daily  to  prop- 
erly nourish  a  1100-lb.  cow  when  giving  25  Ibs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk 
daily. 

V.  KELLNER'S  STARCH  VALUES  AND  FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

Careful  and  laborious  investigations,  conducted  by  Kellner  and 
Zuntz  by  means  of  a  modern  respiration  apparatus  and  by  Armsby 
by  means  of  a  respiration  calorimeter,  have  shown  that  the  total 
quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  feeding  stuff  is  not  the  true 
measure  of  its  feeding  value,  as  is  assumed  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
feeding  standards.  These  investigators  have  found  that  to  deter- 
mine the  actual  net  value  of  any  given  feeding  stuff  to  the  animal 
it  is  necessary  to  deduct  the  energy  expended  in  the  work  of  mas- 
tication, digestion,  and  assimilation  from  the  total  available  energy 
furnished  by  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  feeding  stuff.  (70) 

141.  Kellner 's  starch  values. — As  a  result  of  his  investigations 
concerning  the  net  values  of  feeding  stuffs  to  the  animal,  Kell- 
ner has  formulated  a  feeding  standard  based  upon  what  he  calls 


118  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

''starch  values."1  He  found  that  on  the  average  1  Ib.  of  digestible 
starch  fed  to  the  ox  in  excess  of  maintenance  requirements  pro- 
duced 0.248  Ib.  of  body  fat.  (85)  Taking  1  Ib.  of  digestible  starch 
as  his  unit,  he  gives  the  following  starch  values  for  the  digestible 
nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs,  based  on  the  amount  of  body  fat  these 
several  pure  nutrients  will  form  if  fed  to  the  ox: 

In  1  Ib.  of  digestible  Starch  value 

Lbs. 
Protein 0.94 

Nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber 1.00 

Fat  in  roughage,  chaff,  roots,  etc 1 . 61 

Fat  in  cereals,  factory  and  mill  by-products 2 . 12 

Fat  in  oil-bearing  seeds  and  oil  meal _  2 . 41 

Kellner  further  found  that  the  net  nutritive  value  of  certain 
concentrates,  such  as  grains  and  seeds,  oil  cake,  roots,  and  slaugh- 
ter-house by-products,  was  the  same  as  that  obtained  when  the 
several  pure  nutrients  in  them  were  fed  separately.  If  the  amounts, 
in  pounds,  of  the  several  digestible  nutrients  in  100  Ibs.  of  feeds 
of  this  class  are  multiplied  by  the  starch  values  of  the  respective 
nutrients  they  contain,  and  the  products  added,  the  sum  will  rep- 
resent the  starch  value  of  100  Ibs.  of  such  feeds.  With  other  feed- 
ing stuffs  the  work  of  mastication  and  digestion  materially  re- 
duces their  actual  net  value.  The  following  deductions  should 
accordingly  be  made  from  the  values  found  as  before : 

Deduction 

Class  Per  ct. 

Mill  and  factory  refuse  feed 5-30 

Soilage  crops 10-20 

Silage 20L-40 

Hay 30-50 

Straw 50-70 

Kellner  affirms  that  despite  the  vast  amount  of  study  given  to 
the  subject  there  are  still  many  gaps  in  our  knowledge  of  the  actual 
net  value  of  the  different  feeding  stuffs.  In  his  own  case  such  values 
have  been  determined  by  actual  experiments  with  only  a  limited 
number  of  typical  representatives  of  the  different  classes  of  feeding 
stuffs  when  fed  to  the  mature  fattening  ox.  For  the  numerous  other 
feeds,  and  especially  for  other  classes  of  animals,  the  net  starch 
values  found  by  computation  must  be  regarded  only  as  approxi- 
mations, which  are  helpful  until  the  actual  net  values  of  such  feeds 
to  the  different  classes  of  animals  have  been  found. 

-  Land.  Kal.,  1909, 1,  pp.  103-119;   Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


119 


142.  Kellner's  feeding  standards. — Below  are  given  the  standard 
rations  for  the  several  classes  of  farm  animals  as  formulated  by 
Kellner : 

The  Kellner  standards  per  1000  Ibs.  of  farm  animal. 


Dry 

Digestibl 

B  nutrients 

matter 

Protein 

Starch  values 

Maintenance  of  mature  steer  

Lbs. 
15-21 

Lbs. 
0.6 

Lbs. 
6.0 

Fattening  steer 

24-32 

1.5-1.7 

12.5-14.5 

Milch  cow,  yielding  20  Ibs.  milk  daily 

25-29 

1.6-1.9 

9.8-11.2 

Milch  cow,  yielding  30  Ibs.  milk  daily 

27-33 

2.2-2.5 

11.8-13.9 

Milch  cow,  yielding  40  Ibs.  milk  daily 

27-34 

2.8-3.2 

13.  9-16.  6 

Horse  at  light  work. 

18-23 

1.0 

9.2 

Horse  at  medium  work  

21-26 

1.4 

11.6 

Horse  at  heavy  work.  _,___ 

23-28 

2.0 

15.0 

Fattening  swine,  1st  period  _  _  _ 

33-37 

3.0 

27.5 

Fattening  swine,  2d  period  

28-33 

2.8 

26.1 

Fattening  swine,  3d  period  _ 

24-28 

2.0 

19.8 

In  the  Kellner  standards  the  nutrients  required  are  expressed  in 
digestible  protein  and  starch  values;  for  example,  a  mature  rest- 
ing steer  weighing  1000  Ibs.  requires  for  maintenance  0.6  Ib.  di- 
gestible protein  and  6.0  Ibs.  starch  values.  Kellner  holds  that 
the  amids  have  doubtful  nutritive  value,  and  therefore  may  be 
ignored  in  ordinary  rations.  Accordingly  in  his  tables  and  stand- 
ards the  nitrogenous  substance  set  forth  is  protein  and  not  crude 
protein.  (5) 

The  studies  of  Kellner,  Zuntz,  and  Armsby  are  preparing  the 
way  for  nutrition  tables  and  feeding  standards  that  in  time  may 
entirely  supplant  those  of  Wolff.  The  Kellner  table  of  starch 
values  is  not  here  given,  but  instead  Armsby 's  table  of  energy 
values,  which  is  similar  and  will  suffice  in  this  elementary  gen- 
eral presentation  of  the  subject. 

VI.  THE  ARMSBY  FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

143.  The  Armsby  energy  values. — Armsby1  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Station  is  studying  the  nutrient  requirements  of  the  ox  with  the 
first  and  only  respiration  calorimeter  used  in  the  study  of  farm 
animals  in  America.  From  his  own  work  and  that  of  Kellner 
he  has  constructed  the  following  table,  which  shows  the  net  energy 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Buls.  51,  74, 101;  Farmers '  Bui.  346. 


120 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


of  feeding  stuffs  expressed  in  therms  (68)  in  place  of  Kellner's 
starch  values,  and  has  also  formulated  feeding  standards  based 
thereon : 

The  Armsby  Table  of  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  and  net  energy  values 
in  100  Ibs.  of  various  feeding  stuffs. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Total 
dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Green  fodder  and  silage 
Alfalfa 

Lbs. 

28.2 

Lbs. 
2.50 

Therms 
12.45 

Red  clover                                -     

29.2 

2.21 

16.17 

Green  corn  fodder              _  ..  

20.7 

0.41 

12.44 

Corn  silage                  -     .  _  

25.6 

1.21 

16.56 

Bye  fodder              

23.4 

1.44 

11.63 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders 
Alfalfa  hay  

91.6 

6.93 

34.41 

Bed  clover  hay  

84.7 

5.41 

34.74 

Corn  forage,  field  cured 

57.8 

2  13 

30.53 

Corn  stover 

59.5 

1  80 

26.53 

Cowpea  hay 

89.3 

8.57 

42.76 

Timothy  hay 

86.8 

2.05 

33.56 

Straws 
Oat  straw 

90.8 

1.09 

21.21 

Bye  straw                    

92.9 

0.63 

20.87 

Wheat  straw           

90.4 

0.37 

16.56 

Roots  and  tubers 
Carrots  ...  

11.4 

0.37 

7.82 

Mangels 

9.1 

0  14 

4.62 

Potatoes 

21.1 

0  45 

18.05 

Rutabagas 

11.4 

0  88 

8.00 

Grains 
Corn  

89.1 

6  79 

88.84 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

84.9 

4  53 

72.05 

Barley.  _      

89.1 

8  37 

80.75 

Oats 

89.0 

8  36 

66  27 

Bye 

88.4 

8  12 

81  72 

Wheat 

89.5 

8  90 

82.63 

By-products 
Dried  brewers'  grains 

92.0 

19.04 

60.01 

Buckwheat  middlings 

88.2 

22.34 

75.92 

Cotton-seed  meal 

91.8 

35.15 

84.20 

Gluten  feed..  _  _ 

91.9 

19.95 

79.32 

Linseed  meal,  o.  p. 

90.8 

27.54 

78.92 

Malt  sprouts     ___  _      .  _  __ 

89.8 

12.36 

46.33 

Dried  sugar-beet  pulp  __     _ 

93.6 

6.80 

60.10 

Wheat  bran  _  _ 

88.1 

10.21 

48.23 

Wheat  middlings  .__ 

84.0 

12.79 

77.65 

The  last  column  of  the  table  does  not  show  the  total  energy  in 
the  digestible  portion  of  100  Ibs.  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs, 
but  only  that  energy  which  is  finally  available  to  the  animal  after 
deducting  the  losses  occurring  thru  mastication,  digestion,  and  assim- 
ilation. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


121 


The  following  table  by  Armsby  sets  forth  the  maintenance  re- 
quirements of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  no  table  having  yet  been 
formulated  for  swine: 

Armsby's  maintenance  standard  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 


Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

weight 

Digestible 

Energy 

Digestible 

Energy 

Live 

Digestible 

Energy 

protein 

value 

protein 

value 

weight 

protein 

value 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

Lbs. 

Therms 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

150 

0.30 

2.00 

0.15 

1.70 

20 

0.023 

0.30 

250 

0.40 

2,80 

0.20 

2.40 

40 

0.05 

0.54 

500 

0.60 

4.40 

0.30 

3.80 

60 

0.07 

0.71 

750 

0.80 

5.80 

0.40 

4.95 

80 

0.09 

0.87 

1000 

1.00 

7.00 

0.50 

6.00 

100 

0.10 

1.00 

1250 

1.20 

8.15 

0.60 

7.00 

120 

0.11 

1.13 

1500 

1.30 

9.20 

0.65 

7.90 

140 

0.13 

1.25 

The  table  shows  that  a  young,  growing  horse  weighing  500  Ibs., 
when  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  requires  for  its  daily 
support  0.60  Ib.  of  digestible  protein  and  4.40  therms  of  net  diges- 
tible matter,  the  latter  including  the  0.60  Ib.  of  digestible  pro- 
tein. When  this  growing  horse  reaches  1000  Ibs.,  there  is  re- 
quired for  its  maintenance  1  Ib.  of  digestible  protein  and  7  therms 
of  net  digestible  matter.  Tho  it  has  doubled  in  weight,  the  food 
requirement  has  not  likewise  doubled.  When  the  horse  reaches 
the  weight  of  1500  Ibs.,  there  is  required  a  further  increase  of 
only  0.3  Ib.  of  protein  and  2.20  therms  of  net  energy. 

144.  Standards  for  growing  animals.— In  the  table  which  fol- 
lows, Armsby  sets  forth  the  digestible  protein  and  net  energy  re- 
quirements of  growing  cattle  and  sheep,  no  data  as  yet  having 
been  given  for  horses  and  swine.  The  figures  include  the  main- 
tenance requirements. 

The  Armsby  standard  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep. 


Cattle 

Sheep 

Age 

Live 
weight 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Live 

weight 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Months 
3 

Lbs. 
275 

Lbs. 
1.10 

Therms 
5.0 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

6 
9 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

70 
90 

0.30 
0.25 

1.30 
1.40 

12 
15 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

110 
130 

0.23 
0.23 

1.40 
1.50 

18 
24 

850 
1000 

1.70 
1.75 

7.5 

8.0 

145 

0.22 

1.60 

30 

1100 

1.65 

8.0 

122  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  table  shows  that  a  3-months-old  calf  weighing  275  Ibs.  re- 
quires 1.10  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein  and  5  therms  of  net  energy 
value,  the  latter  including  the  1.10  Ibs.  of  protein.  "When  the  calf 
has  grown  to  1100  Ibs.,  or  quadrupled  in  weight,  it  requires  but 
0.55  Ib.  more  protein  and  3  more  therms  than  before.  This  rela- 
tive lessening  in  feed  requirement  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  larger 
animal  requires  relatively  less  for  maintenance,  as  explained  elsewhere 
in  the  discussions  on  maintenance  requirements.  (96,  123a)  For  the 
1000-lb.  steer  Armsby  allows  1.75  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein,  and  but 
1 .65  Ibs.,  or  0.10  Ib.  less,  for  the  same  animal  when  weighing  1100  Ibs. 
This  is  because  at  the  higher  weight  the  steer  has  practically  ceased 
muscular  growth  and  therefore  needs  less  protein  than  earlier  in 
life.  A  comparison  of  the  maintenance  and  growth  requirements 
of  animals,  as  here  set  forth,  reveals  the  fact  that  a  large  por- 
tion of  all  the  feed  the  animal  consumes  is  used  for  the  support 
of  the  body,  and  that  the  additional  requirements  for  growth  are 
not  relatively  large. 

145.  Standards  for  milch  cows  and  fattening  steers. — Armsby 
supplements  the  foregoing  partial  standards  with  the  following: 

1.  For  milk  production,  add  to  the  maintenance  standard  0.05  Ib.  of  diges- 
tible protein  and  0.3  therm  for  each  pound  of  4  per  ct.  milk  to  be  produced. 

2.  For  mature  fattening  cattle,  add  3.5  therms  to  the  maintenance  stan- 
dard for  each  pound  of  gain  to  be  made. 

For  the  milch  cow  Armsby  provides  additional  food,  both  pro- 
tein and  therms,  as  noted  in  the  foregoing,  because  milk  is  rich 
in  complex  protein  compounds,  and  also  contains  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  Furthermore,  the  cow  is  usually  growing  a  calf.  For 
the  fattening  steer  Armsby  holds  that,  after  providing  the  pro- 
tein set  forth  in  the  ration  for  growth,  the  steer  will  fatten  sat- 
isfactorily without  any  additional  protein,  provided  there  are  sup- 
plied sufficient  carbohydrates  and  fat  to  meet  the  standard.  Hence 
there  is  no  provision  for  additional  protein  during  fattening  as  in 
the  Wolff  standards. 

Armsby  recommends  that: 

1.  A  1,000-lb.  ruminant  should  receive  20  to  30  Ibs.,  or  an  average  of  25  Ibs., 
dry  matter  per  day. 

2.  The  horse  should  receive  somewhat  less  dry  matter  than  ruminants. 

146.  Ration  for  dairy  cow. — The  following  illustrates  the  method 
of  using  the  Armsby  tables  and  standards  in  computing  rations. 
The  digestible  protein  in  the  tables  is  Jbrue^rotein  j  that  is,  it  does 
not  include  the  amids. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


123 


To  form  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  850  Ibs.  and  yielding  20 
Ibs.  of  milk  daily,  suppose  there  are  available  field-cured  corn  forage, 
clover  hay,  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,'  and  gluten  feed. 

The  maintenance  requirements  for  an  850-lb.  cow  are  approx- 
imately : 

Digestible  protein 0.45  Ib. 

Energy 5.60  therms 

For  the  production  of  20  Ibs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  there  is  needed 
in  addition  to  the  above : 

Digestible  protein  (0.05  Ib.  x  20) -  1  Ib. 

Energy  (0.3  therms  x  20) 6  therms 


The  total  daily  feed  requirements  are  therefore  as  follows : 
Feed  requirements  of  an  850-lb.  cow  producing  20  Ibs.  milk  daily. 


Digestible  protein 

Net  energy  value 

For  maintenance 

Lbs. 
0.45 

Therms 
5.60 

For  milk  production  _        _             _      

1.00 

6.00 

Total  requirement 

1.45 

11.60 

For  a  trial  ration  we  take  12  Ibs.  of  corn  forage,  6  Ibs.  of  clover 
hay,  5  Ibs.  of  corn  meal,  and  2  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran. 


Calculations  for  trial  ration  for  dairy  cow. 
Corn  forage  Clover  hay 


In  100 
pounds 


In  12 
pounds 


Dry  matter....  57.8  -4-100x12=6.94 
Dig.  protein ...  2. 13+- 100x12=0. 26 
Energy  value  . .  30. 53-*- 100x12=3. 66 


In  100 
pounds 


In  6 
pounds 


Dry  matter 84. 7  -5- 100  x  6=5. 08 

Dig.  protein  ....    5. 41-^-100x6=0. 32 
Energy  value...  34.74-4-100x6=2.08 


Corn  meal 

In  100 
pounds 


In  5 
pounds 


Dry  matter 89.1  -5-100x5=4.46 

Dig.  protein 6.79-5-100x5=0.34 

Energy  value  ...  88. 84-5-100x5=4. 44 


Wheat  bran 

In  100 
pounds 


In  2 

pounds 


Dry  matter 88.1  -5-100x2=1.76 

Dig.  protein....  10.21-5-100x2=0.20 
Energy  value ...  48. 23-5-100x2=0. 96 


124 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Arranging  these  results,  we  have : 

First  trial  ration  for  an  850-lb.  cow  producing  20  Ibs.  milk  daily. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Total 
dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Corn  forage,  12  Ibs.                 .  . 

Lbs. 
6.94 

Lbs.I 
0.26 

Therms 
3.66 

Clover  hay,  6  Ibs. 

5.08 

0.32 

2.08 

Corn  meal,  5  Ibs. 

4.46 

0.34 

4.44 

Wheat  bran,  2  Ibs 

I  76 

0  20 

0  96 

First  trial  ration 

18.24 

1.12 

11.14 

Standard  requirement 

1.45 

11.60 

Excess  or  deficit 

—0.33 

—00.46 

This  trial  ration  shows  a  deficiency  in  both  digestible  protein 
and  energy  value.  To  improve  it  we  deduct  1  Ib.  of  corn  meal 
and  add  2  Ibs.  of  gluten  feed,  which  is  the  richest  in  digestible 
protein  of  the  available  feeds.  We  then  have : 

Second  trial  ration  for  an  850-lb.  cow  producing  20  Ibs.  milk  daily. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Total 
dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy  value 

Corn  forage,  12  Ibs.  _ 

Lbs. 
6.94 

Lbs. 
0.26 

Therms 
3.66 

Clover  hay,  6  Ibs. 

5.08 

0.32 

2.08 

Corn  meal,  4  Ibs. 

3.56 

0.27 

3.55 

Wheat  bran,  2  Ibs.  

1.76 

0.20 

0.96 

Gluten  feed,  2  Ibs. 

1.84 

0.40 

1.59 

Second  trial  ration  

19.18 

1.45 

11.84 

Standard  requirement 

1.45 

11.60 

Excess  or  deficit  _  .  .                      

0.00 

+0.24 

This  ration  agrees  closely  with  the  standard.  Thus,  accord- 
ing to  the  Armsby  standard,  a  satisfactory  ration  for  a  dairy  cow 
weighing  850  Ibs.  and  producing  20  Ibs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  daily 
may  be  composed  of  corn  forage,  12  Ibs. ;  clover  hay,  6  Ibs. ;  corn 
meal,  4  Ibs. ;  wheat  bran,  2  Ibs. ;  and  gluten  feed,  2  Ibs. 

VII.  THE  SCANDINAVIAN  FEED  UNIT  SYSTEM. 

A  system  of  feed  equivalents,  based  mainly  on  the  extensive  ex- 
periments with  milch  cows  and  swine  by  Fjord  and  his  successors 
at  the  Copenhagen  Station,  has  been  adopted  in  Denmark  and 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


125 


other  Scandinavian  countries,  especially  by  the  cow-testing  as- 
sociations, for  measuring  the  relative  production  economy  of  cows. 
This  system  is  extensively  used  with  cows,  occasionally  with  pigs, 
and  rarely  with  other  animals.  It  has  great  merit,  especially  in 
cooperative  efforts  to  improve  dairy  cattle  and  their  feeding — 
lines  in  which  the  Scandinavian  farmers  are  leaders. 

147.  The  feed  unit. — The  feed  unit  of  the  Danish  associations 
is  1  Ib.  of  standard  grain  feed,  such  as  corn  and  barley,  or  their 
equivalents  in  feeding  value.  In  Sweden  it  is  one  kilo  (2.2  Ibs.) 
of  mixed  concentrates  or  their  equivalent.  All  feeding  stuffs  are 
reduced  to  this  standard  in  calculating  the  feed  consumption  of  the 
animal.  The  Danish  valuation  table  is  as  follows : 

Danish  valuation  table  of  feeding  stuffs. 


Feed  required 
to  equal  1  unit 

Average 

Range 

For  dairy  cows 

Indian  corn,  wheat,  barley,  palmnut  meal,  dry  matter 
in  roots  the  standard  of  value 

Lbs. 

1.0 

Lbs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  peanut  meal 

0.8 

Linseed  meal,  rape-seed  meal,  sunflower  meal     .        

0.9 

Oats,  wheat  bran           ._    .        -           

1.1 

Malt  sprouts,  molasses  feed  .      _     __ 

1.2 

Dried  beet  pulp  and  molasses  ..  _  ._  

1.3 
2  5 

1.2-1.5 

Whole  milk 

Hay                          .  .  

2.5 

5.0 
6.0 

2.0-3.0 
4.0-6.0 

Wet  brewers'  grains,  potatoes,  straw,  and  chaff 

Skim  milk  and  buttermilk 

Silage,  green  clover,  and  mixed  green  grasses 

8.0 

10.0 
12.0 
12.5 
15.0 

1.0 

6.0-10.0 

8.0-12.0 
10.0-15.0 
10.0-15.0 
12.0-18.0 

Mangels,  rutabagas,  carrots,  beet  pulp  silage,  and  soil- 
age crops  other  than  clover  and  mixed  grasses 

Beet  leaves  and  tops 

Turnips  and  fresh  beet  pulp 

Beet  leaves,  fresh                                         -    -  - 

For  pigs 
Indian  corn,  barley,  wheat,  oil  cakes               

Rye  wheat  bran 

1  4 

Boiled  potatoes 

4.0 

Skim  milk 

6.0 

Whey 

12.0 

For  horses 

One  Ib.  of  Indian  corn  equals  1  Ib.  of  oats  or  1  Ib.  of  dry 
matter  in  roots. 

It  is  shown  in  the  table  that  1  Ib.  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, palmnut  meal,  or  the  dry  matter  of  roots  is  taken  as  the  unit 
standard.  On  this  basis  0.8  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  or  1.1  Ibs.  of 


126  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

oats  has  the  same  feeding  value  as  the  unit  standard,  1  Ib.  of  corn. 
Of  the  roughages,  2.5  Ibs.  of  good  hay  or  8  Ibs.  of  silage,  green 
clover,  or  mixed  fresh  grasses  counts  as  1  unit.  The  grass  con- 
sumed by  a  cow  at  pasture  during  1  day  is  valued  at  from  10  to 
16  units  according  to  its  quality  and  the  production  of  the  cow. 

148.  The  Scandinavian  feeding  standard.— In  the  table  which 
follows,  Hansson  has  formulated  the  unit  feed  requirements  for 
cows  yielding  different  amounts  of  milk,  based  especially  on  the 
findings  of  the  cow-testing  associations  in  Southern  Sweden.1 

Scandinavian  feeding  standard  for  dairy  cows. 


Required 

per  day 

• 

Digestible 
protein 

Feed  units 

When  yielding  0-13  Ibs. 

milk  daily 

Lbs. 
1.10 

11.0 

When  yielding  22.0  Ibs. 

milk  daily.  . 

1.65 

14.5 

When  yielding  33.0  Ibs. 

milk  daily  

2.20 

18.3 

When  yielding  44.0  Ibs. 

milk  daily.  ... 

2.75 

22.0 

The  table  sets  forth  that  a  cow  yielding  not  over  13  Ibs.  of  milk 
daily  requires  11  feed  units,  containing  1.1  Ibs.  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, while  one  yielding  44  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  requires  22  feed  units, 
containing  2.75  Ibs.  of  digestible  protein.  The  standard  assumes 
that  for  maintenance  the  cow  requires  about  1  feed  unit  for  every 
150  Ibs.  of  body  weight,  and  1  unit  additional  for  each  3  Ibs.  of 
milk  produced.  The  ration  should  contain  not  less  than  0.065  Ib. 
of  digestible  protein  per  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight,  and  0.045  to  0.05 
Ib.  of  digestible  protein  additional  for  each  Ib.  of  milk  produced. 

149.  An  example.— The  following  illustrates  the  Scandinavian 
method  of  comparing  feed  consumption  and  milk  production: 

If  during  a  month  a  cow  has  consumed  240  Ibs.  of  hay,  1000  Ibs. 
of  silage,  60  Ibs.  each  of  barley  and  ground  corn,  and  90  Ibs.  of 
linseed  oil  meal,  the  calculation  based  on  the  valuation  table  would 
be  as  follows: 

Feed  consumed  Lbs.  for  1  unit  Feed  units 


240  Ibs.  hay 

-h-              2.5 

— 

96 

1000  Ibs.  silage 

-4-                8.0 



125 

120  Ibs.  corn  and  barley 

-5-               1.0 

— 

120 

90  Ibs.  oil  meal 

-f-                0.9 

.  — 

100 

Total  feed  units 

_ 

441 

1K.  Lantbr.  Akad.  Hand!.  47,  1908,  parts  I,  II,  p.  60;  Fiihling's  Landw.  Ztg., 
57,  p.  435. 


Feeding  Standards — Calculating  Rations. 


127 


It  is  shown  that  the  cow  consumed  441  feed  units  during  the 
month.  If  in  that  time  she  yielded  850  Ibs.  of  milk,  containing 
30.6  Ibs.  of  fat,  each  100  feed  units  produced  5"  =  193  Ibs.  of 
milk,  containing  Jg  =  6.9  Ibs.  butter  fat.  If  the  fat  brought  30 
cents  per  lb.,  100  feed  units  would  return  6.9  x  $0.30=$2.07. 

150.  The  Swedish  Test  Associations.— In  what  follows  is  shown 
some  of  the  work  of  the  Swedish  Test  Associations  for  the  year 
1906-7.  The  first  table  shows  the  feed  units  consumed  per  cow 
annually  in  the  association  having  the  poorest  and  the  best  re- 
turns, and  the  average  of  96  associations.  The  second  table  shows 
the  production  per  cow  and  per  100  feed  units  consumed. 

Average  feed  units  consumed  annually  per  cow  as  found  ~by  the  Swedish 

Test   Associations. 


Concentrates 

Roughages 

Total 

Oil 
cakes 

Bran 
and 
grains 

Roots, 
beet 
pulp 

Hay 
and 
straw 

Soilage 
and 
past- 
ure 

Association 
showing  poorest  returns 

Units 

900 
1056 

856 

Units 

581 

878 

708 

Units 

900 
1410 

1166 

Units 

1142 
1078 

1256 

Units 

1397 
1311 

1294 

Units 

4920 
5733 

5280 

showing  best  returns 

Average  of  96  associations 

Average  production  per  cow  and  per  100  feed  units. 


Production  per  cow 

Production  per  100  units 

Milk 

Butter 
fat 

Butter 

Milk 

Butter 

Value 
of 
prod- 
uct 

Association 
showing  poorest  returns 
showing  best  returns  _  .  . 

Lbs. 

6261 
8650 

Lbs. 

200.0 
295.2 

Lbs. 

218.0 
327.1 

Lbs. 

280.1 
332.1 

Lbs. 

10.0 
12.5 

Dollars 

2.51 
3.17 

Average  of  96  associations 

7429 

239.9 

265.3 

309.5 

11.0 

2.85 

The  first  table  shows  that  the  association  with  the  poorest  record 
fed  each  cow,  on  the  average,  4920  feed  units  during  the  year.  The 
association  with  the  highest  record  fed  5733  units  per  cow,  while 
the  average  for  96  associations  was  5280  feed  units. 

The  second  table  shows  that  the  average  cow  in  the  poorest 
association  gave  6261  Ibs.  of  milk,  while  in  the  best  association  she 
gave  8650  Ibs.  The  herds  in  the  poorest  association  yielded  about 


128  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

200  Ibs.  of  butter  fat  per  cow,  and  those  in  the  best  over  295  Ibs. 
The  well-fed  herds  returned  66  cents  more  for  each  100  feed  units 
consumed  than  did  the  poorly-fed  herds — a  difference  of  over  22 
per  ct.  in  favor  of  the  heavier  feeding. 

The  Scandinavian  system  of  using  feed  units  for  studying  and 
comparing  individual  cows,  herds,  and  associations,  and  the  co- 
operative efforts  of  these  associations  toward  betterment,  merit  the 
highest  praise.  This  system  is  simple,  easily  understood,  and  capa- 
ble of  the  widest  usefulness.  It  should  be  adopted  in  the  United 
States. 


PART  II. 
FEEDING   STUFFS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

LEADING  CEKEALS  AND  THEIK  BY-PRODUCTS. 
I.  INDIAN  CORN  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Indian  corn  can  be  successfully  grown  in  every  state  of  the 
Union,  tho  it  flourishes  best  in  that  great  middle  region  of  our 
country  lying  between  the  Appalachian  Mountain  chain  on  the 
east  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau  on  the  west.  In  the  South 
the  tropical  corn  stems,  four  or  five  months  from  planting,  carry 
great  ears  burdened  with  grain  so  high  that  a  man  can  only  touch 
them  by  reaching  high  above  his  head.  At  the  other  extreme,  the 
Mandan  Indian  in  the  country  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  de- 
veloped a  race  of  corn  which  reached  only  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
squaw,  with  tiny  ears  borne  scarcely  a  foot  from  the  ground  on 
pigmy  stalks.  Like  the  other  leading  cereals  which  grow  en  masse, 
the  corn  plant  must  likewise  grow  with  others  of  its  kind,  but  it 
requires  more  space,  air,  and  sunlight.  Because  it  requires  thoro 
tillage  and  makes  most  of  its  growth  during  late  summer  and 
early  fall,  Indian  corn  stands  in  a  class  by  itself  among  the 
cereals.  (16)  This  requirement  of  thoro  tillage  brings  many  ad- 
vantages to  the  soil  not  forced  upon  us  in  growing  the  other 
cereals.  The  corn  grain  is  pre-eminently  a  carbohydrate  bearer. 
Taking  carbon  from  the  air  and  water  from  the  soil,  it  locks 
these  together  potentially  thru  the  energy  of  the  sun  that  shines 
with  tropical  fervor  wherever  this  plant  flourishes,  for  corn  must 
have  an  average  minimum  temperature  of  at  least  70°  F.  Starch 
is  the  great  carbohydrate  of  corn,  there  being  nearly  75  Ibs.  in 
every  100  of  grain.  Add  to  this  5  Ibs.  of  oil,  and  we  can  under- 
stand why  Indian  corn  among  the  cereal  grains  may  be  likened 
to  anthracite  coal  among  the  fuels. 

Corn  is  the  great  energizing,  heat-giving,  fat-furnishing  food 
for  the  animals  of  the  farm.  Supreme  in  these  qualities  it  is 

10  129 


130  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

hardly  possible  that  it  should  further  prove  ideal  for  nourishing 
young,  growing  animals.  It  fails  in  some  measure  to  furnish  the 
nutrients  in  proper  proportion  for  bone  and  muscle  building,  since 
it  is  not  rich  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter.  No  other  grain 
that  the  farmer  grows  yields,  on  a  given  space  and  with  a  given 
expenditure  of  labor,  so  much  animal  food,  both  in  grain  and  for- 
age, as  does  the  Indian  corn  plant.  On  millions  of  farms  success- 
ful animal  husbandry  rests  upon  this  imperial  grain  and  forage 
plant.  (411,  521,  621,  744,  842) 

A  possible  explanation  of  the  great  fondness  of  farm  animals 
for  corn  lies  in  the  considerable  amount  of  oil  it  carries.  Again, 
on  mastication  the  kernels  break  into  flinty,  nutty  particles  which 
are  more  palatable,  for  example,  than  meal  from  the  almost  oil- 
free  wheat  grain,  which  on  crushing  and  mingling  with  saliva 
turns  to  a  sticky  dough  in  the  mouth. 

151.  Races  of  corn. — Three  races  of  corn — dent,  flint,  and  sweet — 
are  of  interest  to  the  stockman.   In  dent  corn  the  starch  is  partly 
hornlike  and  partly  floury,  rendering  the  kernel  easy  of  mastica- 
tion.    In  flint  corn  the  starch  is  mostly  hornlike  and  flinty,  making 
the  kernel  more  difficult  for  the  animal  to  crush.     Both  chemical 
analysis   and  experience   oppose   the   assertion,   often   heard,   that 
yellow  corn  is  more  nutritious  than  white,   or  the   opposite.     In 
fact,  the  coloring  matter  of  yellow  corn  is  so  minute  in  quantity 
as  to  be  unweighable.     While  a  certain  strain  or  variety  of  one 
may  be  superior  to  any  particular  strain  or  variety  of  the  other 
in  a  given  locality,  there  is  no  uniform  difference  between  white 
and  yellow  corn  in  productiveness  or  feeding  properties.     In  sweet 
corn   the    starch    is    hornlike    and   tough.     Before    hardening,    the 
milky  kernels  of  sweet  corn  carry  much  glucose,  which  is  changed 
to  starch  as  they  mature  into  the  shrunken  grain.     The  sweetness 
of  the  immature  grains  of  sweet  corn,  due  to  the  glucose  they  then 
carry,  adds  to  the  palatability  but  not  necessarily  to  their  nutri- 
tive value,  since  glucose  and  starch  have  the  same  feeding  value. 
Sweet  corn  has  somewhat  more  crude  protein  and  fat  and  less  car- 
bohydrates than  the  other  races. 

152.  Corn  cobs. — Well-dried  dent  ear  corn  of  good  breeding  car- 
ries about  56  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn  to  14  Ibs.  of  cob.     The  propor- 
tion of  cob  to  grain  varies  greatly  according  to  race,  variety,  and 
dryness,  ranging  from  below  20  to  about  40  per  ct.,  flint  varieties 
having  a  larger  proportion  of  cob  to  grain  than  does  dent  corn. 
The  cobs  carry  about  30  per  ct.  of  fiber,  which  at  best  is  of  low 


Feeding  Stuffs. 


131 


feeding  value,   and  much  of  their  nitrogen-free  extract  is  in  the 
form  of  pentosans.  (3,  82) 

153.  Shrinkage  of  ear  corn. — While  the  amount  of  water  in  old 
corn  varies  but  little  from  12  per  ct.,  the  Iowa  Station1  found  as 
high  as  36  per  ct.  in  freshly  husked  ear  corn.  Corn  carrying  20 
per  ct.  or  more  of  water  will  not  usually  keep  if  stored  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity.  Studies  were  conducted  by  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion2 with  3  lots  of  ear  corn  fairly  dry  when  cribbed,  by  the  Illinois 
Station3  with  2  cribs,  each  containing  20,000  Ibs.,  and  by  the  Iowa 
Station4  with  4  varieties.  The  results  are  given  in  the  table : 

Shrinkage  of  cribbed  dent  corn. 


Station 

Shrinkage 
during  Nov. 
and  Dec. 

Shrinkage 
from  Nov. 
to  March 

Shrinkage 
from  Nov. 
to  April 

Shrinkage 
in  1  year 

Shrinkage 
in  2  years 

Kansas 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 
3  26 

Per  cent 
6  80 

Per  cent 
8  62 

Per  cent 

Illinois 

2.60 

6.00 

17.80 

19.40 

20.60 

Iowa 

8.34 

14.08 

19.26 

The  amount  of  shrinkage  with  ear  corn  depends  upon  the  water 
content  and  maturity  when  husked,  and  the  rate  of  shrinkage  upon 
the  variety,  the  maturity  of  the  grain,  and  the  air  humidity.5  When 
the  water  content  of  ear  corn  falls  to  12  per  ct.,  shrinkage  prac- 
tically ceases.  The  shrinkage  in  weight  of  ear  corn  is  largely  in 
the  cobs,  which  usually  form  about  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of 
the  ears  at  husking  and  one-fifth  of  their  cured  weight.  Twisting 
the  ears  slightly  will  fairly  indicate  the  moisture  contained.  Loose 
grained,  "  sappy "  ears  carry  20  per  ct.  or  more  of  water,  while 
solid  ones  usually  contain  not  much  over  12  per  ct.  Seventy  Ibs. 
of  dry  dent  corn  of  good  varieties  will  make  one  bushel  or  56  Ibs. 
of  shelled  corn,  but  in  early  fall  the  buyers  frequently  demand 
75  or  80  Ibs.,  according  to  the  estimated  water  content.  Corn  is 
stored  mostly  on  the  husked  ear  at  the  North,  but  at  the  South 
the  husks  are  left  on  the  ears  because  of  the  weevil,  a  beetle  that 
lives  in  the  kernels  unless  they  are  protected.  Shelled  corn  does 
not  keep  well  in  bulk,  especially  in  summer,  and  so  the  corn  is 
always  held  in  ear  form  as  long  as  possible. 

154.  Soft  corn. — Corn  frosted  before  the  grains  mature  contains 
too  much  water  for  storage  or  shipment,  and  can  be  best  utilized 


1  Bui.  77. 

2  Bui.  144. 

3  Bui.  113. 


4  Bnl.  77. 

r>  Iowa  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  77. 


132 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


by  immediate  feeding.  When  soft  corn  containing  35  per  ct.  of 
water  was  fed  to  cattle  at  the  Iowa  Station,1  it  was  found  that  a  Ib. 
of  dry  matter  in  such  corn  equaled  a  Ib.  of  dry  matter  in  hard 
corn,  and  that  the  cattle  fed  soft  corn  finished  as  well  as  those 
fed  hard  corn.  (524,  843) 

155.  The  corn  kernel. — Hopkins  of  the  Illinois  Station2  separated 
the  water-free  kernels  of  an  ear  of  average  dent  corn  into  their 
several  parts,  and  analyzed  each  part  with  the  results  given  be- 
low : 

Location  of  nutrients  in  the  water-free  corn  kernel. 


Name  of  part 

Lbs.  of  each  part 
in  100  Ibs.  corn 

Lbs.  of  each  nutrient  in  100  Ibs.  dry  corn 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Oil 

Ash 

Hull  and  tip  cap 

Lbs. 
7.39 
8.51 
47.08 
25.49 
11.53 

Lbs. 
0.36 
1.89 
4.80 
2.00 
2.28 

Lbs. 
6.88 
5.88 
42.05 
23.36 
4.09 

Lbs. 
0.08 
0.59 
0.11 
0.06 
4.02 

Lbs. 
0.07 
0.15 
0.11 
0.07 
1.14 

Hornlike  gluten 

Hornlike  starch 

Floury  starch  _        

Germ  ___________     ___ 

Whole  kernel 

100.00 

11.33 

82.26 

4.86 

1.54 

It  is  shown  that  in  100  Ibs.  of  water-free  corn  the  hulls  and  tip 
caps  together  amounted  to  7.39  Ibs.,  the  hornlike  layer  of  gluten 
just  under  the  skin  8.51  Ibs.,  and  the  flinty,  hornlike  starch  at  the 
sides  and  base  of  the  kernel  47.08  Ibs.,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the 
total  weight.  In  each  100  Ibs.  of  kernels  the  soft,  floury  starch 
in  the  middle  portion  of  the  kernel  formed  25.49  Ibs.  and  the  germ 
11.53  Ibs.  The  last  4  columns  of  the  table  show  the  number  of 
pounds  of  each  nutrient  contained  in  each  of  the  several  parts  of 
100  Ibs.  of  water-free  corn.  It  is  seen  that  the  hull  and  tip  cap 
are  largely  carbohydrates,  while  the  germ  is  heavily  charged  with 
crude  protein  and  oil. 

It  is  shown  that  100  Ibs.  of  water-free  corn  contains  over  11  Ibs. 
of  crude  protein.  It  further  contains  over  82  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates, 
of  which  about  80  Ibs.  is  starch,  and  the  remainder,  something  over 
2  Ibs.,  comprises  the  fiber  of  the  hulls  and  of  the  cell  walls  inclosing 
the  starch  grains.  Of  oil  there  is  nearly  5  Ibs.,  and  of  mineral 
matter  only  about  1.5  Ibs.  Thus  it  is  shown  that  the  corn  grain  is 
fair  in  crude  protein,  rather  low  in  ash,  rich  in  oil,  and  extremely 
rich  in  starch.  It  is  because  of  the  abundance  of  these  latter  two 


1  Bui.  75. 


Bui.  87. 


Feeding  Stuffs.  133 

constituents  in  this  highly  palatable  grain  that  corn  excels  as  a 
fattening  food. 

156.  Corn  meal. — In  preparing  corn  for  human  food  the  grain  is 
ground  to  a  rather  coarse  meal,  and  the  bran  or  hulls  of  the  ker- 
nels  removed   by   bolting.     The   product   is   known   as   corn   meal. 
The  terms  "corn  meal"   and  "corn  chop"   as  used  by  stockmen 
denote  the  entire  ground  grain.     Since  we  have  learned  that  it  is 
often  best  not  to  grind  corn  at  all  when  fed  to  stock,  (331-3,  523, 
821)  the  question  whether  this  grain  should  be  reduced  to  a  coarse 
or  a  fine  meal  has  lost  much  of  the  interest  once  taken  in  it.     On 
grinding  corn  the  oil  it  carries  soon  becomes  rancid  and  gives  to 
the  meal  a  stale  taste.     Hence  this  grain  should  never  be  ground 
far  in  advance  of  use. 

157.  Corn-and-cob  meal. — When  ear  corn  is  ground  the  product 
is   called  corn-and-cob  meal.     Because  of  the   rubber-like   consist- 
ency of  the  cobs,  much  power  is  required  to  reduce  ear  corn  to 
meal.     If  the   cob   particles  in   corn-and-cob   meal  are   coarse,   the 
animal  will  not  usually  eat  them,  but,  when  finely  ground,  corn-and- 
cob  meal  proves  satisfactory  with  most  farm  animals.     Much  evi- 
dently depends  on  the  nature  of  the  roughage  fed  with  the  meal. 
The   Paris   Omnibus   Company  found   corn-and-cob  meal  more   ac- 
ceptable than  pure  corn  meal  to  its  thousands  of  horses,  (411)   and 
stockmen  generally  report  favorably  on  its  use.     It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  corn  meal  when  fed  alone  lies  too   compactly  in  the 
stomach  to  be  readily  attacked  by  the  digestive  fluids,  while  corn- 
and-cob  meal  forms  a  loose  mass  more  easy  of  digestion.     Where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  cheap  roughage,  it  is  best  to  omit  the 
cobs  in  grinding  unless  there  is  ample  power  at  low  cost.  (845) 

158.  Starch  and  glucose  by-products. — The  following  by  Lind- 
sey  of  the  Massachusetts    (Hatch)    Station1  shows,  in  outline,  how 
corn  is  treated  in  the  production  of  starch,  which  is  used  for  many 
purposes,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  glucose,  etc. : 

"The  corn  is  first  soaked  in  quite  dilute,  warm  sulfurous  acid 
water.  It  is  then  ground  by  being  passed  with  water  thru  mills 
to  carry  off  the  substance  in  suspension.  Degerminating  machin- 
ery removes  the  germs  at  this  point.  The  germs  are  dried  and 
crushed  between  rolls,  and  the  oil  pressed  out,  leaving  the  residue 
in  cakes.  It  is  exported  as  corn  meal  cake  or  sold  in  this  country 
as  germ  oil  meal.  After  degermination  the  suspended  mass  is 
bolted  thru  sieves  separating  the  hull,  bran,  and  some  light-weight 

1  Bui.  78. 


134  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  broken  germs  from  the  starch  and  gluten.  These  materials 
pressed  and  dried  were  formerly  sold  as  chop  feed,  but  are  now 
known  as  fancy  corn  bran.  The  starch  and  gluten  are  run  into 
concentrating  tanks  and  then  passed  very  slowly  thru  long  shallow 
troughs.  The  starch  settles  down  like  wet  lime  in  these  troughs, 
while  the  hard,  flinty  portion  or  gluten  floats  off  into  receivers,  is 
concentrated,  and  finally  pressed  in  heavy  filter  cloths,  run  thru 
steam  dryers,  and  appears  as  gluten  meal." 

Gluten  meal  is  one  of  the  richest  of  concentrates  in  crude  pro- 
tein and  fat,  while  fair  in  carbohydrates  and  low  in  mineral  mat- 
ter. It  is  a  heavy  feed  and  but  little  used  in  its  original  form. 
(635,  846)  Gluten  feed,  composed  of  gluten  meal  and  corn  bran 
ground  together,  is  now  the  largest  common  by-product  of  glucose 
and  starch  factories.  It  is  rich  in  crude  protein,  fair  in  fat,  and 
rather  low  in  carbohydrates  and  mineral  matters.  It  is  a  most 
valuable  concentrate,  especially  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow. 
(636)  The  experiment  stations  report  samples  of  'gluten  feed 
showing  acidity  and  artificial  coloring  matter.  (344)  The  feeder 
should  insist  upon  this  product  being  free  from  both,  for,  while 
they  may  not  be  positively  harmful,  they  detract  from  the  palata- 
bility  and  general  wholesomeness  of  this  otherwise  most  valuable 
and  satisfactory  feed.  Germ  oil  meal  contains  somewhat  less  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  than  gluten  feed,  but  carries  much  more 
fat  and  a  fair  amount  of  mineral  matter.  (638,  871) 

159.  Hominy  feed. — In  the  manufacture  of  hominy  and  brewers' 
grits,  the  hulls,  together  with  some  of  the  starchy  matter  of  the 
corn  grain,  are  left  over  as  by-products.     These  combined  compose 
hominy  feed,  a  palatable,  valuable  concentrate  of  excellent  quality, 
being  fair  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat.  (637,  847) 

160.  Corn  a  carbonaceous  food. — Corn  as  a  grain  has  a  high  per- 
centage of  starch  with  a  rather  low  crude  protein  and  ash  content. 
Rich  in  starch  and  oil,  it  is  plainly  the  function  of  this  grain,  when 
fed  to  farm  animals,  to  produce  heat,  energy,  and  fat.     No  other 
grain  equals  corn  for  fattening,  but  because  it  is  not  rich  in  crude 
protein  and  ash,  it  is  not  eminently  suited  for  producing  bone  and 
muscle  in  young  and  growing  animals.  (115)     These  deficiencies  of 
corn  are  easily  supplied  in  other  feeds,  so  that  on  most  American 
farms  it  ranks  first  in  usefulness  among  all  the  grains. 


Feeding  Stuffs.  135 

II.  WHEAT  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS  IN  MILLING. 

Since  it  costs  more  to  produce  wheat  than  corn,  and  since  our 
population  is  steadily  increasing,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
wheat  will  never  be  used  in  any  considerable  amount  for  feeding 
stock  in  this  country,  as  it  was  at  one  time.  But  the  feeder  should 
know  both  its  absolute  and  relative  value,  for  the  low  grades  of 
wheat  would  better  be  fed  to  stock  than  sold. 

161.  Wheat    as    a    feed. — Compared    with    corn,    wheat    carries 
slightly  more  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  starch,  more  crude  pro- 
tein, and  much  less  fat.     It  also  has  somewhat  more  phosphorus 
and  potash,  and  is  therefore  superior  to  corn  for  building  bone  and 
muscle  in  young  and  growing  animals — a  statement  corroborated  by 
the  experience  of  feeders.     Fed  alone  to  fattening  animals  wheat 
yields  about   10  per  ct.  less  returns  than  corn,  but  wrhen  mixed 
with  corn,  oats,  or  barley  the  combination  is  superior  to  any  one 
of  these  feeds.     Wheat-fed  steers  and  pigs  have  less  fat  and  more 
bright-colored  lean  meat  than  those  fed  corn.     Because  the  kernels 
are  small  and  hard,  wheat  should  be  ground  for  all  farm  animals 
except  sheep.     Wheat  flour  and  meal  fed  alone  are  unsatisfactory 
because  they  form  a  pasty  mass  in  the  animal's  mouth,  a  condi- 
tion  which   can   be   remedied   by   adding   some   material   such   as 
bran  or  corn  meal.  (414,  527,  623,  746,  848) 

Those  who  raise  wrheat  should  sell  only  the  best  grades,  retain- 
ing for  their  animals  all  shrunken  and  damaged  grain,  which  at 
best  has  but  a  low  selling  value.  (526)  If  only  slightly  charred 
or  injured  by  smoke  in  elevator  fires,  wheat  has  very  considerable 
feeding  value.  Several  stations  have  fed  frozen  wheat  to  pigs  with 
returns  about  equal  to  those  yielded  by  marketable  grain.  (848) 

162.  Flour  manufacture. — The   wheat  kernel  proper   is  covered 
with    three    strawlike    coats    or    skins.     Beneath    these    comes    the 
fourth,  called  the  "aleurone  layer,"  which  is  rich  in  crude  pro- 
tein, and  which  in  milling  goes  with  the  other  coats  to  form  bran. 
The  germ,  or  embryo  plant,  in  each  wheat  kernel  is  rich  in  oil, 
crude  protein,  and  mineral  matter.     The  remainder  of  the  kernel 
consists  of  thin-walled  cells  packed   with  starch   grains.     Among 
the   starch    grains   are    protein   particles   called   "gluten,"   which 
give  to  wheat-flour  dough  that  tenacity  so  essential  in  bread  mak- 
ing.    In  producing  flour  the  miller  aims  to  secure  all  the  starch 
and  gluten  possible  from  the  wheat  grains,  while  avoiding  the  germ 
and  bran.     He  leaves  out  the  germs  because  they  make  a  sticky 


136  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

dough,  and  also  because  they  soon  turn  dark  and  rancid,  giving  to 
flour  a  specked  appearance.  Nor  does  he  use  the  aleurone  layer, 
because  it  gives  a  brownish  tint  to  the  flour.  In  modern  milling, 
flour  is  produced  by  passing  the  thoroly  cleaned  wheat  again  and 
again  thru  hardened  steel  rollers,  the  flour  particles  being  taken 
out  each  time  by  bolting,  until  only  the  by-products  remain. 

In  the  manufacture  of  flour,  from  25  to  33  per  ct.  of  the  weight 
of  the  wheat  grain  remains  as  bran,  middlings,  etc.  Since  the  con- 
sumption of  wheat  in  this  country  is  about  4.5  bushels,  or  270  Ibs., 
for  each  person,  the  by-products  of  this  grain  amount  to  nearly 
70  Ibs.  for  each  person,  not  including  that  resulting  from  the  wheat 
milled  for  export. 

163.  Feeding  bread. — An  English  writer1  reports  a  cab  propri- 
etor in  London  feeding  bread  to  horses  with  economy  and  success, 
the  only  trouble  being  that  many  loaves  were  consumed  by  the 
workmen.     He  further  states  that  he  has  seen  the   coachmen  of 
Paris  feeding  brown  bread  to  their  horses,  and  that  this  food  is 
given  to  horses  in  countries  where  hay  is  dear.     He  recommends 
that,  to  prevent  stealing,  stra,w  be  mixed  with  the  dough  before 
baking.     When  available,  the  stale  bread  of  the  bakeries  is  used 
for  feeding  animals. 

164.  Low-grade  flour. — "Dark  feeding  flour,"  "red  dog  flour," 
etc.,  usually  contain  the  wheat  germs  and  are  rich  in  crude  pro- 
tein,   carbohydrates,    and   fat.     Such   flours   have    a   high   feeding 
value,  especially  for  young  pigs,  calves,  and  milch  cows.  (479,  849) 
McConnell  of  England2  reports  having  fed  American  low-grade  flour 
for  6  months,  and  is  "rather  surprised  at  the  beneficial  results." 

165.  Bran. — Bran  is  comparatively  rich  in  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein and  carries  a  considerable  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  fat.     It  is  light  and  chaffy,  having  a  large  amount  of  woody 
fiber  for  a  concentrate,  and  is  rich  in  mineral  matter  except  lime. 
Hart  and  Patten  of  the  Geneva   (New  York)    Station3  have  shown 
that  ordinary  wheat  bran  contains  from  6  to  7  per  ct.  of  phytin, 
an  organic  compound  containing  phosphorus,  magnesia,  and  potash. 
In  the  past  the  laxative  effect  of  bran,  one  of  its  beneficial  prop- 
erties, was  ascribed  to  the  mild  irritation  produced  by  the  chaffy 
bran  particles  on  the  lining  of  the  intestinal  tract.     These  chemists 
have  found,  however,  that  the  laxative  effect  of  bran  is  due  to  the 
phytin  it  contains. 

1  The  Field,  England,  July  15, 1893.  3  Bui.  250. 

2  Agricultural  Gazette,  1893,  p.  351. 


Feeding  Stuffs.  137 

Phosphorus,  an  essential  component  of  the  bones  and  of  milk, 
is  abundant  in  bran,  while  lime,  likewise  needed  in  still  larger 
amount,  is  only  sparingly  present.  Horses  heavily  fed  on  wheat 
bran  or  middlings  sometimes  suffer  from  a  form  of  rickets  called 
' '  bran  disease, ' ' x  which  seriously  affects  their  bones.  To  supply 
the  lime  which  bran  lacks,  farm  animals  may  either  be  fed  lime  in 
inorganic  form — wood  ashes,  ground  limestone,  burned  lime,  or 
ground  rock  phosphate  (floats),  (89,  90)  or  they  may  be  supplied 
lime  in  organic  form  by  feeding  lime-laden  plants,  such  as  the 
legumes,  which  include  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch,  cowpea,  etc. 

Knowing  the  properties  of  bran,  one  is  in  position  to  advanta- 
geously use  this  most  valuable  feed.  The  best  grades  of  bran  are 
of  light  weight,  with  large,  clean  flakes  and  no  foreign  matter. 
As  bran -is  too  valuable  to  be  used  as  the  sole  concentrate  for  farm 
animals,  it  should  be  mixed  with  other  concentrates  to  lighten  the 
ration  or  add  bulk  while  improving  its  nutritive  qualities.  Sup- 
plied to  horses  once  or  twice  a  week  in  the  form  of  a  "mash"  made 
with  scalding  water,  bran  proves  a  mild,  beneficial  laxative.  When 
used  continuously,  the  animal  system  becomes  accustomed  to  it 
and  the  laxative  property  is  less  marked.  Hard-worked  horses 
have  neither  time  nor  energy  to  digest  feeds  of  much  bulk,  and 
hence  their  allowance  of  bran  should  be  somewhat  limited.  It  may 
be  supplied  more  freely  to  colts,  growing  horses,  brood  mares,  and 
stallions.  (420)  Because  of  its  crude  protein  and  phosphorus,  it 
serves  its  highest  purpose  in  giving  virility  and  in  helping  to  build 
bone  and  muscle  without  tending  to  fatten.  Being  light  in  char- 
acter, it  is  most  useful  for  combining  with  corn  and  other  heavy 
feeds  for  fattening  cattle.  Bran  is  a  most  excellent  feed  for  the 
dairy  cow,  being  slightly  laxative,  giving  bulk  to  the  ration,  and 
providing  the  crude  protein  and  phosphorus  so  vital  to  the  forma- 
tion of  milk.  (632)  It  is  equally  satisfactory  for  breeding  sheep 
and  lambs.  Tho  too  strawlike  for  young  pigs,  (852)  it  is  valuable 
in  giving  bulk  and  nutriment  to  the  ration  for  breeding  swine  and 
stock  hogs  when  they  are  not  getting  legume  pasture  or  hay.  (906) 
Rationally  used,  bran  is  of  great  value  in  putting  the  body  of  the 
female  farm  animal  in  the  best  condition  to  bear  her  young. 

166.  Wheat  middlings  and  shorts.— To  some  extent  "middlings" 
and  "shorts"  are  interchangeable  terms.  Flour  wheat  middlings 
are  of  higher  grade  than  standard  middlings  and  often  contain 
considerable  low-grade  flour.  Standard  wheat  middlings  comprise 

1  Law's  Vet.  Medicine,  ill,  p.  572. 


138  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

the  finer  bran  particles  with  considerable  flour  adhering.  Shorts 
too  often  consist  of  ground-over  bran  and  the  sweepings  and  dirt 
of  the  mills,  along  with  ground  or  unground  weed  seeds.  Mid- 
dlings are  highly  useful  with  swine  of  all  ages.  They  should  not 
be  fed  separately,  but  should  always  be  mixed  with  corn  meal,  bar- 
ley meal,  ground  oats,  or  bran,  therewith  forming  most  satisfac- 
tory feed  combinations.  (850)  Mixed  with  the  various  ground 
grains,  middlings  and  shorts  are  helpful  with  dairy  cows,  since 
they  add  crude  protein  and  phosphorus  to  the  ration.  (633)  Mid- 
dlings and  shorts  alone  should  never  be  fed  to  horses,  since  they 
are  too  heavy  and  pasty  in  character  and  are  liable  to  induce  colic. 
Like  bran,  both  middlings  and  shorts  are  low  in  lime,  a  deficiency 
which  should  always  be  supplied  by  the  other  feeds  in  the  ration. 

167.  Screenings. — In  cleaning  and  grading  wheat  at  tKe  eleva- 
tors and  mills,  great  quantities  of  screenings  remain,  consisting  of 
broken  and  shrunken  wheat  kernels  having  a  high  feeding  value, 
and  also  weed  seeds,  many  of  which  have  value,  while  others  are 
of  little  worth,   and   a  few   actually  poisonous.     Screenings  have 
their  place  and  use,  tho,  on  account  of  their  variable  character, 
little  of  definite  nature  can  be  said  concerning  them.  (752)     Along 
with  molasses   and   the   by-products   of   the   distilleries,   breweries, 
flouring  mills,  oatmeal  factories,  etc.,  they  are  now  largely  absorbed 
in  the  manufacture  of  proprietary  feeding  stuffs. 

III.    OATS   AND  THEIR   BY-PRODUCTS. 

Next  to  corn,  oats  are  the  most  extensively  grown  cereal  in 
America.  In  the  southern  portion  of  our  country  a  bushel  of  oats 
often  weighs  only  20  Ibs.,  while  on  the  Pacific  coast  it  may  weigh 
50  Ibs.  Southern  oats  have  a  larger  kernel  than  the  Northern  grain. 
They  bear  an  inflated  husk  carrying  an  awn  or  beard,  which  causes 
the  grains  to  lie  loosely  in  the  measure.  At  the  North  the  kernel 
is  encased  in  a  compact  hull,  usually  not  awned.  The  hulls  of  oats 
constitute  from  20  to  45  per  ct.  of  their  total  weight,  the  average 
being  about  30  per  ct.  "Clipped  oats"  have  had  the  hulls  clipped 
at  the  pointed  end,  thereby  increasing  the  wreight  per  bushel.  A 
hulless  variety  of  oats,  but  little  grown  in  this  country,  serves 
well  for  poultry  and  swine,  while  the  varieties  with  hulls  are  pref- 
erable for  other  stock.  The  oat  grain  is  higher  in  crude  protein 
than  is  corn,  and  in  fat  it  exceeds  wheat  and  nearly  equals  corn. 

168.  Oats  for  horses. — Oats  are  the  safest  of  all  feeds  for  the 
horse,  for  the  hull  gives  to  them  such  volume  that  the  animal  rarely 


Feeding  Stuffs.  139 

suffers  from  gorging.  In  this  regard  they  resemble  bran  and  are 
in  strong  contrast  with  corn.  Whole  oats  are  best  for  mature 
horses  with  good  teeth  and  ample  time  for  eating  and  digesting 
their  food,  but  for  hard-worked  horses  and  foals  the  grain  should 
be  crushed  or  ground.  Grandeau1  states  that  the  Paris  Cab  Com- 
pany have  used  crushed  oats  in  feeding  its  thousands  of  hard- 
worked  horses  getting  but  a  limited  amount  of  hay,  with  a  decided 
saving. 

The  mettle  or  spirited  action  so  characteristic  of  the  oat-fed 
horse  is  never  quite  attained  thru  the  use  of  any  other  feed.  It 
has  long  been  held  that  there  is  a  stimulating  principle  in  the  oat 
grain,  and  tho  all  claims  of  the  discovery  of  this  principle  have 
malted  away  on  careful  examination,2  there  yet  remains  the  feel- 
ing that  there  is  a  basis  for  the  claim.  (409) 

169.  Oats  for  other  animals. — For  dairy  cows  there  is  no  better 
grain  than  oats,  but  their  use  is  restricted  by  their  high  price. 
Danish  dairymen  sow  oats  together  with  barley,  and  feed  the  two 
grains  in  combination.  (626)     Oats  fed  to  beef  calves  at  the  South 
Dakota   Station3   returned  but  26   cents  per  bushel.     At  both  the 
Montana4  and  South  Dakota5  Stations  oats  proved  inferior  to  corn, 
barley,  or  wheat  for  fattening  lambs,  doubtless  because  this  grain 
tends  to   growth  rather  than  fattening.  (747)     Ground  oats  with 
the  hulls  sifted  out  provide  a  most  nourishing  and  wholesome  feed 
for  young  calves  and  pigs.   (855)     For  breeding  swine,  whole  oats 
in  limited  quantity  are  always  in  place. 

170.  By-products. — At  the  grain  elevators  and  oatmeal  factories 
the  light-weight  oat  kernels  are  screened  out  from  the  better  grade 
and  go  out  as  feed  for  stock.     The  value  of  such  grain  depends  on 
the  proportion  of  kernel  to  hull.     Light-weight  oats  of  low  feeding 
value  are  often  mixed  with  corn  and  the  ground  product  sold  as 
ground  corn  and  oats.    Vast  quantities  of  hulls  are  turned  out  by 
the  oatmeal  factories,  and  so  completely  are  the  kernels  separated 
from  the  hulls  that  the  chafflike  material  which  remains  has  but  a 
low  feeding  value.     Oat  hulls  contain  about  30  per  ct.  fiber,  as 
Table  I  of  the  Appendix  shows,  and  their  feeding  value  can  be  but 
little,  if  any,  above  that  of  oat  straw.    If  fragments  of  the  kernels 
adhere,  their  value  is  of  course  thereby  improved.     Oat  hulls  are 

1  Expt.  Sta.  Rec.,  XVII,  p.  898. 

2  Agriculture  in  Some  of  its  Relations  with  Chemistry,  Vol.  2 ;  Landw.  Vers. 
Sta.,  36,  p.  299;   Rpt.  Me.  Expt.  Sta.,  1891,  p.  58,  corr.;  Centbl.  Chem.,  1884, 
p.  20. 

3  Bui.  97.  4  Bui.  47.  5  Bui.  86. 


140  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

freely  used  as  an  adulterant  of  feeding  stuffs,  especially  with 
ground  corn,  the  combination  then  selling  as  ground  corn  and  oats. 
In  manufacturing  oatmeal,  after  the  kernels  are  hulled  they  are 
freed  from  the  minute  hairs  which  adhere  to  one  end  of  the  kernel. 
Small  as  these  hairs  are,  they  form  with  fragments  of  the  kernels 
a  product  of  great  volume,  known  as  oat  dust,  which  has  a  feed- 
ing value  between  that  of  the  hulls  and  oat  middlings.  Oat  feed, 
oat  shorts,  and  oat  middlings  are  products  ranging  from  low  to 
high  in  feeding  value. 

IV.  BARLEY  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS  IN  BREWING. 

Barley  is  the  most  widely  cultivated  of  the  cereals,  growing  as 
far  north  as  65°  north  latitude  in  Alaska  and  flourishing  beside 
orange  groves  in  California.  Once  the  chief  bread  plant  of  many 
ancient  nations,  it  is  now  used  almost  wholly  for  brewing,  pearling, 
and  stock  feeding.  Richardson1  found  that  Dakota  barley  con- 
tained the  highest  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  and  Oregon  barley  the 
lowest.  The  closely  adhering  hull  of  the  barley  grain  constitutes 
about  15  per  ct.  of  its  total  weight.  Besides  the  common  barley 
there  are  varieties  of  barley  without  beards  and  still  others  with- 
out hulls.  This  grain  has  less  digestible  crude  protein  than  oats, 
and  considerably  more  than  corn.  The  carbohydrates  exceed  those 
of  oats  and  fall  below  those  in  corn,  and  the  oil  content  is  lower 
than  in  either  of  these  grains. 

171.  Barley  as  a  feed. — On  the  Pacific  slope,  where  corn  or  oats 
do  not  flourish  in  equal  degree,  barley  is  extensively  used  as  a  feed 
for  animals.  The  horses  of  California  are  quite  generally  fed  on 
rolled  barley,  with  wheat,  oat,  or  barley  hay  for  roughage.  (413) 
Barley  is  the  common  feed  for  dairy  cows  in  northern  Europe. 
The  Danes  sow  barley  and  oats  together  in  the  proportion  of  1  part 
of  barley  to  2  of  oats,  the  ground  mixed  grain  from  this  crop  being 
regarded  as  the  best  available  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  other  stock. 
(624)  At  the  Virginia  Station2  calves  made  excellent  gains  on 
barley  and  skim  milk,  but  corn  proved  cheaper.  At  the  Washing- 
ton Station3  steers  made  cheaper  gains  on  wheat  than  on  barley, 
and  still  cheaper  on  the  two  grains  mixed.  (527-8)  In  Great  Britain 
and  northern  Europe  barley  takes  the  place  of  corn  for  pork  pro- 
duction, leading  all  grains  in  producing  pork  of  fine  quality,  both 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  of  Chem.,  Bui.  9.  2  Bui.  172.  3  Bui.  79. 


Feeding  Stuffs.  141 

as  to  hardness  and  flavor.  (926)  The  Iowa1  and  Nebraska2  Sta- 
tions used  barley  economically  to  supplement  corn  for  hogs.  (854) 
Rain,  fog,  and  dew  at  harvest  time  injure  barley  for  brewing 
purposes  without  necessarily  lowering  its  feeding  value.  Because 
barley  meal,  when  finely  ground,  forms  a  pasty  mass  in  the  mouth 
of  the  animal,  barley  should  be  reduced  by  rolling,  as  is  the  com- 
mon practice  on  the  Pacific  coast,  rather  than  by  grinding.  (768) 

172.  Malt. — Tn  making  malt  the  barley  grains  are  first  steeped 
in  warm  water  until  they  are  soft.     The  grain  is  then  held  at  a 
warm  temperature  until  it  begins  to  sprout,  in  which  process  a  fer- 
ment or  enzyme  called  "diastase"  converts  the  starch  into  a  form 
of  sugar  called  "maltose."     As  soon  as  this  change  has  occurred 
the  sprouting  grains  are  quickly  dried.     The  tiny,  dry,  shriveled 
sprouts  separated  from  the  grains  are  called  "malt  sprouts,"  and 
the  dried  grains  with  their  content  of  malt  sugar  form  malt.     In 
the  manufacture  of  beer  the  brewer  extracts  the  soluble  malt  sugar 
and    some    nitrogenous    matter    from    the    malt.     The    freshly    ex- 
tracted malt  grains  constitute  wet  brewers'  grains,  which  on  dry- 
ing in  a  vacuum  are  called  dried  brewers'  grains. 

173.  Malt  for  stock. — Lawes  and  Gilbert  of  the  Kothamsted  Sta- 
tion,3 after  experimenting  with  malt,  conclude:     "A  given  weight 
of  barley  is  more  productive  both  of  the  milk  of  cows  and  of  the 
increase  in  live  weight  of  fattening  animals  than  the  amount  of 
malt  and  malt  sprouts  that  would  be  produced  from  it.   ...   Irre- 
spective of   economy,   malt   is  undoubtedly   a  very   good   food   for 
stock ;  and  common  experience  seems  to  show  that  a  certain  amount 
of  it  is  beneficial   ...   to  young  or  weakly  animals,  or  in  making 
up  for  exhibition  or  sale;  that  is,  when  the  object  is  to  produce  a 
particular  result,  irrespective  of  economy."  (768) 

174.  Wet  brewers'  grains. — Owing  to  their  volume,  their  watery 
nature,    and  their  perishable   character,   wet   brewers'   grains   are 
usually  fed  near  the  brewery.     In  the  hands  of  ignorant  or  greedy 
persons,  cows  have  often  been  crowded  into  dark,  illy-ventilated 
sheds  and  fed  almost  exclusively  upon  wet  brewers'  grains.     Some- 
times the  grains  have  partially  rotted  before  being  fed,  and  the 
drippings  getting  under  feed  boxes  and  floors  have  on  ferment- 
ing produced  sickening  odors.     Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not 
surprising  that  boards  of  health  have  been  led  to  prohibit  the  sale 
of  milk  from   such  dairies.     There   is  nothing,   howrever,   in  fresh 
brewers'    grains   which    is    necessarily   deleterious   to    milk.     Sup- 

1  Bui.  91.  -  Bui.  99.  3  Rothamsted  Memoir^  Vol.  IV. 


142  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

plied  in  reasonable  quantity,  and  fed  while  fresh  in  clean,  water- 
tight boxes  and  along  with  nutritious  hay  and  other  roughage, 
there  is  no  better  food  for  dairy  cows  than  wet  brewers'  grains. 
So  great  is  the  temptation  to  abuse,  however,  that  wet  grains 
should  never  be  fed  to  dairy  cows  unless  under  the  strict  super- 
ivision  of  competent  officials.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  their  use 
should  be  prohibited. 

175.  Dried  brewers'  grains. — By  removing  practically  all  of  the 
moisture   from   wet   grains   by   means   of   the   vacuum   process,    a 
concentrated  product   known  as   " dried  brewers'   grains"   is   ob- 
tained,   which    is   no    more    perishable    than    wheat    bran.     Dried 
brewers'  grains  are  rich  in  both  crude  protein  and  fat,  with  con- 
siderable fiber  due  to  the  barley  hulls.     They  are  low  in  carbo- 
hydrates,  which   in   these    grains   are    largely   pentosans.1  (3,    82) 
Dried  brewers'  grains  are  an  excellent  concentrate  for  dairy  cows, 
ranking  with  bran  and  oil  meal  in  palatability  and  general  good 
effects.  (648)     The    Massachusetts     (Hatch)     Station2    found    them 
cheaper  than  oats  for  horses   and  as  satisfactory,   especially  for 
those  at  hard  work  and  needing  extra  crude  protein.     From  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  the  concentrates  in  the  ration  for  horses  may 
consist  of  dried  brewers'  grains,  and  the  remainder  of  either  corn 
or  oats.  (421)     Being  high  in  fiber,  dried  brewers'  grains  are  not 
satisfactory  for  pigs. 

176.  Malt   sprouts. — The   tiny,   shriveled   barley   sprouts    which 
have  been  separated  from  the  dried  malt  grains  are  rather  low  in 
carbohydrates  and  fat,  but  carry  about  20  per  ct.  of  digestible 
crude  protein,  one-half  or  more  of  which  is  amids.  (5,  78)     Tho 
rich  in  crude  protein  they  are  not  relished  by  stock,  and  should  be 
given  in  limited  quantity  in  combination  with  other  concentrates. 
The   Massachusetts    (Hatch)    Station3   found   that   cows   would   not 
eat  over  2  or  3  Ibs.  of  malt  sprouts  daily.  (649)     They  absorb  much 
water  and  should  be  soaked  several  hours  before  feeding. 

Y.  RYE  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Rye,  the  principal  cereal  of  the  northern  European  countries, 
is  not  extensively  grown  in  America.  Tho  it  repays  good  treat- 
ment, this  "grain  of  poverty"  thrives  in  cool  regions  on  land  that 
would  not  give  profitable  returns  with  the  other  cereals.  Since 
it  furnishes  about  one-third  of  the  people  of  Europe  with  bread, 

1  Mass.  (Hatch)  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  94.  2  Loc.  cit.  3  LOG.  cit. 


Feeding  Stuffs.  143 

we  may  conclude  that  rye  must  have  nutritive  value  with  domestic 
animals.  Farm  animals  show  no  particular  fondness  for  rye  in 
any  form,  tho  they  take  it  willingly  when  mingled  with  other  feed- 
ing stuffs,  as  it  always  should  be.  It  has  been  charged  that  since 
ergot,  a  fungus  having  medicinal  properties,  grows  on  rye  heads, 
this  grain  may  prove  dangerous  to  farm  animals  and  even  cause 
abortion — a  charge  that  seems  unwarranted  in  view  of  the  exten- 
sive use  of  rye  for  human  food. 

177.  Rye  and  its  by-products. — In  Germany1  work  horses  are  fed 
from  2  to  4  Ibs.  of  rye  daily  with  oats  or  other  concentrates.  (415) 
According  to  Boggild,2  rye  imparts  a  characteristic  flavor  to  milk 
and  may  cause  bitter  butter.     The  Scandinavian  Preserving  Com- 
pany of   Copenhagen,   which  preserves   butter  in   sealed   cans   for 
shipment  to  distant  countries,  prohibits  the  feeding  of  rye  on  the 
farms   of   its   patrons.     The   limited   use   of   rye   with   dairy   cows 
should  usually  prove  satisfactory.  (625)     Fjord's  experiments  with 
pigs  show  that  rye  has  a  feeding  value  about  equal  to  barley,  and 
that  the  quality  of  pork  from  rye-fed  pigs  is  satisfactory.     A  com- 
bination of  barley  and  rye  was  found  superior  to  rye  shorts  alone. 
The  pork  from  rye  shorts  was  inferior,   showing  more   shrinkage 
and  being  softer  than  that  from  mixed  rye  and  barley.     In  one 
trial  rye  shorts  caused  sickness  among  the  pigs.  (853) 

VI.  EMMER. 

178.  Emmer  as  a  feed. — Emmer,  Triticum  sat.,  var.  dicoccum,  often 
improperly    called    "speltz,"   was    introduced    into   America   from 
Germany  and  Kussia.     It  is  a  member  of  the  wheat  family,  altho 
in  appearance  the  grain  resembles  barley.     Being  drought  resist- 
ing, emmer  is  especially  valuable  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  Amer- 
ica, where  it  is  now  extensively  and  profitably  grown.     The  ad- 
herent hulls  of  emmer  represent  about  21  per  ct.  and  the  kernels 
79  per  ct.  of  the  grain,  which  weighs  about  40  Ibs.  to  the  bushel. 
At  the  Kansas  Station3  emmer  gave  a  heavier  yield  of  grain  than 
either  oats  or  barley,  and  at  the  Western  Nebraska  Substation4  it 
yielded  23  bushels  per  acre.     In  general  the  returns  are  from  20 
to  40  bushels  per  acre.     The  South  Dakota  Station5  found  emmer 

1  Pott,  Futterm.,  p.  395.  4  Bui.  95. 

2  Malkeribruget  i  Denmark,  1st  ed.,  p.  70.  6  Bui.  100. 

3  Bui.  123. 


144:  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

less  valuable  than  barley  for  fattening  sheep  or  for  dairy  cows. 
(627)  A  mixture  of  emmer  and  barley  put  larger  gains  on  fat- 
tening lambs  than  emmer  alone.  (749)  Thru  emmer,  kafir,  milo, 
and  certain  millets,  all  relatively  new  plants  with  us,  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  great  plains  region  of  America  for  the  maintenance 
of  farm  animals  and  the  production  of  meat  have  been  enormously 
increased.  (529,  530,  857) 


CHAPTER  X. 

MINOR  CEKEALS,  OIL-BEARING  AND  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS, 
AND  THEIK  BY-PKODUCTS. 

I.  RICE  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

The  production  of  rice  is  steadily  increasing  in  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  where  it  already  forms  a  most  important  industry.  While, 
like  wheat,  this  cereal  is  grown  strictly  for  human  food,  neverthe- 
less the  waste  and  the  by-products  which  remain  in  preparing  it 
for  the  use  of  man  have  value  and  should  be  conserved  for  nour- 
ishing farm  animals.  Rice  is  the  richest  of  all  cereals  in  carbo- 
hydrates, while  relatively  low  in  crude  protein  and  fat. 

179.  Rice  and  by-products. — According  to  Fraps  of  the  Texas 
Station,1  a  sack  of  rice,  weighing  162  Ibs.,  yields  the  following 
products  : 

Clean  rice 100.0  pounds 

Rice  polish 6.3  pounds 

Rice  bran 20.2  pounds 

Rice  hulls 32.1  pounds 

Loss 3.4  pounds 

Total 162.0  pounds 

The  Texas  Station2  found  that  after  being  ground  damaged  rice 
had  about  one-half  the  value  of  cotton-seed  meal  as  a  feed  for  fat- 
tening steers.  Red  rice,  a  pest  in  rice  fields,  equals  the  cultivated 
grain  in  feeding  value.  When  true  to  name,  rice  meal  is  the  most 
nutritious  of  rice  feeds,  containing  a  fair  amount  of  crude  protein 
and  a  large  amount  of  fat.  Rice  polish  is  composed  of  the  floury 
particles  which  result  from  polishing  the  kernels  to  produce  a 
pearly  luster.  It  has  a  feeding  value  equal  to  corn,  but  its  use 
in  the  arts  removes  it  largely  from  the  list  of  farm  feeding  stuffs. 

Dodson   of  the  Louisiana   Station3   values   ground  whole   rice   at 

7  and  hulled  rice  at  16  per  ct.  more  than  corn.     No  ill  effects  have 
been  known  to  follow  feeding  ground  rough  rice.     Many  farmers 
feed  sheep  rice.   For  a  1000-lb.  horse  a  ration  might  be  made  from 

8  Ibs.  of  rice,  2  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  10  Ibs.  of  black  strap  molas- 

1  Bui.  73.  2  Bui.  86.  3  Louisiana  Planter,  44,  6,  p.  92. 

11  145 


146  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

ses,  with  pea-vine  hay  for  roughage.  He  believes  that  rice  is  worth 
$2  per  barrel  for  cattle  fattening. 

Eice  bran  is  composed  of  the  outside  layer  of  the  kernel  proper, 
together  with  some  of  the  germs,  often  adulterated  with  the  hulls. 
Eice  by-products,  especially  meal  and  bran,  are  frequently  dis- 
tasteful to  animals,  because  the  oil  they  contain  soon  becomes  ran- 
cid. The  Louisiana  Station1  employed  rice  bran  successfully  for 
one-half  the  concentrates  in  a  ration  for  horses  and  mules.  The 
North  Carolina  Station2  found  that,  properly  balanced  with  pro- 
tein feeds,  rice  bran  when  not  rancid  was  a  valuable  feed  for  cows. 
(533,  863) 

The  hulls  of  rice  grains  are  tasteless,  tough,  and  woody.  They 
are  also  heavily  charged  with  silica  or  sand,  and  have  sharp, 
roughened  flinty  edges  and  needlelike  points  which  do  not  soften 
in  the  digestive  tract  and  so  are  irritating  and  dangerous  to  the 
walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  Louisiana  Station3  re- 
ports cases  of  vomiting  and  death  with  cattle  fed  rice  hulls.  Eice 
hulls  should  never  be  fed  to  farm  animals,  yet  they  have  been  ex- 
tensively employed  by  unscrupulous  dealers  for  adulterating  com- 
mercial feeding  stuffs.  Such  use  should  be  prohibited  by  law,  since 
rice  hulls  in  any  form  are  worse  than  worthless.  (863) 

II.  BUCKWHEAT  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Tho  rarely  used  for  feeding  stock,  buckwheat  has  a  fair  value 
for  such  purpose,  its  nutrients  running  somewhat  lower  than  those 
in  the  leading  cereals.  (856) 

180.  Buckwheat  by-products. — The  black,  woody  hulls  of  the 
buckwheat  grain,  Fagopyrum  esculentum,  have  little  feeding  value 
and  should  be  used  to  give  bulk  or  volume  to  the  ration  only  when 
it  cannot  be  otherwise  secured.  On  the  other  hand,  that  part  of 
the  kernel  immediately  under  the  hull,  which  on  grinding  and  bolt- 
ing forms  middlings,  is  rich  in  crude  protein  and  fat,  with  a  cor- 
respondingly high  feeding  value.  The  miller,  desiring  to  dispose 
of  as  much  of  the  hulls  as  possible,  mixes  them  with  the  middlings 
to  form  buckwheat  bran.  The  intelligent  purchaser  will  avoid 
the  worthless  hulls  so  far  as  he  can,  choosing  instead  the  rich 
floury  middlings.  Buckwheat  by-products  are  nearly  always  used 
for  feedings  cows,  rightly  having  the  reputation  of  producing  a 
large  flow  of  milk.  The  charge  that  buckwheat  by-products  make 

1  Bui.  77.  2  Bui- 169.  3  Bui.  77. 


Sorghums  and  Millets.  147 

a  white,  tallowy  butter  and  pork  of  low  quality  fails  if  they  are 
not  given  in  excess.  Ilayward  and  Weld  of  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion1 conclude  from  feeding  trials  that  for  milk  and  butter  pro- 
duction buckwheat  middlings  are  equal  to  dried  brewers'  grains. 
(634)  Buckwheat  by-products  may  be  successfully  fed  in  limited 
amounts  to  other  farm  animals.  When  stored  in  bulk,  buckwheat 
by-products  are  liable  to  heat  unless  first  mixed  with  some  other 
light  feed  like  wheat  bran. 

III.  SORGHUMS  AND  MILLETS. 

Numberless  millions  of  human  beings  in  India,  China,  and  Africa 
rely  on  the  sorghums  and  millets  as  their  bread  grain.  Church2 
tells  us  that  in  India  alone  over  33,000,000  acres  of  land  are  an- 
nually devoted  to  growing  the  millets,  including  the  sorghums,  kafirs, 
milos,  etc. — a  greater  area,  he  reports,  than  is  devoted  to  wheat, 
rice,  and  Indian  corn  combined. 

The  sorghums,  Andropogon  sorghum  or  Sorghum  vulgare,VB,T8.f 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the  saccharine  sorghums,  having 
stems  filled  with  sweet  juices,  and  kafir,  milo,  durra,  and  broom  corn, 
whose  pithy  stems  have  little  or  no  sweet  juice.  The  Indian  corn 
plant  never  gives  satisfactory  returns  if  once  its  growth  has  been 
checked.  The  sorghums,  however,  may  cease  growing  and  their 
leaves  may  shrivel  during  periods  of  excessive  heat  and  drought. 
Yet  when  these  conditions  pass  and  the  soil  becomes  moist  again, 
they  quickly  resume  growth.  This  quality  gives  to  this  group  of 
grain-bearing  plants  great  worth  and  vast  importance  in  the  south- 
western semi-arid  plains  region  of  the  United  States,  up  to  an  ele- 
vation of  4,000  feet  above  sea  level. 

181.  Sweet  sorghums. — The  sweet  sorghums,  which  are  used  for 
forage  production  rather  than  for  grain,  can  be  grown  almost  any- 
where in  the  United  States.     At  the  Wisconsin  Station3  the  author 
secured  amber  cane  seed  at  the  rate  of  32  bushels  of  53  Ibs.  each  per 
acre.     Cook   of  the   New   Jersey   Station4   found  amber   cane   seed 
about  10  per  ct.   less  valuable  than  Indian  corn  for  dairy  cows. 
(629)     Because  of  the  value  of  the  forage,  both  green  and  dry,  and 
also  of  the  seed,  the  sweet  sorghums  should  be  grown  at  the  North 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  at  present.  (861) 

182.  Broom  corn. — In  harvesting  broom  corn  the  heads  are  cut 
before  the  seed  has  fully  matured,  and  the  seed  is  removed  from  the 

1  Bnl.  41.  3  Rpt.  on  Amber  Cane,  1881. 

"  Food  Grains  in  India,  1901.  4  Kpt.  1885. 


148 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


brush  before  it  is  fully  dry.  This  seed  has  considerable  feeding 
value  and  may  be  saved  by  drying  or  ensiling.  A  test  by  Miles1 
shows  that  broom-corn  seed  can  be  satisfactorily  ensiled  in  an 
earth-covered  heap. 

183.  Kafir. — In  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  the  semi-arid  regions  of 
the  southwestern  United  States,  kafir,  introduced  from  eastern 
Africa,  has  proved  of  great  importance  both  as  a  grain  and  a  forage 
plant.  The  following  table  shows  the  yield  of  kafir  and  Indian  corn 
at  the  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  Stations:2 

Relative  yield  of  Tea-fir  and  Indian  corn. 


Bed  kafir 

Indian  corn 

Grain 
per  acre 

Fodder 
per  acre 

Grain 
per  acre 

Fodder 
per  acre 

Kansas  Station,  av.  for  7  years 

Bushels 
55.0* 
30.1 

Tons 
4.7 

2  2 

Bushels 
39.1 
11.1 

Tons 
2.4 
0.9 

Oklahoma  Station,  av.  for  4  years  ___ 

'Average  for  6  years. 

This  table  shows  that  red  kafir  gave  materially  better  returns  in 
both  grain  and  forage  than  did  Indian  corn.  Kafir  grain  weighs 
from  50  to  56  Ibs.  per  bushel.  The  seed  coat  of  the  red  kafir  has  an 
astringent  principle  which  makes  it  less  palatable  than  white  kafir. 
Tho  kafir  ranks  below  Indian  corn  in  palatability  and  feeding  value, 
it  is  nevertheless  a  most  valuable  and  important  crop  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  it  flourishes.  Work  horses  may  be  fed  either  kafir 
heads  or  the  threshed  grain,  (416)  and  idle  horses,  colts,  young 
stock,  and  dairy  cows  thrive  on  kafir  forage  carrying  the  heads. 
Kafir  should  always  be  ground  or  soaked  before  feeding.  Kafir 
meal  is  suitable  for  calves  when  supplementing  skim  milk.  (480) 
Kafir  grains  moistened  with  water  to  stifle  the  dust  may  be  fed 
whole  to  mature  swine.  (858)  This  grain  is  somewhat  astringent  in 
nature,  and  so  is  suited  for  feeding  with  alfalfa,  clover,  and  other 
somewhat  laxative  feeds.  (531,  628) 

184.  Milo. — The  most  successful  of  the  durra  sorghums  is  milo, 
now  a  staple  crop  over  large  portions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Colo- 
rado, and  Oklahoma,  at  elevations  ranging  from  1500  to  4000  feet 
above  sea  level.  Tests  at  Amarillo,  Texas,3  show  a  5-year  average 
of  40  bushels  of  milo  per  acre,  weighing  60  Ibs.  per  bushel.  Accord- 
ing to  Ball,4  milo  is  equal  to  or  somewhat  better  than  the  kafirs  as 


1  Country  Gentleman,  March  23, 1876. 

2  Cyc.  Amer.  Agr.,  Vol.  11,  p.  385. 


3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  322. 

4  Loc.  cit. 


Oil-bearing  Seeds  and  their  By-products.  149 

a  feeding  grain,  and,  unlike  the  kafirs,  it  has  a  beneficial  laxative 
effect  on  the  bowels.  White  and  brown  durra  are  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia under  the  name  of  Egyptian  corn.  The  ripened  seed  of 
durra  shatters  easily,  and  the  forage  is  less  valuable  than  that  of 
kafir.  (532,  859) 

185.  Millet.— At    the    Massachusetts     (Hatch)     Station1    Brooks 
produced  millet  at  the  rate  of  74  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  47  Ibs. 
per  bushel,  but  concluded  that  this  grain  cannot  successfully  com- 
pete with  Indian  corn  in  that  state.     Wilson  and   Skinner  of  the 
South  Dakota  Station2  produced  30  bushels  of  hog  or  Black  Vero- 
nesh  millet,  Panicum  miliaceum,  per  acre.     The  ground  grain  proved 
satisfactory  for  fattening  swine,  tho  for  a  given  gain  one-fifth  more 
millet   was   required   than   wheat   or   barley.     The   carcasses   of   the 
millet-fed  pigs  were  clothed  with  a  pure  white  fat  of  superior  qual- 
ity.    At  the  same  Station3  in  the  production  of  baby  beef  somewhat 
more  millet  than  corn  was  required  for  a  given  gain.     The  millets 
are  valuable  and  are  growing  in  importance  for  grain  production 
in  the  plains  region  of  the  United  States,  northward  of  the  areas 
best  suited  to  kafir  and  durra.  (433,  530,  751,  860) 

IV.  OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS. 

186.  Cotton  seed. — The   annual  crop  of  the  United  States  now 
amounts  to  over  12,000,000  bales  of  500  Ibs.  each  with  not  less  than 
6,000,000  tons  of  cotton  seed  as  a  by-product,  since  for  each  pound 
of  fiber,  or  lint,  there  are  2  Ibs.  of  seed.     Previous  to  1860  the  seed 
of  the  cotton  plant  was  largely  wasted  by  the  planters,  who  often 
allowed  it   to  rot  near  the  gin  house,   ignorant  or  careless  of  its 
worth,  while  meat  and  other  animal  products  which  might  have  been 
produced  from  it  were  purchased  at  high  cost  from  northern  farm- 
ers.    The  utilization  of  the  cotton  seed  and  its  products  as  food  for 
man  and  beast  furnishes  a  striking  example  of  what  science  is  ac- 
complishing for  agriculture. 

According  to  Burkett  and  Poe,4  1  ton  of  cotton  seed  yields  ap- 
proximately : 

Linters,  or  short  fiber 21  pounds 

Hulls 841  pounds 

Cake,  or  meal 732  pounds 

Crude  oil 280  pounds 

Loss,  etc 120  pounds 

Total _2000pounds 

1  Bui.  18.  2  Bui.  83.  3  Bui.  97.  *  Cotton,  its  Cultivation,  etc. 


150  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

187.  Cotton-seed  cake  and  meal. — At  the  oil  mills  the  dry,  leath- 
ery hulls  of  the  cotton  seed,  which  are  covered  with  short  lint,  are 
cut  by  machinery,  and  the  oily  kernels  set  free.     These  kernels  are 
crushed,  heated,  placed  between  cloths,  and  subjected  to  hydraulic 
pressure  in  order  to  remove  the  oil.     The  residue  is  a  hard,  yellowish, 
boardlike  cake  about  1  inch  thick,  1  ft.  wide,  and  2  ft.  long.     In 
this  form  it  is  shipped  abroad  as  cotton-seed  cake.     For  home  trade 
the  cake  is  reduced  to  meal  by  grinding,  the  product  being  called 
cotton-seed  meal.     Cotton  seed  is  high  in  crude  protein  and  fat,  and 
cotton-seed  meal  is  one  of  the  richest  in  these  nutrients  of  all  feeds. 
The  decorticated  cotton-seed  cake  of  the  European  markets  is  sim- 
ilar in  composition  to  American  cotton-seed  meal.     The  undecorti- 
cated  cake  contains  more  hulls,  and  has  a  proportionally  lower  feed- 
ing value. 

Cold-pressed  cotton-seed  cake  is  produced  by  subjecting  the  en- 
tire uncrushed,  unheated  seed  to  great  pressure.  In  the  residual 
cake  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  hull  to  meal  than  in  normal 
cake,  with  correspondingly  lower  feeding  value.  In  a  trial  with 
dairy  cows  Lee  and  Woodward  of  the  Louisiana  Station1  found 
cold-pressed  cotton-seed  cake  less  valuable  for  milk  and  butter  pro- 
duction than  an  equal  weight  of  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  meal  and 
one  of  hulls.  They  conclude  that  the  chemical  composition  of  cold- 
pressed  cotton-seed  cake  is  a  reliable  indication  of  its  feeding  value. 
With  cotton-seed  meal  at  $30  per  ton  and  hulls  at  $5  they  estimate 
that  cold-pressed  cotton-seed  cake  is  worth  $21.65  per  ton. 

188.  Feeding  cotton  seed. — Some  cotton  seed  is  still  used  in  the 
South  for  feeding  steers  and  dairy  cows,  tho  most  of  it  is  now  used 
for  oil  production.     Trials  at  the  Texas  Station2  showed  that  seed 
at  $12  per  ton  was  cheaper  for  fattening  steers  than  meal  at  $20. 
Marshal  and  Burns  of  the  same  Station3  secured  larger  daily  and 
total  gains  with  cotton  seed  than  with  cotton-seed  meal.  (535)     Con- 
nell  and  Carson,  likewise  of  the  same  Station,4  found  that  boiled  or 
roasted  seed  produced  larger  tho  more  expensive   gains  than  raw 
seed,  and  was  more  palatable  and  less  laxative. 

189.  Cotton-seed    meal    for    horses. — Gebek5    reports    that    draft 
horses  do  well  on  a  ration  containing  2  Ibs.   of  cotton-seed  meal. 
Judge   Henry   C.    Hammond,   Augusta,    Georgia,6    reports   that   for 
years  he  has  fed  about  1  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  daily  to  colts,  brood 

1  Bui.  110.          2  Bui.  97.         sLoc.  cit.      4  Bui.  27.       5  Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  42,  p.  294. 
6  Cotton-seed  Meal  as  a  Horse  and  Mule  Feed;    also,  private  correspondence. 


Oil-bearing  Seeds  and  their  By-products.  151 

mares,  and  driving  and  work  horses.  There  has  been  no  sickness 
among  the  horses,  and  their  style,  action,  and  health  are  all  that  can 
be  desired.  He  attributes  his  unvarying  success  to  the  fact  that  the 
meal  is  never  fed  alone,  but  is  always  carefully  mixed  with  some 
light  concentrate.  (423) 

190.  Cotton-seed  meal  for  dairy  cows. — Hills  of  the  Vermont  Sta- 
tion1 found  in  a  6-months  feeding  trial  with  20  cows  that  ''cotton- 
seed meal  seemed  to  possess  a  small  tho  measurable  advantage  over 
linseed  meal  as  a  milk  and  butter  making  by-product."     Michels  and 
Burgess  of  the  South  Carolina  Station2  write:     "Cotton-seed  meal 
and  corn  silage  form  by  far  the  cheapest  dairy  feeds  available  to  our 
dairymen.     The  cost  of  a  ration  is  only  slightly  more  than  half  as 
much  as  that  of  the  common  dairy  ration  now  fed  in  this  state." 
Moore  of  the  Mississippi  Station3  found  that  for  cows  1  Ib.  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal  was  equal  to  1.7  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  or  2  Ibs.  of  corn- 
and-cob  meal.  (641) 

The  milk  of  cows  heavily  fed  on  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal 
yields  a  hard,  tallowy  butter,  light  in  color  and  poor  in  flavor.  If 
not  over  3  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal  is  fed,  along  with 
a  generous  allowance  of  other  concentrates  and  of  roughage,  or  if 
the  cow  is  on  good  pasture,  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  but  little 
affected.  The  use  of  cotton-seed  meal  may  prove  helpful  with  cows 
whose  milk  produces  a  soft  butter.  (619) 

191.  Steer  fattening. — Vast  numbers  of  steers  are  fattened  on  cot- 
ton-seed meal  at  the  cotton-oil  mills  of  the  South.     At  these  estab- 
lishments, starting  with  3  or  4  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  daily,  the 
allowance  is  gradually  increased  to  6,  8,  or  even  10  Ibs.  per  head 
along  with  all  the  hulls  the  steers  will  eat,  which  amount  is  about 
4  Ibs.  for  each  Ib.  of  meal.     The  feeding  period  lasts  90  to  120  days. 
Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station4  found  that  with  fattening  steers  1 
Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  proved  equal  to  1.6  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  or  1.9 
Ibs.  of  corn,  wiiile  1  Ib.  of  cotton  seed  equaled  1.2  Ibs.  of  corn.     Soule 
and  Fain  of  the  Tennessee  Station,5  as  the  result  of  several  steer- 
feeding  trials,  conclude  that  "A  ration  of  silage,  cotton-seed  meal, 
and  corn  meal  is  probably  better  adapted  for  use  on  the  average 
southern  farm  than  any  other." 

McLean  of  the  Mississippi  Station6  states  that  2-year-old  steers 
should  not  be  fed  over  7.5  Ibs.  and  yearlings  not  over  6  Ibs.  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal  daily. 

1  Ept.  1908.  3  Bui.  60.  B  Vol.  15,  3. 

2  Bui.  131.  4  Loc.  cit.  •  Bui.  121. 


152  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Swift  &  Company  of  Chicago  informed  the  author  that,  while 
cotton-seed  meal  makes  good  beef,  a  still  better  quality  is  produced 
where  the  meal  is  fed  with  other  concentrates.  (535-7,  556,  566) 

192.  Effects  of  cotton  seed  on  fat. — At  the  Texas  Station1  Har- 
rington  and  Adriance  found   the  kidney,   caul,   and  body  fats  of 
steers  fed  raw,  roasted,  or  boiled  cotton  seed  had  a  higher  melting 
point  by  4.1°,  3.2°,  and  8.7°  C.  respectively  than  the  corresponding 
fats  of  corn-fed  steers.     The  influence  of  cotton-seed  feeding  on 
butter  and  mutton  suet  was  somewhat  more  marked  than  that  pro- 
duced on  beef  tallow. 

193.  Cotton-seed  hulls. — Cotton-seed  hulls,  containing  somewhat 
less  digestible  nutrients  than  oat  straw,   are   extensively  employed 
at  the  South  as  roughage  for  cattle  feeding.     Where  broken  ker- 
nels of  seed  adhere  to  the  hulls  their  feeding  value  is  consider- 
ably increased.     Conner  of  the  South  Carolina  Station2  found  that 
cotton-seed  hulls  have  a  little  over  one-half  the  feeding  value  of 
corn  stover.    Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station3  found  that  1  Ib.  of 
hulls  was  equal  to  1.6  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  in  steer  feeding.     Craig 
and  Marshall  of  the  Texas  Station*  showed  cotton-seed  hulls  superior 
to  sorghum  or  cow-pea  hay  with  steers  getting  cotton-seed  meal  for 
concentrates.  (556,   566)     With  corn  or  other  concentrates  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  instead  of  with  cotton-seed  meal,  their  value  would 
have  been  lower.    Michels  of  the  North  Carolina  Station5  found  that 
dairy  cows  exhibited  a  strong  dislike  for  cotton-seed  hulls.  (671) 

194.  The  poison  of  cotton  seed. — Practical  experience  and  trials 
at  the  experiment  stations  unite  in  showing  that  cotton-seed  meal  is 
not  a  safe  feed  in  all  cases.     After  a  period  of  about  100  days  steers 
which    have   been    closely    confined   and   heavily    fed    on   the    meal 
often  show  a  staggering  gait,  some  of  them  becoming  blind,  death 
frequently    ending    their    distress.     The    Iowa    Station6  reports    the 
death  of  3  steers,  and  others  becoming  blind,  in  a  feeding  trial  in 
which  a  heavy  allowance  of  corn-and-cob  meal  was  fed  with  2.5  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal.     Hunt  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station7  reports  the 
death  of  2  calves  out  of  3  from  feeding  a  ration  of  1  Ib.  of  cotton- 
seed meal  with  16  Ibs.  of  skim  milk.     Emery  of  the  North  Carolina 
Station8  reports  the  death  of  2  calves  following  the  use  of  0.25  to 
0.5  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  daily  with  skim  milk.     Gips9  reports  the 
death  of  3  out  of  8  cattle  from  eating  moldy  cotton-seed  cake. 

1  Bui.  29.  3Ept.  1905.  5  Bui.  199.  7  Bui.  17. 

2  Bui.  66.  4  Bui.  76.  6  Bui.  66.  8  Bui.  109. 
8  Arch.  Wis..  u.  Prakt.  Thierheilk,  14, 1886,  p.  74. 


Oil-bearing  Seeds  and  their  By-products.  li>3 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  particularly  fatal  to  swine.  Pigs  getting  as 
much  as  one-third  of  their  concentrates  in  the  form  of  cotton-seed 
meal  thrive  at  first,  but  after  5  or  6  weeks,  or  sometimes  earlier, 
they  quite  frequently  show  derangement  and  may  die.  Restricting 
the  allowance  of  meal,  keeping  the  animals  on  pasture,  supplying 
succulent  feeds,  or  souring  the  feed  may  help,  but  no  uniformly 
successful  method  of  feeding  cotton-seed  meal  to  swine  has  yet  been 
found. 

Numerous  efforts  have  been  made  during  the  past  20  years  to  de- 
termine the  cause  of  the  poisonous  action  of  cotton-seed  meal.  The 
harmful  effects  have  been  variously  ascribed  to  the  lint,  the  oil,  the 
high  protein  content,  to  a  toxal  albumin  or  toxic  alkaloid,  to  cholin 
and  betain,  to  resin  present  in  the  meal,  and  to  decomposition  prod- 
ucts. Eecent  investigations  by  Mohler  and  Crawford  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,1 
appear  to  prove  conclusively  that  the  chief  poisonous  principle  in 
certain  cotton-seed  meals  is  a  salt  of  pyrophosphoric  acid.  It  was 
found  that,  while  the  seed  from  Upland  cotton  proved  quite  gen- 
erally poisonous  to  animals,  that  from  certain  Sea  Island  cotton 
contained  so  small  a  quantity  of  the  poisonous  principle  as  to  be 
practically  harmless.  The  poisonous  effect  of  Sea  Island  seed,  how- 
ever, was  greatly  increased  by  heating,  indicating  that  if  in  the 
treatment  of  the  seed  at  the  oil  mills  the  temperature  rises  high  the 
poisonous  principle  is  developed.  Aside  from  avoiding  too  high 
heating  of  the  crushed  kernels  in  the  manufacture  of  oil,  no  remedy 
for  the  poison  has  yet  been  suggested.  Now  that  science  has  located 
the  source  of  the  trouble,  it  is  reasonable  to  hope  that  a  favorable 
solution  of  this  most  important  matter  will  soon  be  reached. 

195.  Rational  use  of  cotton  seed  and  by-products. — Cotton  seed 
and  cotton-seed  meal  are  among  the  richest  and  heaviest  of  feeds. 
When  fed  in  limited  quantity  with  a  proper  complement  of  other 
feeding  stuffs,  exceedingly  satisfactory  results  can  be  secured  with 
dairy  cows  and  fattening  cattle.  Wet,  moldy  cotton  seed,  or  that 
which  has  heated,  should  never  be  fed.  Good  cotton-seed  meal  has 
a  bright  yellow  color  and  a  pleasant  taste.  Meal  of  a  dull  color 
from  exposure  to  the  air,  and  that  from  musty  or  fermented  seed, 
should  not  be  used.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  not  so  well  suited  to  the 
animal  economy  as  linseed  meal,  yet  it  is  so  highly  nutritious  and  so 
generally  useful  with  cattle  that  it  is  of  vast  importance  to  the 

1Expt.  Sta.  Eee.,  22,  1910,  pp.  501-505;  Jour.  Pharmacol.  and  Expt.  Ther.,  1, 
1910,  No.  5,  pp.  519-548. 


154:  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

stock  interests  of  this  country,  especially  of  the  South.  To  the  dis- 
credit of  our  live-stock  interests,  one  billion  pounds  of  cotton-seed 
cake  are  annually  exported  to  other  countries.  (574) 

196.  Flax  seed.— In  1909  about  25,767,000  bushels,  each  of  56  Ibs., 
of  seed  from  the  flax  plant,  Linum  usitatissimum,  were  produced  in 
the  United  States.1     The  reserve  building  material  is  stored  in  the 
flax  seed  largely  as  oil  and  pentosans,  instead  of  as  starch,  which 
most   seeds   carry,   no   starch   grains   being    found   in   well-matured 
flax  seeds.     On  account  of  the  high  commercial  value  of  the  oil  it 
contains,   flax   seed   is   rarely   used   for   feeding   stock   other   than 
calves.    (574) 

The  oil  of  the  flax  seed  is  either  extracted  by  the  old  process, 
thru  pressure,  as  in  the  production  of  cotton-seed  oil,  or  it  is  dis- 
solved out  of  the  crushed  seed  with  naphtha,  the  residue  in  either 
case  being  called  linseed  oil  meal.  In  the  United  States  nearly  all 
the  linseed  oil  meal  is  made  by  the  old  process. 

According  to  WolP  in  the  manufacture  of  new-process  oil  meal 
the  crushed  and  heated  seed  is  placed  in  large  cylinders  or  perco- 
lators, and  naphtha  poured  over  the  mass.  On  draining  out  at  the 
bottom  the  naphtha  carries  with  it  the  dissolved  oil.  After  re- 
peated extractions  steam  is  let  into  the  percolator,  and  the  naphtha 
remaining  is  completely  driven  off  as  vapor,  leaving  no  odor  of 
naphtha  on  the  residue,  which  is  known  as  "new-process"  linseed 
oil  meal. 

197.  The  swelling  test. — Woll3  gives  the  following  method  of  as- 
certaining whether  oil  meal  is  new-  or  old-process :     ' '  Pulverize  a 
small  quantity  of  the  meal  and  put  a  level  tablespoonful  of  it  into 
a  tumbler;  then  add  10  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  hot  water  to  the 
meal,  stir  thoroly,  and  leave  to  settle.     If  the  meal  is  new-process 
meal,  it  will  settle  in  the  course  of  an  hour  and  will  leave  half  of 
the  water  clear  on  top."     Old-process  meal  will  remain  jelly-like. 

198.  Old-  and  new-process  oil  meal. — By  artificial  digestion  trials 
with  old-  and  new-process  oil  meal  Woll4  found  that  94  per  ct.  of 
the  crude  protein  in  the  old-process  and  84  per  ct.  of  that  in  the 
new-process  oil  meal  was  digestible.     The  lower  digestibility  of  the 
new-process  meal  is  doubtless  due  to  the  use  of  steam  for  driving 
off  the  naphtha,  since  cooking  lowers  the  digestibility  of  many  crude 
protein-rich  foods.     Despite  its  somewhat  lower  factor  of  digestibil- 
ity, new-process  oil  meal  contains  rather  more  digestible  crude  pro- 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1909.  3  Loc.  cit. 

2  Ept.  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.,  1895.  *  Loc.  cit. 


Oil-bearing  Seeds  and  their  By-products.  155 

tein  than  old-process  oil  meal  because  the  oil  is  more  completely  ex- 
tracted. 

199.  Value  of  oil  in  linseed  oil  cake. — To  determine  the  value  of 
oil  in  linseed  oil  cake,  Cooke1  of  England  conducted  a  test  with  2 
lots  of  30  sheep  each.     To  the  first  was  given  cake  containing  from 
6  to  7  per  ct.  oil,  and  to  the  second  lot  cake  containing  from  15  to 
16  per  ct.  oil.     The  roughage  was  the  same  for  both  lots.     During 
the  16  weeks  of  the  trial  the  sheep  fed  on  the  cake  rich  in  oil  gained 
nearly  5  Ibs.  more  per  head  and  also  brought  a  higher  price  than 
those  fed  cake  low  in  oil.     The  conclusion  was,  "Weight  for  weight, 
linseed  oil  to  the  extent  of  16  per  ct.  in  a  cake  has  a  much  higher 
feeding  value  than  the  other  constituents  which  in  the  absence  of 
oil  replace  it." 

200.  Linseed  oil  meal  as  a  feed. — There  is  no  more  healthful  feed 
for  limited  use  with  all  farm  animals  than  linseed  oil  cake  or  oil 
meal,  with  its  rich  store  of  crude  protein,  slightly  laxative  oil,  and 
its  mucilaginous,  soothing  properties.    Its  judicious  use  is  soon  ap- 
parent in  the  pliable  skin,  the  sleek,  oily  coat,  and  the  good  handling 
quality  of  the  flesh  of  animals  receiving  it.     A  very  limited  quan- 
tity, 0.5  to  1.5  Ibs.  daily,  of  oil  meal  may  be  fed  to  horses  with  ad- 
vantage, but  its  heavy  use  makes  a  soft  flesh.  (422)     For  dairy  cows 
1  to  2  Ibs.  daily  will  improve  almost  any  ration.  (640)     For  fatten- 
ing sheep  one-fourth  or  one- third  of  a  lb.,  (754)  and  for  steers  2  to 
3  Ibs.,  (538-9)   can  be  given  daily  with  advantage,  the  meal  tending 
to  regulate  the  system  and  ward  off  any  ill  effects  from  the  con- 
tinued use  of  heavy  concentrates.     For  calves  ground  flax  seed  or 
oil  meal  is  quite  generally  used  by  progressive  dairymen.  (480)     A 
handful  of  oil  meal  in  each  feed  of  the  growing  pig  will  advertise 
itself  in  the  sleek  coat  and  improved  appearance.   (871) 

Unfortunately  the  American  farmer  insists  that  oil  cake  be  ground 
to  a  meal.  He  should  adopt  the  wiser  practice  of  European  farm- 
ers, who  buy  oil  cake  in  slab  form  and  reduce  it  in  cake  mills  to  the 
size  of  hickory  nuts  or  smaller  just  before  feeding.  In  such  form 
this  feed  is  more  palatable,  and  there  is  no  chance  for  adultera- 
tion. 

201.  Soybean,  Glycine  hispida. — The  soybean  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant agricultural  plants  of  northern  China  and  Japan.    So  great  is 
the  production  of  this  seed  or  grain  in  Manchuria  that  already  that 
country  is  annually   exporting  hundreds   of  thousands  of  tons   to 
Europe,  and  the  western  coast  of  America  is  gradually  becoming  a 

1  Jour.  Boy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1889. 


156  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

market  for  this  product.  The  bean-like  seeds  of  the  soybean,  which 
carry  from  16  to  21  per  ct.  of  oil,  are  used  for  human  food  and  for 
feeding  animals.  The  oil  is  used  for  human  food  and  in  the  arts,  and 
the  resulting  meal  from  which  the  oil  has  been  extracted  is  em- 
ployed as  a  feed  for  animals  and  for  fertilizing  the  land.  The 
yield  of  the  soybean  per  acre  varies  from  12  to  20  or  more  bushels 
of  60  Ibs.  each,  this  plant  yielding  as  well  as  corn  on  poor  soil  in  the 
Gulf  States.  No  other  plant  in  the  United  States  grown  so  little 
at  this  time  as  the  soybean  is  so  full  of  promise  to  agriculture,  espe- 
cially to  animal  husbandry.  Clover,  alfalfa,  and  vetch  are  legumes 
that  give  us  most  valuable  protein  roughage.  The  Canada  field  pea, 
soybean,  and  cowpea  furnish  protein-rich  concentrates  with  rough- 
age secondary.  Hence  a  combination  of  one  or  more  from  each 
class  will  go  far  toward  freeing  the  feeder  from  purchasing  costly 
feeding  stuffs. 

Humphrey  and  Fuller  of  the  Wisconsin  Station1  found  ground 
soybeans  from  8  to  10  per  ct.  more  valuable  than  wheat  middlings 
for  pig  feeding.  They  recommend  feeding  1  part  of  soybeans  with 
2  parts  of  corn.  Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station2  found  soybean 
pasture  next  in  value  to  peanut  pasture  for  fattening  pigs.  (868) 
Humphrey  and  Kleinheinz  of  the  Wisconsin  Station3  found  equal 
parts  of  soybeans  and  shelled  corn  superior  to  equal  parts  of  oats 
and  shelled  corn  for  lambs,  the  soybeans  producing  larger  gains  for 
a  given  amount  of  feed  and  a  much  heavier  clip  of  wool.  (753)  But- 
ter from  soybean  meal  is  softer  than  that  from  cotton-seed  meal. 
(643)  Soybean  meal  should  always  be  used  in  combination  with 
other  grains,  and  the  meal  from  which  the  oil  has  been  expressed 
should  prove  superior  to  the  ground  seeds. 

202.  Peanut,  Arachis  Jiypogaea. — The  peanut,  or  earth  nut,  is  of 
growing  importance  as  feed  for  stock  in  the  Southern  States.  The  un- 
derground seeds  or  nuts  of  the  peanut  are  quite  commonly  harvested 
by  turning  swine  into  the  fields  when  the  seeds  are  ripened,  and  allow- 
ing them  to  feed  at  will.  The  vines  with  the  nuts  attached  are  often 
gathered  and  cured  into  a  nutritious,  palatable  hay  useful  with  all 
kinds  of  farm  stock.  Both  the  entire  nuts  and  the  peanut  waste  of 
the  factories  are  useful  if  fed  to  swine  in  moderate  quantity,  while  a 
heavy  allowance  produces  soft  fat  and  inferior  meat.  The  famous 
Smithfield  hams  and  bacons  come  from  pigs  fed  partially  on  pea- 
nuts. (870) 

1  Ept,  1906.  -  Bui.  143.  3  Ept.  1905. 


Oil-free  Leguminous  Seeds.  157 

The  peanut  quickly  becomes  rancid  if  taken  from  the  shell  and 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  from 
the  peanut  is  used  in  various  European  countries  for  stock  feeding. 
Peanut  meal  is  one  of  the  richest  known  feeds  in  the  amount  of 
crude  protein  it  yields.  Voelcker1  states  that  peanut  cake  proved  on 
trial  to  be  a  useful  feeding  material  for  cattle,  having  a  value  about 
equal  to  beans.  The  worthless  peanut  hulls  which  accumulate  in 
great  quantities  at  the  factories  are  sometimes  ground  and  used 
for  adulterating  feeding  stuffs. 

203.  Sunflower  seed  cake,  Helianthus  annuus.—The  sunflower  is 
grown  in  Russia  on  a  commercial  scale,  one  variety  with  small  seeds 
producing  an  oil  which  serves  as  a  substitute  for  other  vegetable  oils. 
The  large  seeds  of  another  variety  are  consumed  as  a  dainty  by  the 
people. 

The  average  of  5  experiments  conducted  by  the  North  Carolina 
Station2  in  as  many  parts  of  the  state  showed  a  yield  of  65  bushels 
of  sunflower  seed  per  acre.  Mammoth  Russian  sunflowrer  seed 
weighed  26.7  Ibs.  per  bushel,  with  21.5  per  ct.  oil,  and  Black  Giant 
seed  weighed  32  Ibs.  per  bushel,  with  20.8  per  ct.  oil.  Bartlett  of 
the  Maine  Station3  concludes  that  ' '  With  the  same  cultivation,  corn 
produces  a  third  more  protein  and  twice  as  much  carbohydrates  as 
sunflower  heads." 

204.  Cocoanut  meal,   Cocos  nucifera. — The  residue  in  the  manu- 
facture of  oil  from  the  cocoanut  is  known  as  cocoanut  or  cocoa  meal. 
It  is  used  to  some  extent  by  dairymen  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Fran- 
cisco.    Cocoanut  meal  has  a  reputation  for  producing  fine  butter  of 
considerable   firmness    and   is   therefore    recommended    for    summer 
feeding  to  dairy  cows.     It  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  swine 
and  sheep,  serving  also  as  a  partial  substitute  for  oats  with  working 
horses.  (642) 

V.  OIL-FREE  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS. 

205.  The  Canada  field  pea,  Pisum  sativum. — The  common  field  or 
Canada  pea  succeeds  best  where  the  spring  and  summer  heat  is  mod- 
erate, as  in  Canada,  the  Northern  States,  and  in  several  of  the  larger 
Rocky  Mountain  valleys.     No   other  widely  known   grain  plant  of 
equal  possibilities  has  been  so  generally  neglected  by  the  farmers  of 
the  northern  United  States.     According  to  Shaw*  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  produces  about  14,000,000  bushels  of  peas  annually, 
averaging  over  19  bushels  per  acre. 

1  Jour.  Roy.  Soc.,  1892.  3  Kpt.  1895. 

2  Bui.  90b.  4  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  224. 


158  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  field  pea  is  particularly  rich  in  crude  protein,  a  part  of  which 
is  of  the  same  chemical  composition  as  the  casein  of  milk.  It  also 
has  a  high  phosphorus  and  potash  content.  Combined  with  corn, 
peas  may  form  as  much  as  one-half  the  concentrates  for  dairy  cows. 
They  are  eminently  suitable  for  sheep  and  lamb  feeding,  and  their 
culture  forms  the  basis  for  an  important  sheep-feeding  industry  in 
Colorado.  (750,  805)  With  ground  corn  or  wheat  bran,  peas  form 
an  excellent  ration  for  brood  sows  and  growing  swine,  proving 
especially  useful  for  building  the  framework  and  preparing  them  for 
fattening.  (115,  866) 

206.  Cowpea,  Vigna  Catjang. — The  cowpea,  a  bean-like  plant  from 
India  and  China,  now  holds  an  important  place  in  southern  agricul- 
ture because  of  the  large  amount  of  forage  and  grain  it  yields.     The 
early  varieties  grow  fairly  well  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey  and 
Illinois.     The  seed   pods   of   the   cowpea   ripen   unevenly,    necessita- 
ting hand  gathering.    For  this  reason  the  crop  is  mostly  used  for 
hay,   silage,   and   grazing.     Duggar  of  the  Alabama   Station1   fed 
cowpeas  to  fattening  pigs  with  excellent  returns,  finding  more  lean 
meat  in  their  bodies  than  in  those  of  pigs  fed  corn   meal.  (869) 
Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station2  grazed  pigs  on  ripe  cowpeas  with 
no  additional  feed.     Thin  hill  land  gave  350  Ibs.  and  better  land 
483  Ibs.  of  gain,  live  weight,  for  each  acre  grazed.  (897) 

207.  The    common   field   bean,    Phaseolus   vulgaris. — Many   vari- 
eties of  the  common  field  bean  are  grown  in  this  country  for  human 
food.     Beans  damaged  by  wet  are  used  for  animal  feeding.     Shaw 
and  Anderson  of  the  Michigan  Station3  estimate  the  cull  beans  of 
Michigan  at  about  100,000   bushels  annually.     Cull  beans  are   fed 
whole  in  large  quantities  to  sheep,  producing  a  solid  flesh  of  good 
quality.     For  swine,  beans  should  be  cooked  in  salted  water  and  fed 
in  combination  with  corn,  barley,  etc.,  as  when  fed  alone  they  pro- 
duce soft  pork  and  lard  with  a  low  melting  point.  (867) 

208.  Horse  bean,  Vicia  Faba. — The  horse  bean  is  used  in  England 
for  feeding  stock,  especially  horses.     This  legume  grows  fairly  well 
in  some  parts  of  Canada,  but  has  never  proved  a  success  in  the 
United  States. 

1  Bui.  82.  2  Ept.  1905.  3  Bui.  243. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  GKASSES  INCLUDING  INDIAN  COKN— SOEGHUMS— THE 
SMALLER  GRASSES— HAY-MAKING— STRAW. 

I.  INDIAN  CORN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS. 

Indian  corn,  maize,  is  the  imperial  agricultural  plant  of  America. 
This  giant  annual  grass  reaches  a  height  of  from  7  to  15  feet  in  4 
or  5  months'  growth,  producing  under  favorable  conditions  from 
30,000  to  50,000  Ibs.  of  green  forage  per  acre,  containing  from  5,000 
to  9,000  Ibs.  of  dry  matter.  When  grown  in  a  dense  mass  but  little 
seed  forms,  and  we  have  a  rank  grass  which  cures  into  a  bright, 
nutritious,  coarse  hay.  If  the  plants  grow  some  distance  apart,  a 
large  yield  of  grain  results,  with  excellent  forage  as  a  secondary 
product. 

Were  a  seedsman  to  advertise  Indian  corn  by  a  new  name,  re- 
counting its  actual  merits  while  ingeniously  concealing  its  identity, 
either  his  words  would  be  discredited  or  he  would  have  an  unlimited 
demand  for  the  seed  of  this  supposed  novelty.  The  possibilities  of 
American  farms  in  the  live  stock  they  may  carry  and  the  animal 
products  they  may  turn  off  are  restricted  only  by  the  quantity  of 
corn  and  of  clover  or  other  legumes  which  the  land  will  produce, 
and  this,  under  good  management,  seems  almost  unlimited. 

In  Chapter  I  the  classic  study  of  Ladd  on  the  composition  of  the 
Indian  corn  plant  is  given  at  length  to  helpfully  illustrate  and  fix 
in  mind  the  manner  in  which  plants  grow  and  elaborate  food  for 
animals.  The  student  should  turn  to  that  most  helpful  presentation 
and  carefully  review  what  it  teaches.  This  done  he  is  in  position- 
to  proceed  with  the  further  study  of  the  maize  plant  as  here  set 
forth. 

209.  Definitions. — The  term  fodder  corn  or  corn  fodder  is  applied 
to  stalks  of  corn,  green  or  dry,  which  have  been  grown  primarily 
for  forage,  and  from  which  the  ears  or  ' '  nubbins, ' '  if  they  carry  any, 
have  not  been  removed.  Stover  or  corn  stover  denotes  the  dry  stalks 
of  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  Fodder  corn  or 
corn  fodder,  then,  is  the  fresh  or  cured  corn  plant  which  has  been 
grown  for  forage,  with  all  the  ears,  if  any,  originally  produced. 
Stover  is  cured  shock  corn  minus  the  ears. 

159 


160 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


210.  Thickness  of  planting. — After  studying  the  results  of  thick 
and  thin  seeding  for  three  seasons  at  the  Illinois  Station,1  Morrow 
and  Hunt  reached  the  conclusions  summarized  in  the  table  below. 
In  these  trials  dent  corn  was  planted  at  distances  varying  from  1 
kernel  placed  every  3  inches  in  the  row,  to  1  every  24  inches,  the 
rows  being  3  feet  8  inches  apart. 

Results  of  planting  corn  kernels  various  distances  apart  in  rows. 


Thickness  of  planting- 

Yield  per  acre 

Digestible  substance 
per  acre 

Stover 
per 
acre 

Stover 
lor 
each 
Ib.  of 
corn 

Distance  between 
kernels  in  row 

Kernels 
per  acre 

Good 
ears 

Poor 
ears 

Stover 

Grain 

Total 

3  inches  

47,520 
23,  760 
15,840 
11,880 
9,504 
5,940 

Bu. 
13 
37 
55 
73 
63 
49 

Bu. 
46 
39 
22 
16 
11 
6 

Lbs. 
3,968 
3,058 
2,562 
2,480 
2,398 
2,066 

Lbs. 
2,250 
2,922 
2,977 
3,113 
2,782 
2,141 

Lbs. 
6,218 
5,980 
5,539 
5,593 
5,180 
4,207 

Tons 
4.8 
3.7 
3.1 
3.0 
2.9 
2.5 

Lbs. 
3.6 
1.9 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 

6  inches 

9  inches 

12  inches  _ 

15  inches.-     _ 

24  inches  

We  observe  that  on  rich  soil  with  the  kernels  3  inches  apart  in 
the  row,  or  47,520  per  acre,  there  were  13  bushels  of  sound  ears 
and  46  bushels  of  poor  ears  or  nubbins  per  acre.  Poor  as  are  these 
returns  from  the  standpoint  of  grain  production,  we  gather  the  in- 
teresting and  exceedingly  important  fact  that  thick  planting  gave 
the  largest  returns  in  total  digestible  nutrients  per  acre.  Over  6,000 
Ibs.  of  digestible  dry  matter  was  secured  in  the  nearly  5  tons  of 
stover  and  corn  harvested.  With  this  thickness  of  seeding  there 
were  3.6  Ibs.  of  stover  for  each  Ib.  of  grain.  The  largest  yield  of 
sound  ear  corn  was  secured  by  planting  the  kernels  12  inches  apart 
in  the  row,  or  about  12,000  kernels  per  acre.  From  this  the  re- 
turns were  73  bushels  of  sound  and  16  bushels  of  poor  ears  per  acre, 
with  only  600  Ibs.  less  digestible  matter  than  was  returned  from 
planting  the  kernels  4  times  as  thick. 

Morrow  maintains  that  for  Illinois  conditions,  with  a  rich  soil, 
10,000  good  stalks  of  corn  per  acre,  secured  by  planting  about 
12,000  kernels,  give  the  best  returns  in  grain.  The  lesson  from  the 
above  table,  confirmed  by  the  work  of  other  stations,  teaches  that 
when  the  stockman  is  seeking  the  greatest  amount  of  nutrients  pos- 
sible from  the  corn  crop  he  will  plant  the  seed  so  thickly  as  to  choke 
the  ears  to  about  half  their  natural  size.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
aims  to  produce  grain,  with  stover  secondary,  he  will  then  plant 

1  Bui.  13. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn. 


161 


the  kernels  at  such  distance  apart  as  will  allow  each  individual  plant 
to  produce  full-sized  ears.  No  rule  can  be  given  which  is  appli- 
cable to  all  cases  as  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  planted  per  acre. 
This  varies  greatly  and  is  determined  by  local  conditions.  One  must 
know  accurately  the  capacity  of  his  land  for  corn,  and  seed  ac- 
cordingly, bearing  in  mind  that  thick  seeding  gives  the  most  total 
nutrients,  largely  as  roughage,  while  thinner  seeding  gives  the  most 
sound  grain. 

211.  Distribution  of  nutrients. — Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion,1 studying  the  returns  of  the  corn  crop  reported  by  experiment 
stations  in  four  states,  found  the  yield  of  ears  and  stover  to  be  as 
follows : 

Yield  of  corn  ears  and  stover  per  acre  at  4  stations. 


Experiment  station 

Race  of  corn 

Yield  per  acre 

Ears 

Stover 

New  Jersey  

Dent 
Flint 
Dent 
Dent 

Lbs. 
4774 
4216 
4941 
3727 

Lbs. 
4041 
4360 
4490 
2460 

Connecticut..  _     . 

Wisconsin.  __  ._.     ._.     _____ 

Pennsylvania 

The  above  shows  that  in  the  northern  states  somewhat  more  than 
half  the  total  weight  of  the  corn  crop  when  grown  for  grain  is  found 
in  the  ears.  The  following  table,  arranged  from  Armsby 's  study, 
shows  the  location  of  the  digestible  nutrients: 


Location  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  a  crop  of 


corn. 


Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total  digestible 
nutrients 

In  ears    _._ 

Per  cent 
75 

Per  cent 
61 

Per  cent 
85 

Per  cent 
63 

In  stover  ._ 

25 

39 

15 

37 

The  table  shows  that  in  a  crop  of  ripened  corn  about  75  per  ct. 
of  the  digestible  crude  protein  is  found  in  the  ears  and  25  per  ct.  in 
the  stover.  Of  the  total  digestible  nutrients,  about  63  per  ct.,  or 
two-thirds,  appears  in  the  ears,  and  37  per  ct.,  or  one-third,  in  the 
stover.  These  figures  should  not  be  regarded  as  rigid,  for  the  ratio 
of  grain  to  stalk  will  vary  with  the  crop  and  section  of  the  country. 

1  Ept.  1887. 
12 


162  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Southern  corn  with  its  large  stalks  will  have  less  of  the  total  nutri- 
ents in  the  ear  and  more  in  the  stalks. 

The  last  column  in  the  table,  which  shows  that  one-third  of  the 
digestible  nutrients  of  the  corn  crop  is  in  the  stover  or  corn  straw, 
is  most  significant  and  should  be  carefully  considered  by  the  corn 
grower.  While  literally  correct,  the  figures  do  not  mean  that  in 
all  cases  one-third  of  the  value  of  the  corn  crop  for  feeding  pur- 
poses is  in  the  coarse  parts.  Much  more  energy  is  required  to 
digest  a  given  weight  of  stover  than  the  same  weight  of  ears  and 
consequently  less  net  energy  remains  in  the  case  of  the  stover  after 
both  have  been  passed  thru  the  digestive  tract.  For  fattening  ani- 
mals, those  giving  milk,  and  for  those  at  hard  work  the  stover  has 
a  smaller  value  than  here  given.  For  animals  at  light  work,  those 
fattening  slowly  or  giving  only  a  small  quantity  of  milk,  and  for 
maintaining  animals  in  winter  when  much  heat  for  warming  the 
body  is  required,  the  stover  then  approximates  the  value  here  ex- 
pressed. (70,  96,  403) 

212.  Pulling  fodder. — At  the  South  the  tops  of  the  ripening  corn 
stalks  are  quite  commonly  cut  off  just  above  the  ears,  leaving  the 
tall  butts,  each  with  an  unhusked  ear  at  its  top.     Next,  the  leaves 
are  stripped  from  the  butts,  and  these  together  with  the  severed 
tops  are  cured  into  a  nutritious,  palatable  fodder,  which  is  exten- 
sively employed  for  feeding  horses  and  other  stock.     Ladd's  study 
of  the  ripening  corn  plant  shows  the  folly  of  this  practice.     During 
the  last  stages  of  its  life  the  corn  plant  is  busiest  in  gathering  crude 
materials  from  air   and  soil   and  elaborating  them  into  nutritious 
food.     Removing  the  top  and  leaves,  at  once  stops  all  this  work  of 
food  making.     Stubbs  of  the  Louisiana  Station1  found  that  pulling 
fodder  caused  a  shrinkage  of  from  15  to  20  per  ct.  in  the  yield  of 
grain. 

213.  Losses  in  field  curing. — Losses  of  nutrients  in  corn  fodder 
after  it  has  been  gathered  into  shocks  (stooks)   are  known  to  occur 
thru  weathering,   but  there  are  also  large  losses  which  are  unex- 
plained.    During  4  years'  study  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,  Woll2  de- 
termined the  dry  matter  and  crude  protein  in  a  crop  of  corn  at  the 
time  of  cutting  and  again  after  the  shocks  had  been  exposed  to  the 
weather  for  several  months.     It  was  found  that  under  Wisconsin 
conditions  well-made  shocks  of  corn  which  stand  in  the  field  for  a 
few  months  lose  about  24  per  ct.  of  their  dry  matter,  the  crude  pro- 

1  Bui.  22  (old  series) ;  also  Bui.  104,  North  Carolina  Sta. 
3  A  Book  on  Silage. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  163 

tein  content  suffering  to  the  same  extent.  Cooke  has  shown  that  in 
the  dry  climate  of  Colorado1  heavy  losses  likewise  occur  in  shock 
corn.  At  the  South  the  corn  forage,  maturing  early,  melts  away  to 
almost  nothing  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  The  substances  lost 
thru  such  wasting  are  crude  protein,  sugar,  starch,  etc. — the  most 
valuable  portions  of  the  plant.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  entirely  prevent 
these  losses  by  placing  the  cured  fodder  under  cover  or  in  stacks, 
for  Woll  found  losses  even  under  such  conditions.  Losses  of  this 
nature  are  probably  due  to  fermentations  which  slowly  but  steadily 
waste  the  substance  of  the  forage.  Sanborn2  writes:  "Many  trials 
with  fodder  .  .  .  make  it  certain  that  15  per  ct.  is  the  minimum 
loss  to  be  expected  with  dry  storage,  while  the  loss  may  rise  to  20 
per  ct.  or  even  more  in  ordinary  practice."  (348) 

214.  Fodder  corn  for  soilage. — On  farms  lacking  summer  silage, 
feeding  corn  forage  in  the  green  stage  should  become  general,  for  the 
reason  that  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  the  pastures  are 
often  scant,  and  animals  forced  to  subsist  upon  them  suffer  from 
lack  of  sufficient  food  and  cannot  do  their  best.     An  acre  of  ripen- 
ing corn  fed  in  early  fall  to  steers  or  dairy  cows  which  are  other- 
wise on  poor  feed  may  so  advance  their  condition  as  to  return  double 
the  value  it  would  yield  were  it  held  over  until  winter  and  fed  at 
a  time  when  there  is  often  a  plethora  of  the  same  material. 

215.  Shocking  (stooking)  corn. — The  loss  from  weathering  which 
shock  corn  suffers  can  be  lessened  by  making  large  shocks.     In  corn 
shocks  the  stalks  stand  almost  vertical,  and  as  the  leaves  wilt  there 
is  ample  room  for  the  upward  passage  of  air  currents,  which  rapidly 
dry  the  interior  and  check  molds  and  fermentations.     When  shock 
corn  is  pronounced  dry  by  the  farmer,  it  still  carries  more  water 
and  consequently  less  dry  matter  than  hay,  a  fact  which  should  not 
be  overlooked  when  feeding  this  forage. 

216.  Shock  corn. — Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Station,3  when  feeding 
steers  clover  hay,  found  shock  corn  supplemented  with  ear  corn  and 
oil  meal  superior  to  shelled  corn  and  oil  meal.  (523)     This  result, 
substantiated  by  common  experience,  shows  that  corn  need  not  be 
husked  for  the  best  results  in  steer  feeding,  and  in  somewhat  less 
measure  this  is  true  with  the  dairy  cow.     An  ear  of  corn  wrapped 
in  its  husk  possesses  aroma  and  palatability  which  is  in  part  lost 
after   it   has   been   exposed   to   the   air   for   a   time.     Whoever   has 
watched  a  cow  eagerly  searching  a  bundle  of  stover  for  a  possible 
ear  or  nubbin   which  the  would-be  thrifty  farmer  had  overlooked, 

1  Colo.  Expt.  feta.,  Bui.  30.  2Cyc.  Am.  Agr.,  Vol.  11,  p.  569.  ?  Bui.  103. 


164  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

must  be  impressed  with  the  folly  of  him  who  so  carefully  performed 
his  work.  It  is  true  that  when  fed  in  this  manner  some  corn  passes 
thru  the  animal  unbroken,  but  feeding  trials  have  shown  that,  de- 
spite such  waste,  there  is  often  little  or  no  profit  in  husking  the 
ear  and  reducing  it  to  meal.  Part  of  the  shock  corn  can  be  husked 
to  furnish  tfce  extra  forage  required  by  the  cattle.  A  little  study 
will  determine  the  amount  of  grain  the  shocks  carry,  so  that  the 
feeder  can  properly  adjust  the  ratio  of  grain  to  roughage.  Because 
our  ancestors  laboriously  husked  corn  and  afterwards  divided  with 
the  miller  for  grinding,  is  no  reason  why  in  these  days  of  high- 
priced  labor  we  should  continue  husking  corn  for  cattle,  when  these 
animals  have  all  day  in  which  willingly  to  perform  the  work. 

217.  Dry  fodder  corn. — Corn  grown  and  cured  as  forage  consti- 
tutes a  coarse  hay  of  high  feeding  value,  since  only  a  portion  of  the 
nutrients  has  gone  into  the  ear.     Dry  fodder  corn  is  more  palatable 
and  nutritious  than  stover,  which  has  lost  much  of  its  substance  to 
the    grain   produced.     Thickly    seeded    corn    bears   small,    palatable 
ears  which  are  easily  masticated.     When  grown  for  coarse  hay  and 
carrying  some  grain,  corn  possesses  a  feeding  value  not  as  yet  ap- 
preciated by  most  stockmen.     Overlooking  its  splendid  qualities  as  a 
hay  plant,  we  have  become  accustomed  to  growing  this  grass  for  the 
grain  it  yields,  and  using  the  roughage  as  a  sort  of  straw  to  be  eaten 
or  wasted  as  accident  determines.  (435,  664) 

218.  Corn  stover. — The  forage  which  remains  after  removing  the 
ear  from  shock  corn  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  is  usually  con- 
ceded.    Stover  produced  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  corn  belt 
is   superior   in   nutriment    and   palatability    to    that   grown   at   the 
South.     As  soon  as  fairly  well  cured  and  freed  from  external  moist- 
ure, stover  should  be  placed  under  cover  or  stacked,  rather  than  left 
to  deteriorate  in  the  field.     Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station1  found 
as  the  average  of  experiments  covering  4  years  that  moderately  thin 
yearling  steers  lost  only  33  Ibs.  each  when  wintered  on  whole  corn 
stover  alone.     This  shows  that  whole  corn  stover  will  nearly  fur- 
nish a  maintenance  ration  for  such  animals.  (436,  545,  665,  764) 

219.  Shredded  stover. — When  shock  corn  is  husked  by  machinery 
the  stover  is  usually  shredded  at  the  same  operation.     Shredded  corn 
forage  is  easy  to  handle,  and  the  waste  is  in  better  shape  for  bedding 
and    manure.     At    the    Missouri    Station2    Waters    found    shredded 
stover  slightly  inferior  to  whole  stover  for  steer  feeding.     It  is  prob- 
able that  shredding  stover  or  running  it  thru  a  feed  cutter  will  pay 

1  Bui.  75.  2Loc.  cit. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  165 

better  at  the  North  thai)  at  the  South,  because  the  northern-grown 
cornstalks  are  more  palatable  and  less  woody.  (341,  500) 

220.  Corn  forage  for  silage. — Indian  corn  is  the  only  common 
farm  plant  in  America  that  experience  has  shown  to  be  entirely  sat- 
isfactory  for   silage.     Its   use   for   this   purpose   has    revolutionized 
farm  practice  in  many  sections.     Thru  the  aid  of  the  silo  the  entire 
plant   is   economically  used   without  waste,    and  a   succulent  feed, 
greatly  relished  by  cattle,  is  produced.  (360) 

221.  The  new  corn  product. — The  pith  of  the  cured  corn  stalk  is 
used  as  a  packing  between  the  walls  of  vessels  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  water  should  the  hull  be  pierced.     It  has  been  found  that 
for  each  Ib.  of  pith  suitable  for  such  purpose  there  are  15  Ibs.  of 
blades,  husks,  and  parts  of  stalks  which  remain  as  a  by-product. 
This  waste,  ground  to  a  powder,  has  been  named  "the  new  corn 
product."     At  the  Maryland  Station1  Patterson  found  the  new  corn 
product  somewhat  more  digestible  than  whole  stover  in  feeding  trials 
with  steers  and  equal  to  hay  for  horses. 

222.  The  sorghums,  Sorghum  vulgare. — While  the  sorghums  can 
be  grown  over  most  of  the  United  States  they  are  at  their  best  in 
the  southwestern  plains  region,   reaching  from  Nebraska  to  Texas. 
The  saccharine  sorghums,  with  their  juicy  stalks  rich  in  sugar,  are 
grown  for  both  forage  and  grain,  principally  the  former.     The  non- 
saccharine   sorghums — kafir   and   milo — are   grown   for   grain,    with 
forage  second  in  importance.     In  1907  Kansas2  grew  378,000  acres 
of  sweet  sorghum  and  508,000  acres  of  kafir  for  grain  and  forage, 
the  2  crops  having  a  value  of  over  $8,000,000.    Conner3  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,   reporting  for  Northwest  Texas, 
states  that  sorghum,  milo,  and  kafir  yield  from  5  to  6  tons  of  dry 
forage  per  acre  in  average  seasons.     When  grown  in  drills,  not  too 
thickly,  the  sorghum  stalks  are  coarse  and  much  seed  is  produced. 
It  is  then  usually  harvested  into  shocks,  the  same  as  Indian  corn. 
Thickly-sown  sorghum  becomes  a  coarse  grass  which   may  be  cut 
with  the  mower  and  cured  in  cocks,  the  same  as  the  meadow  grasses. 
The  leaves  of  the  sorghum  plant  are  quite  free  from  dust  and  very 
palatable,  making  with  the  sweet,  juicy  stalks  a  desirable  roughage 
for  stock,  especially  horses. 

The  merits  of  sorghum  as  silage  are  but  little  known.  When  en- 
siled, sorghum  usually  makes  a  sourer  silage  than  corn.  Soule  of 
the  Tennessee  Station4  has  found,  however,  that  well-matured  sor- 
ghum properly  ensiled  makes  sweet  silage. 

1  Buls.  43,  51.  3  Texas  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  3  03. 

2  Qt.  Ept.  Kan.  St.  Bd.  Agr.,  Dee.  1907.  4  Bui.  Vol.  XV11,  No.  1. 


166  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  common  variety  at  the  North,  known  as  Amber  Cane,  should 
be  more  extensively  used  for  soilage,  and  especially  as  a  dry  forage, 
since  it  is  highly  palatable  and  greatly  relished  by  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  (434,  551,  765,  900) 

II.  THE  SMALLER  GRASSES. 

The  great  grain-bearing  plants — Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  rice,  and  the  sorghums — are  all  members  of  the  grass  family, 
being  annuals  and  requiring  careful  cultivation.  The  smaller 
grasses  are  nearly  all  perennials,  thriving  without  cultivation  and 
producing  roughage  of  high  grade.  In  the  humid  regions  Nature 
everywhere  spreads  a  carpet  of  soft,  green  grass  that  beautifies  the 
landscape  and  furnishes  an  abundance  of  palatable  food  for  animals. 
Even  in  the  desert  the  grasses  struggle  for  existence  and  yield  rich 
nutriment,  tho  in  meager  amount.  For  recuperating  the  soil  and 
binding  it  together  and  for  furnishing  food  to  man  and  the  domestic 
animals,  the  grasses  are  of  supreme  importance.  In  summertime  in 
those  regions  where  grasses  flourish,  the  animals  of  the  farm  largely 
care  for  themselves,  and  meat,  milk,  and  wool  are  produced  at  the 
minimum  cost  for  labor. 

223.  Blue-grass,  Poa  pratensis. — Kentucky  blue-grass,  or  June 
grass,  is  the  common  carpet  grass  of  the  northeastern  United  States, 
easily  ranking  first  for  lawn  and  pasture.  By  its  persistence  it  often 
drives  red  clover,  timothy,  and  other  grasses  from  the  meadows  and 
pastures,  tenaciously  holding  its  own  against  all  claimants.  Table 
III  of  the  Appendix  shows  this  grass  to  be  the  richest  in  the  list 
in  digestible  crude  protein  and  fat,  which  helps  to  explain  the 
fondness  for  it  shown  by  stock. 

Blue-grass  ripens  in  early  summer,  having  largely  gathered  the 
necessary  food  material  from  air  and  soil  during  the  preceding  late 
summer  and  fall.  With  the  coming  of  spring  it  pushes  forward 
so  vigorously  that  early  in  May  the  fields  wear  a  thick,  nutritious 
carpet  of  grass,  and  a  little  later  the  seed  heads  show.  With  seed 
bearing  late  in  May,  the  plant's  energies  have  been  exhausted,  and 
blue-grass  enters  a  period  of  rest  which  lasts  several  weeks.  During 
this  time  there  is  little  growth,  and  if  a  midsummer  drought  occurs 
the  plants  turn  brown  and  appear  to  be  dying.  They  quickly  re- 
vive with  the  coming  of  the  fall  rains,  and  again  the  pastures  are 
green  and  growing.  They  have  had  their  rest,  and  each  plant  is 
once  more  busy  gathering  nourishment  for  the  coming  season's  seed 
bearing.  The  observant  stockman  soon  learns  that  it  is  not  wise 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  167 

to  rely  on  blue-grass  pasture  for  a  steady  and  uniform  feed  supply 
for  his  cattle  thruout  the  whole  season.  Accordingly  he  under- 
stocks the  pasture  in  spring  so  that  the  excess  of  herbage  during 
May  and  June  remains  to  be  drawn  upon  during  the  midsum- 
mer dormant  period,  or  he  fully  stocks  it  and  makes  up  the  later 
shortage  by  partial  soilage.  In  some  districts  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  graze  blue-grass  pastures  lightly,  or  not  at  all,  in  sum- 
mer, and  allow  the  self-cured  herbage  to  stand  for  winter  grazing. 
Kentucky  blue-grass  is  primarily  a  pasture  grass  and  should  be  so 
regarded.  (327) 

224.  Timothy,  Phleum  pratense. — The  well  known  grass  called 
timothy,  or  herd's  grass,  yields  a  large  part  of  all  the  hay  used  on 
the  farms  of  the  northeastern  United  States  and  probably  three- 
fourths  of  all  that  marketed  in  the  cities.  Timothy  seeds,  large  and 
easily  recognized,  are  produced  in  abundance  and  long  retain  their 
vitality.  The  grass  cures  easily  into  hay,  and  a  field  seeded  to 
timothy  is  quickly  established  and  usually  holds  well.  These  points 
of  merit  make  it  a  favorite  with  the  farmer.  Timothy  hay  from 
nearly  ripened  grass  is  usually  bright,  quite  free  from  dust,  and 
much  liked  by  driving  horses,  which  get  most  of  their  nourishment 
from  oats  or  other  grains.  (429)  These  qualities  satisfy  the  city 
buyer.  But  timothy  hay  is  not  desirable  as  the  sole  forage  crop 
on  well  managed  farms,  because  the  yield  is  not  particularly  large 
and  there  are  other  and  better  plants  which,  in  part,  may  take 
its  place.  Fodder  corn,  hay  from  the  cereals — oats,  wheat,  rye, 
or  barley, — mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay,  or  pure  clover  hay  are 
all  available  and  desirable  substitutes  in  many  cases.  (540,  664) 

Ked  or  alsike  clover  should  always  be  sown  with  timothy,  for  the 
combination  furnishes  more  and  superior  hay,  even  for  horses. 
Grown  together,  the  hay  of  the  first  season  will  consist  largely  of 
clover.  With  the  close  of  the  second  season  most  of  the  clover  dis- 
appears and  the  decaying  clover  roots  will  nourish  the  timothy  which 
remains,  so  that  a  much  larger  yield  of  that  grass  is  thereby  ob- 
tained. The  largest  returns  of  timothy  hay  are  secured  by  delaying 
harvest  until  the  grass  is  nearly  mature.  (238)  Late-cut  hay  is 
usually  quite  free  from  dust  and  is  satisfactory  for  horses  and  fatten- 
ing cattle,  while  early-cut  timothy  is  superior  for  cows,  young  stock, 
and  sheep.  Timothy  hay  grown  at  the  Minnesota  Station1  on  ma- 
nured soil  contained  25  per  ct.  more  crude  protein  than  that  from 
the  same  soil  without  manure.  (546,  547,  554) 

1  Bui.  101. 


168  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

225.  Red  top,  Agrostis  vulgaris. — This  grass,  widely  disseminated 
and  of  several  species,  is  especially  valuable  on  damp  lowlands,  where 
it  forms  a  close,  well-knit,  smooth  turf,  ranking  next  to  blue-grass 
ki  this  particular.     It  furnishes  excellent  pasture  and  yields  a  pal- 
atable hay  of  fine  stems  and  numerous  leaves.    Red  top  is  often  indig- 
enous in  northern  meadows  and  should  be  more   generally  grown. 
Tracy  of  the  Mississippi  Station1  found  no  better  grass  than  red 
top  for  marshy  lands  and  seepy  hillsides. 

226.  Orchard  grass,  Dactylis  glomerata. — This  grass  starts  early 
in  the  spring  and  ripens  about  two  weeks  in  advance  of  timothy. 
For  this  reason  it  may  well  be  grown  with  red  clover.     It  succeeds 
well  in  partial  shade,  but  forms  an  irregular,  uneven  sod,  and  should 
always  be  sown  with  other  grasses  and  with  clovers.     The  hay  from 
orchard  grass  is  inclined  to  be  harsh,  woody,  and  lacking  in  aroma, 
and   is   not   particularly   relished   by   stock.     These   defects   can   be 
partially  overcome  by  early  harvesting. 

227.  Mixed  grasses. — No  matter  how  valuable,  no  single  variety 
of  grass  should  be  grown  in  meadows  or  pastures,  but  always  a  mix- 
ture of  several  kinds  in  combination  with  the  clovers.     At  the  North 
a  combination  of  red  top,  timothy,  and  orchard  grass,  together  with 
alsike  and  medium  red  clover,  will  yield  a  larger  tonnage  of  aro- 
matic, palatable  hay  than  is  possible  from  any  single  variety.     Un- 
less indigenous,  white  clover  should  be  sown  in  pastures  with  all  the 
above.     There  are  other  varieties  of  grass  that  thrive  in  certain  dis- 
tricts,  and  the  stockman   should  experiment   freely   with   the  more 
promising  ones  in  order  that  he  may  discover  those  best  suited  to 
his  particular  farm.     In  this  connection  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  presence  or  absence  of  sufficient  plant  food — nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  potash,  and  lime — determines  and  regulates,  in  a  large  degree, 
the  species  or  varieties  of  grass  and  clover  found  in  any  given  field. 

228.  Brome  grass,  Bromus  inermis. — For  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
northern  plains  region,  stretching  from  South  Dakota  to  Saskatche- 
wan, brome  is  the  most  important  perennial  hay  and  pasture  grass, 
flourishing  there  as  do  timothy  and  blue-grass  further  east.     Ladd 
and  Shepperd  of  the  North  Dakota  Station2  found  brome  the  best 
grass  for  permanent  pasture,  yielding  twice  as  much  protein  and  no 
more  fiber  than  timothy.     During  a  5-year  test,  brome  grass  yielded 
an  average  of  2  tons  of  hay  at  the  Manitoba  and  1.25  tons  at  the 
Saskatchewan  Station.3  (431,  749) 

1  Bui.  20.  2  Bui.  47.  3  Canada  Expt.  Farms,  Epts.  1902-6. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  169 

229.  Millet,  Setaria  Italica  and  Panicum,  spp. — The  millets,  which 
are  annual  grasses,  are  of  many  races  and  varieties  mixed  in  hopeless 
confusion.     German   millet   and   Hungarian   grass   are   the   varieties 
commonly   grown   for  hay  in  the  northern  states.     Sown  in   early 
summer,   frequently  as  catch  crops,  they  thrive  remarkably  in  hot 
and  even  dry  weather,  reaching  the  harvest  period  late  in  August  or 
September.     For  millet  hay  of  fine   quality  heavy  seeding  should 
be  practiced.     Millet  grass  designed  for  hay  should  be  cut  as  soon 
as  the  blossoms  appear,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the  hard,  indi- 
gestible seeds.     Thickly-seeded,  early-cured  millet  hay  is  useful  for 
cattle  and  sheep  feeding.  (501,  764)     Since  millet  hay  is  sometimes 
injurious  to  horses,  it  should  be  fed  sparingly  and  under  close  super- 
vision.  (433) 

230.  The  cereals  as  grasses. — At  the  North,  fall-sown  rye  and  wheat 
and  spring-sown  barley  and  oats  furnish  quick,  excellent,  short-time 
pasture  or  soilage,  or,  if  harvested  when  nearly  mature,   dust-free, 
palatable  hay.    Barley  is  the  best  cereal  grass  for  late  summer  seed- 
ing, since  the  young  plants  do  not  rust  as  readily  in  early  fall  as 
do  the  others.     Sown  in  August  at  the  North,  and  still  later  at  the 
South,  barley  will  grow  to  nearly  or  quite  full  height  before  cold 
weather,  and  will  furnish  much  nutritious  pasture  or  green  forage 
for   soilage.    At   the   Alabama    (Canebrake)    Station1    a    fall-seeded 
barley  field  yielded  over  11  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre  by  the 
following  March.     It  was  found  in  southern  Kansas  that  fall-sown 
wheat  pastured  by  cows  during  mild  weather  in  winter  gave  a  grass 
flavor  to  winter  butter.     The  bad  flavor  which  green  rye  imparts  to 
milk  may  usually  be  avoided  by  grazing  the  cows  thereon  for  but 
two    or   three   hours   immediately   after   milking.     In   the   northern 
states  the  cereal  grain  plants  are  not  as  extensively  used  for  hay 
and  pasture  as  they  should  be. 

A  field  sown  to  rye,  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  for  temporary  pasture 
may  be  changed  to  a  permanent  one  by  sowing  clover  and  grass 
seed  thereon  early  in  spring  in  the  usual  manner.  The  grass  and 
clover  plants  will  then  soon  begin  growth  under  shelter  of  the  young 
grain  plants.  Stock  should  be  turned  into  such  pastures  to  graze 
on  the  cereal  plants  regardless  of  the  young  grasses  and  clovers, 
but  the  animals  should  be  kept  off  the  field  immediately  after 
rains  while  the  ground  is  soft.  The  cattle  will  tramp  out  some  of  the 
tiny  grass  plants,  but  will  do  no  permanent  harm.  The  young 
grass  and  clover  plants  will  grow  rapidly,  and  as  the  cereal  plants 

1  Bui.  9. 


170  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

die  will  spread  until  they  form  a  dense,  permanent  sod.  Such 
double  seeding  gives  the  earliest  possible  summer  pasture  of  rye, 
wheat,  barley,  or  oats,  followed  by  the  more  permanent  one  of  mixed 
grasses  and  clovers. 

231.  The  cereals  for  hay. — Barley  is  the  common  hay  grass  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  this  plant,  as  well  as  the 
oat  and  wheat,  should  not  be  used  for  hay  production  in  other  parts 
of  the  country.     When  intended  for  hay,  the  cereal  grasses  should 
be  cut  while  the  grains  are  in  the  early  milk  stage,  at  which  time 
the   stems  and  leaves  may  be  cured  into   bright,   dust- free  hay  of 
good  quality.     In  many  cases  a  field  of  wheat  or  other  cereal  grains 
which  has  lodged  badly  because  of  overrich  soil  or  excessive  rain- 
fall may  be  advantageously  converted  into  hay.  (430) 

232.  Bermuda   grass,    Cynodon   Dactylon. — This   grass   is   to    the 
cotton  belt  what  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  timothy  combined  are  to 
the  northeastern  United  States.     Bermuda  grass  furnishes  a  dense 
sod  covering  the  southern  fields  with  a  carpet  of  summer  green  as 
pleasing  to  the  eye  of  the  stockman  as  it  is  to  the  animals  grazing 
thereon.    Spillman1  reports  that  the  best  Bermuda  pastures  will  sup- 
port 2  head  of  cattle  per  acre  from  April  until  late  October.     The 
Louisiana  Station2  grazed  30  head  of  cattle  of  all  ages  on  17  acres 
of  Bermuda  grass  pasture  mixed  with  other  grasses  and  some  Les- 
pedeza,  with  no  other  feed  from  March  to  November.     According 
to  Spillman,3  Killebrew  states  that  on  the  best  alluvial  soils  1  acre 
of  Bermuda  pasture  will  graze  10  sheep   for  8  months.     Bermuda 
pastures   are   best   utilized   by   subdividing    them   and   turning   the 
stock    from    one    lot    to    the    other.     On    rich    soil    Bermuda    grass 
yields  as  much  as  4  tons  of  hay  in  2  cuttings,  fully  equal  in  quality 
to  timothy.    At  the  Oklahoma  Station4  hardy  Bermuda  grass  yielded 
4  tons  of  hay  per  acre  in  3  cuttings.   (432,  669) 

233.  Johnson  grass,  Andropogon  Halepensis. — Johnson  grass,  the 
worst  weed  of  the  South,  is  capable  of  yielding  from  3  to  5  tons  of 
excellent  hay  in  3  or  more  cuttings.     It  spreads  from  seeds  as  well 
as  by   its  vigorous   creeping   rootstocks.     This   coarse   grass  is   not 
suitable  for  pasture,  but  for  soilage  it  may  be  cut  once  each  month 
during  the  summer  season.  (668) 

234.  Miscellaneous  southern  grasses. — For  winter  pasture  and  soil- 
age as  well  as  for  hay,  a  long  list  of  grasses  is  available  for  the 
southern  states,  only  a  few  of  which  can  be  here  mentioned.     The 

1  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States.  8  Loc.  cit. 

*  Bui.  72.  4  Ept.  1906. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  171 

cereals — oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  rye — furnish  large  quantities  of 
useful  forage.  Bell1  reports  that  at  Jackson,  Mississippi,  15  acres 
of  winter  rye  furnished  one-half  the  pasturage  for  25  cows.  Tracy2 
states  that  in  Florida  and  the  Texas  Gulf  country  1  acre  of  Guinea 
grass,  Panicum  maximum,  will  carry  4  head  of  cattle  thru  the  en- 
tire season  by  soilage,  or  3  head  by  grazing.  Stubbs  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Station3  reports  teosinte,  Euchlaena  Mexicana,  a  giant  grass  re- 
sembling sorghum,  as  yielding  over  50  tons  per  acre.  This  plant 
is  too  tropical  in  character  to  have  value  outside  a  belt  bordering 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

235.  The  abuse  of  pasturage. — It  is  a  fact  which  cannot  escape  the 
attention  of  students  of  agricultural  economics,   that  our  stockmen 
rely  too  blindly  upon  pastures  for  the  maintenance  of  their  cattle 
during  half  the  year.     But  a  few  centuries  ago  the  inhabitants  of 
Great  Britain  trusted  to  the  growth  of  natural  herbage  for  the  sup- 
port of  their  stock  not  only  in  summer  but  thruout  the  entire  year. 
If  their  animals,  foraging  for  themselves  as  best  they  could,  survived 
the  winter,  all  was  well ;  if  they  died  from  starvation,  it  was  an  ' l  act 
of  God."     We  have  abandoned  the  crude  practices  of  our  ancestors, 
and  now  carefully  store  in  barns  abundance  of  provender  for  feed- 
ing flocks  and  herds  during  winter's  rigor.     We  are  amazed  that 
our  ancestors  were  so  improvident  as  to  gather  no  winter  feed  for 
their  cattle,  while  for  ours  great  barns  are  built  and  stored  with 
provender.     By  turning  cattle  to  pasture  in  spring  and  letting  them 
forage  as  best  they  may  until  winter  we  show  that  all  the  barbaric 
blood  has  not  yet  been  eliminated  from  our  veins.     If  the  summer 
rains  are  timely  and  abundant  the  cattle  are  well  nourished  on  these 
pastures;  if  drought  prevails  they  suffer  for  food  as  surely,   and 
often  as  severely,  as  did  the  live  stock  of  England  in  winter,  ages 
ago.     To  suffering  from  scant  food  there  is  added  the  heat  of  "dog 
days"  and  the  ever-present  annoyance  of  blood-sucking  flies.     Our 
stockmen  will  never  be  worthy  of  their  calling,  nor  their  flocks  and 
herds  yield  their  best  returns,  until  ample  provision  is  made  against 
drought-ruined  pastures  in  summer.     Every  argument  in  favor  of 
storing  provender  for  stock  in  winter  holds  with  equal  force  for  pro- 
viding feed  to  make  good  any  possible  shortage  of  pastures  in  summer. 

III.  HAY-MAKING. 

236.  The    quality    of   young   grass. — At    the    Michigan    Station4 
Crozier  cut  growing  timothy  grass  8  times  from  one  plat,  while  on 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers »  Bui.  147.  *  Bui.  19. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  300.  *  Bui.  141. 


172 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


another  it  was  cut  and  cured  into  hay  after  making  full  growth.  The 
hay  from  the  grass  which  was  frequently  cut  was  nearly  3  times  as 
rich  in  crude  protein  as  that  from  the  nearly  mature  grass  cut  once, 
but  the  latter  had  the  largest  total  amount  of  crude  protein  and  nearly 
4  times  as  much  total  dry  matter.  This  teaches  that  the  short,  tender 
grass,  such  as  is  gathered  by  grazing  animals,  is  percentagely  much 
richer  in  crude  protein,  which  goes  to  build  muscle,  than  the  same 
grass  when  allowed  to  mature.  To  get  the  largest  returns  of  total 
nutrients,  however,  grass  must  make  full  growth  before  it  is  cut. 

237.  Dried  green  grass. — At  the  Pennsylvania  Station1  Armsby 
tested  the  feeding  value  of  dried  and  fresh  grass  in  the  following 
manner:  Short  grass  on  the  college  lawn  was  cut  with  a  lawn 
mower  and  divided  into  2  portions,  one  of  which  was  fed  fresh  to 
a  cow,  the  other  half  being  dried  over  a  steam  boiler  and  in  turn  fed 
to  the  same  cow.  Armsby  had  previously  conducted  a  similar  ex- 
periment at  the  Wisconsin  Station  with  grass  cut  when  9  or  10 
inches  high.  Half  was  fed  fresh,  and  the  other  half  carefully  dried 
in  the  sun  and  later  given  to  the  same  cow.  The  yields  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  in  the  2  trials  were  as  follows: 

A  verage  daily  yield  of  milk  and  fat  from  cows  fed  green  and  dried  grass. 


Product  f  rom— 

Green  grass 

Dried  grass 

Milk 

Fat 

Milk 

Fat 

Trial  at  Pennsylvania  Station 

Lbs. 
26.01 
16.98 

Lbs. 
1.08 
0.92 

Lbs. 
25.27 
17.81 

Lbs. 
1.06 
1.00 

Trial  at  Wisconsin  Station 

Average 

21.5 

1.00 

21.54 

1.03 

These  results  show  that  perfectly  dried  grass  yields  as  much  nutri- 
ment as  when  fed  in  the  fresh  condition.  In  actual  hay-making,  how- 
ever, more  or  less  of  the  finer  portions  of  the  plants  is  always  lost. 
Exposure  to  the  sun  reduces  the  palatability  by  bleaching  and  causes 
a  loss  of  aromatic  compounds,  dew  works  injury,  and  rain  carries 
away  the  more  soluble  portions.  (48)  Thus,  while  the  dried  grass 
may  theoretically  equal  the  fresh  forage,  in  practice  it  falls  short. 

Stockhard2  cured  one  sample  of  meadow  hay  in  3  days  and  left 
another  in  the  field  for  13  days  in  alternate  wet  and  dry  weather. 
Analysis  showed  that  the  weathered  hay  had  lost  12.5  per  ct.  of  its 


Ept.  1888. 


2  Wolff,  Farm  Foods,  Eng.  cd.,  p.  155. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn. 


173 


total  dry  substance,  representing  one-fourth  of  its  original  nutritive 
value.  Marcker1  found  the  loss  in  meadow  hay  exposed  to  a  pro- 
longed rain  to  be  18.4  per  ct.  of  the  dry  substance.  This  heavy  with- 
drawal of  the  soluble  portions  of  the  hay  leaves  proportionally  more 
woody  fiber  and  indigestible  matter  in  what  remains. 

238.  Changes  in  ripening  grass. — Hunt  of  the  Illinois  Station2 
conducted  extensive  studies  of  the  changes  which  occur  in  maturing 
grasses,  securing  the  following  data  relative  to  the  timothy  plant: 

Yield  of  one  acre  of  timothy  cut  at  different  stages. 


Stage  of  growth  when  cut 

Dry 

matter 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Full  bloom 

Lbs. 
3287 
3423 
4021 
4064 

Lbs. 
224 
228 
273 
239 

Lbs. 
240 
225 
246 
253 

Lbs. 
1056 
1155 
1380 
1377 

Lbs. 
1602 
1663 
1960 
2058 

Lbs. 
165 
152 
153 
137 

Pollen  and  %  anthers  shed  _  _ 
Seed  in  dough 

Seed  nearly  ripe  . 

The  table  shows  that  between  full  bloom  and  the  ripe-seed  stage 
the  acre  of  timothy  gained  nearly  800  Ibs.,  or  over  23  per  ct.,  in  dry 
matter.  There  was  but  little  increase  in  crude  protein  or  ash,  and  a 
small  decrease  in  fat.  In  carbohydrates  the  increase  in  woody  fiber, 
which  is  low  in  feeding  value,  was  over  300  Ibs.,  and  the  gain  in 
nitrogen-free  extract,  which  is  valuable  in  feeding,  was  over  450  Ibs. 
By  referring  to  Ladd's  study  of  the  maturing  corn  plant,  (16)  it 
will  be  seen  that  timothy  resembles  corn  in  storing  great  quantities 
of  food  material,  especially  carbohydrates,  after  the  bloom  period. 
In  this  marked  way  the  grasses  differ  from  the  clovers,  since  the 
latter,  as  Hunt  has  also  shown,  (250)  practically  close  their  work  of 
food  building  with  the  bloom  period. 

239.  Time  to  cut  grass. — For  dairy  cows,  young  stock,  and  sheep 
grass  should  be  cut  early,  since  these  animals  do  not  relish  hay  that 
is  woody  and  lacks  aroma,  as  does  most  late-cut  hay.  For  horses 
and  fattening  cattle  late  cutting  is  favored.  These  animals  subsist 
mostly  on  concentrates,  and  the  hay  they  eat  serves  more  for  "fill- 
ing," as  horsemen  say.  In  any  case  the  harvest  should  not  be  too 
long  delayed,  however,  lest  the  grass  become  tough  and  stringy  and 
the  seeds  shatter.  In  trials  with  early-  and  late-cut  timothy  for  fat- 
tening steers,  Sanborn3  found  that  late-cut  hay  gave  better  returns. 


Loc.  cit. 


2  Bui.  5. 


8  Ept.  N.  H.  Board  of  Agr.,  1880. 


174  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  author,  in  an  unpublished  duplicate  experiment  conducted  many 
years  ago,  reached  the  same  conclusion. 

240.  Making  hay. — The  widely  varying  character  of  grass  crops, 
the  dampness  or  dryness  of  the  soil  of  the  meadows,  the  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  intensity  and  continuity  of  sunlight  and 
heat,  are  all  modifying  factors  that  combine  to  keep  the  curing  of 
grasses  into  hay  one  of  those  arts  which  cannot  be  very  helpfully 
discussed  in  books.  However,  some  interesting  and  important  points 
bearing  on  the  subject  will  be  considered  here,  drawn  largely  from 
Storer's  classic  work  on  agriculture.1 

Tho  an  unweighable  quantity,  the  aroma  of  grass  has  real  value 
in  rendering  hay  palatable.  When  the  sun  dissipates  the  dew  from 
the  grass  drying  in  the  meadow,  we  detect  the  escaping  aroma,  be- 
cause the  dew  in  rising  carries  some  of  it  into  the  atmosphere.  This 
is  one  reason  why  hay  should  not  remain  scattered  over  the  meadow 
at  night.  "When  new-mown  hay  lies  in  the  sunlight,  the  bleaching 
which  we  observe  indicates  that  harmful  chemical  changes  are  taking 
place  within  the  grass  stems  and  leaves.  Green-colored,  sweet-smell- 
ing hay  is  really  the  best,  and  prudent  stockmen  will  not  overlook 
such  seemingly  small  points  as  preserving  the  aroma  and  preventing 
bleaching.  Grass  stems  remain  alive  for  some  time  after  they  have 
been  severed  by  the  mower,  and  the  leaves,  so  long  as  they  remain 
succulent  and  green,  continue  to  exhale  moisture.  If  grass  with  the 
leaves  still  fresh  is  gathered  into  bundles  or  cocks,  the  leaves  will 
continue  drawing  water  from  the  stems,  thereby  ridding  them  of 
moisture  and  hastening  the  drying  grass  toward  the  condition  of  hay. 
In  this  fact  we  have  an  explanation  of  one  of  the  advantages  of 
curing  grass  in  cocks  or  bundles  rather  than  by  spreading  it  thinly 
in  the  hot  sun.  Hay  cocked  in  the  afternoon  entraps  much  warm 
air,  and  the  mass  remains  in  a  condition  favorable  to  the  transpira- 
tion, or  giving  off,  of  moisture  during  the  night.  The  heat  yielded 
by  the  plant  in  still  carrying  on  its  life  functions  and  the  warm 
air  entrapped  by  grass  gathered  in  the  afternoon  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  heat  which  may  develop  in  partially  cured  or 
damp  hay  thru  fermentation.  When  hay  that  has  been  cocked  for 
a  time  is  exposed  to  the  air  in  flakes,  the  moisture,  which  has  been 
evenly  diffused  thruout  the  mass  of  stems  and  their  leaves,  is  yielded 
up  rapidly  and  such  material  is  soon  dried.  While  hay  can  be  made 
without  sweating  in  the  cock,  it  is  much  better  for  having  undergone 
such  action. 

1  Agriculture  in  Sonic  of  its  Relations  with  Chemistry. 


The  Grasses  Including  Indian  Corn.  176 

Hay  put  into  the  barn  when  so  dry  that  it  will  not  pack  well,  is 
not  in  first  class  condition.  It  should  be  mowed  away  with  just  that 
amount  of  moisture  which  allows  it  to  settle  compactly  when  treaded 
down.  Salt  and  lime  scattered  over  hay  when  put  into  the  mow  tend 
to  prevent  fermentation  and  check  the  growth  of  molds  and  mildews. 
Salt  also  renders  it  more  palatable.  These  materials  are  not  essen- 
tials, but  are  helpful,  especially  when  storing  partially  cured  hay 
during  bad  weather.  Damp  hay  may  be  improved  by  placing  it  in 
alternate  layers  with  dry  straw.  The  straw  absorbs  moisture  as  well 
as  aroma  from  the  hay  so  that  cattl'e  the  more  readily  eat  both  straw 
and  hay.  Hay  from  second-growth  grass,  or  aftermath,  is  rich  in 
nutrients,  but  it  is  made  at  a  time  when  the  ground  is  often  damp, 
the  days  short,  and  the  heat  of  the  sun  weak.  This  combination 
renders  the  curing  of  aftermath  difficult,  and  the  product  is  usually 
of  less  value  than  first-crop  hay.  Cured  under  favorable  conditions, 
aftermath  hay  is  excellent  for  winter  feeding. 

New-made  hay  is  laxative  and  should  not  be  fed  to  horses,  since 
it  makes  soft  flesh.  Not  until  the  sweating  process  has  been  com- 
pleted in  the  mow  and  the  mass  cooled  off  can  new-crop  hay  be  fed 
with  entire  safety. 

241.  Measurement  and  shrinkage. — Woll1  states  that  420  cubic 
feet  of  timothy  or  500  of  clover  hay  in  the  mow  equals  1  ton.  Wheeler 
and  Adams  of  the  Rhode  Island  Station2  found  that  field-cured, 
mixed  red  top  and  timothy  hay,  containing  from  25  to  29  per  ct. 
water  when  placed  in  the  barn,  showed  a  shrinkage  of  from  15  to 
20  per  ct.  of  the  original  weight  when  later  removed.  Jordan  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Station3  found  that  timothy  hay  stored  in  the  mow 
shrank  on  the  average  22  per  ct.  and  red  clover  37  per  ct.  Wilson 
of  the  Arizona  Station4  found  the  shrinkage  of  stacked  alfalfa  hay 
to  range  from  11  to  23  per  ct.  Sanborn  of  the  Missouri  Station5 
estimates  that  a  hay  stack  12  ft.  in  diameter  has  33  per  ct.  of  its 
contents  in  the  surface  foot  where  it  is  more  or  less  exposed  to  the 
weather.  A  stack  of  second-crop  clover  lost  30  per  ct.  in  weight 
between  early  August  and  the  following  March,  17  per  ct.  being 
water  and  13  per  ct.  dry  matter. 

IV.  STRAW  AND  CHAFF. 

With  our  steadily  increasing  population  and  the  gradual  exhaus- 
tion of  the  fertile  lands  of  the  Northwest,  the  pioneer  stage  of  wheat 

1  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen.  4  Ept.  1907. 

2  Bui.  82.  5  Bui.  25, 1st  series. 

3  Bui.  5. 


176  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

growing  in  the  United  States  is  drawing  to  a  close.  Instead  of 
burning  vast  quantities  of  straw  and  wasting  many  other  rough- 
ages as  is  now  done,  all  these  will  soon  be  used  along  with  silage, 
roots,  grains,  and  the  by-products  of  the  flouring  mills  for  feeding 
dairy  cows,  fattening  cattle,  and  sheep  in  order  to  supply  the  ever- 
increasing  wants  of  a  vast  population. 

242.  Straw  and  chaff . — Straw  is  poor  in  crude  protein  and  fat, 
and  rich  in  woody  fiber  or  cellulose,  a  carbohydrate  that  requires 
much  energy  for  its  digestion  and  disposal.  Accordingly  straw 
should  be  used  but  sparingly,  at  most,  with  animals  at  hard  work, 
fattening  rapidly,  or  giving  a  large  flow  of  milk.  For  animals  at 
light  work,  fattening  slowly,  or  giving  only  a  little  milk  some  straw 
can  often  be  advantageously  used.  Straw  is  particularly  useful  in 
winter  with  horses  that  are  idle  and  cattle  that  are  being  carried 
over  without  materially  gaming  in  weight.  Heat  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal requirements  of  such  animals,  and  the  large  amount  of  energy 
expended  in  masticating,  digesting,  and  passing  straw  thru  the  body 
finally  appears  as  heat  which  helps  warm  the  body.  The  stockman 
who  understands  the  nature  and  properties  of  straw  will  usually  be 
able  to  make  large  use  of  it.  (71,  73,  403)  In  Europe  straw  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  fattening  cattle.  Oat  straw  with  its  soft,  pliable 
stems  is  the  most  nutritious,  followed  by  barley  straw7.  "Wheat  straw, 
being  coarse  and  stiff,  is  not  so  readily  eaten  by  cattle.  Bye  straw 
is  harsh  and  woody  and  is  best  suited  for  bedding.  In  Canada  and 
Europe  pulped  roots  and  meal  are  mixed  with  straw,  and  the  moist 
mass  allowed  to  soften  and  even  to  ferment  slightly,  after  which  it 
is  readily  consumed  in  large  quantities  by  cattle  and  sheep  with 
satisfactory  results.  The  chaff  of  wheat  and  oats  contains  more 
crude  protein  than  does  straw,  and  forms  a  useful  roughage  for 
stock.  All  such  roughage  will  be  wisely  utilized  when  a  rational 
system  of  feeding  is  followed.  (73,  403,  437-8) 

While  not  especially  desirable,  flax  straw  may  be  fed  with  advan- 
tage when  better  roughage  is  scarce.  The  statement  that  the 
stringy  fiber  of  flax  forms  indigestible  balls  in  the  stomachs  of  farm 
animals  is  unwarranted,  since  it  is  digested  the  same  as  other  fibrous 
matter,  such  as  the  lint  of  cotton  and  the  pith  of  corn  stalks,  for 
example. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS  FOR  GREEN  FORAGE  AND  HAY. 

The  cereal  grain  plants — corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc. — and  the 
grasses — timothy,  red  top,  etc. — serve  mainly  for  furnishing  carbo- 
hydrates for  the  nourishment  of  animals.  The  legumes — alfalfa, 
clover,  vetch,  soybean,  cowpea,  etc. — comprise  the  great  group  of 
food-bearing  plants  characterized  by  their  high  nitrogenous  or  crude 
protein  content.  While  the  first  named  group  primarily  furnishes 
the  animal  with  energy  and  fat,  the  last  group  serves  especially  for 
building  all  the  muscular  tissues  and  all  the  various  organs  of  the 
body,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  skeleton. 

Heretofore  we  have  ascribed  the  great  usefulness  of  the  legumes 
in  nourishing  farm  animals  to  their  high  content  of  crude  protein. 
We  must  now  give  to  these  plants  another  value — that  of  furnishing 
an  abundance  of  lime  to  animals.  Farm  animals  need  a  large  supply 
of  lime  for  building  the  skeleton  and  replacing  the  lime  which  is  used 
up  in  the  metabolic  processes  or  changes  which  are  constantly  going 
on  within  the  body.  Pregnant  animals  store  much  lime  in  the  skele- 
ton of  the  fetus,  and  animals  giving  milk  undergo  a  steady  loss  of 
lime.  Each  100  Ibs.  of  milk  the  cow  produces  carries  off  0.75  Ib. 
of  mineral  matter,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is  lime. 

Many  of  the  concentrates,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  bran,  middlings, 
gluten  meal,  etc.,  and  the  roughages,  such  as  corn  stover,  corn  silage, 
hay,  straw,  etc.,  range  from  poor  to  fair  in  their  content  of  lime.  Of 
all  the  plants  widely  grown  by  the  farmer,  the  legumes  are,  as  a 
class,  richest  in  crude  protein  and  lime.  When  to  these  vitally  im- 
portant facts  wre  add  the  great  basic  one,  that  the  generous  and  con- 
tinuous growing  of  legumes  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  economical 
maintenance  of  soil  fertility,  then,  and  only  then,  do  we  begin  to 
appreciate  the  importance  of  this  beneficent  group  of  plants  in  hus- 
bandry. (89,  Appendix,  Table  V) 

I.  ALFALFA. 

243.  Alfalfa,  Medicago  sativa. — The  alfalfa  plant  is  at  its  best  in 
the  great  semi-arid  plains  region  covering  the  western  half  of  the 
United  States,  where  the  alkaline  soil  is  usually  rich  and  deep, 
with  perfect  drainage.  On  such  land,  amply  watered  by  irrigation 

13  177 


178 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  energized  by  the  tropical  sun  of  summer,  alfalfa  furnishes 
from  2  to  5  cuttings  each  season,  yielding  from  2  to  5  tons  annually 
of  nutritious  hay  per  acre.  Within  the  humid  region,  experience  and 
tests  are  developing  districts  from  Louisiana  to  Maine  where  alfalfa 
can  also  be  profitably  grown.  That  good  crops  of  alfalfa  can  be 
produced  in  the  East  when  conditions  are  favorable  is  shown  by 
Voorhees  of  the  New  Jersey  Station,1  who  reports  the  following 
returns  from  a  well-established  alfalfa  field: 

Green  alfalfa  and  total  nutrients  from  one  acre  of  alfalfa. 


"Hrv 

Carbohydrates 

Cuttings 

forage 

matter 

Ash 

protein 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fat 

Tons 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

•Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

First  cutting  .  . 

9.0 

3,060 

346 

657 

820 

1.116 

121 

Second  cutting-. 
Third  cutting.. 

7.7 
4.9 

3,613 
2,533 

348 
212 

629 
442 

1,113 

643 

1,388 
1.131 

135 
105 

Fourth  cutting 

2.8 

1,666 

147 

299 

389 

771 

61 

Fif  th  cutting  __ 

2.2 

913 

92 

301 

143 

327 

50 

Total 

26.6 

11,785 

1,145 

2,328 

3,108 

4,733 

472 

It  will  be  observed  that  1  acre  yielded  over  26  tons  of  green 
alfalfa,  containing  over  11,000  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  which  held  over 
2,300  Ibs.  of  crude  protein.  Voorhees  estimates  that  this  acre  of 
alfalfa  yielded  as  much  crude  protein  as  is  contained  in  7.5  tons  of 
wheat  bran.  These  exceptionally  large  returns  are  given  to  show 
what  is  possible  in  the  eastern  states  from  alfalfa  grown  by  experts. 

At  the  Colorado  Station,2  Cooke  compared  a  crop  of  dent  corn 
from  1  acre  of  land  with  the  returns  from  an  adjoining  acre  plat 
of  alfalfa  3  years  seeded,  as  shown  below.  The  alfalfa  acre  was  cut 
3  times,  yielding  a  total  of  5.6  tons  of  hay. 

Comparative  acre  yields  of  corn  forage  and  alfalfa  hay. 


Total  yield 

Digestible  matter 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

Crude  protein 

Lbs. 
405 
3,263 
1,472 
84 
315 

Lbs. 
1,602 

4,782 
2,800 
246 
829 

Lbs. 
296 
2,186 
1,060 
63 

Lbs. 
1,198 
3,114 
1,198 
101 

N-free  extract 

Fiber 

Fat     . 

Ash 

Total 

5,539 

10,  259 

3,605 

5,611 

Forage  Crops. 


•^  Bui.  26. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay.  179 

It  will  be  seen  that  alfalfa  yielded  nearly  twice  as  many  pounds 
of  dry  matter  as  the  corn,  with  the  digestible  nutrients  far  in  the 
lead.  The  digestible  crude  protein  of  the  alfalfa  was  about  4  times 
that  of  the  corn. 

244.  Alfalfa  hay  making.— Experience  teaches  that  alfalfa  should 
be  cut  when  about  0.1  of  the  plants  reach  the  blossom  stage,  since 
after  that  time  there  is  little  increase  of  nutrients,  and  early  cutting 
materially  aids  the  next  crop.  The  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1 
found  that  4  cuttings  of  alfalfa  yielded  more  nutrients  than  2 
cuttings. 

Concerning  the  making  of  alfalfa  hay,  Cottrell  of  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion2 writes:  "There  is  practically  no  difficulty  in  curing  any  but 
the  first  crop.  When  the  conditions  for  curing  the  first  crop  are 
unfavorable,  we  have  usually  found  the  most  practicable  method  to 
be  to  cut  the  alfalfa  in  the  morning,  after  the  dew  is  off,  allow  it 
to  barely  wilt  in  the  swath,  then  rake,  and  before  night  put  in 
narrow,  tall  cocks.  After  the  dew  is  off  the  next  morning  and  the 
surface  of  the  ground  has  become  dry,  we  open  these  cocks  carefully, 
so  as  not  to  shatter  off  the  leaves.  If  the  weather  is  favorable  the 
hay  may  be  stacked  in  the  afternoon;  if  not,  we  recock  carefully, 
and  repeat  treatment  until  the  hay  is  properly  cured." 

In  the  humid  regions,  where  more  time  is  required  for  curing 
alfalfa,  muslin  hay  caps  will  be  found  particularly  useful.  Headden 
of  the  Colorado  Station3  found  that  from  40  to  60  per  ct.  of  the 
weight  of  the  alfalfa  plant  is  in  its  leaves,  which  carry  four-fifths 
of  the  crude  protein  and  over  half  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and 
fat.  Three-fourths  of  the  fiber,  or  woody  portion,  is  in  the  alfalfa 
stems.  Headden  further  found  that,  in  the  dry  climate  of  Colorado, 
with  all  conditions  favorable,  for  every  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  taken  off 
the  field  not  less  than  350  Ibs.  of  leaves  and  stems  was  wasted,  and 
with  unfavorable  conditions  and  careless  handling  there  was  a  loss 
of  as  much  as  3,000  Ibs.  One  hundred  Ibs.  of  fresh  alfalfa  yields 
from  27  to  29  Ibs.  of  cured  hay.  In  one  instance  alfalfa  injured  by 
a  succession  of  showers,  aggregating  1.75  inches  of  water,  lost  one- 
third  of  its  protein  and  one-seventh  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract, 
leaving  the  per  cent  of  fiber,  or  woody  portion,  increased  by  12  per  ct. 
Forty  per  ct.  of  the  nutrients  of  alfalfa  hay  can  be  extracted  with 
tepid  water.  Cooke  of  the  Colorado  Station4  found  that  stacked 
alfalfa  loses  in  an  average  season  one-fifth  of  its  feeding  value,  a 
loss  which  would  be  largely  avoided  by  storing  under  cover. 

*  IT.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers  '  Bui.  215.  3  Bui.  110. 

-  Bui.  109.  *  Bui.  57. 


180  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

245.  Alfalfa  hay  as  a  feed. — No  other  roughage  on  the  farm  is 
possible  of  wider  use  than  alfalfa  hay.  For  road  horses  it  is  not  of 
much  value,  being  too  laxative  and  causing  the  animals  to  sweat 
freely.  However,  it  can  be  used  with  all  classes  of  horses  to  some 
extent,  and  largely  with  those  at  slow,  steady  work.  (440)  When 
fed  to  fattening  steers  alfalfa  hay  tends  to  the  more  rapid  laying 
on  of  fat,  thereby  reducing  the  quantity  of  concentrates  required 
for  a  given  gain.  (548,  553)  For  the  dairy  cow  there  is  no  better 
feed,  for  alfalfa  hay  is  rich  not  only  in  crude  protein  but  in  mineral 
matter — prime  requisites  in  milk  production.  (672-5)  For  sheep 
feeding  alfalfa  hay  leads  the  roughages,  (762-6)  and  it  can  be  used 
to  a  limited  extent  with  fattening  hogs,  and  largely  employed  in 
maintaining  shotes  and  breeding  swine  during  winter.  (903) 

Understanding  the  composition  and  nature  of  alfalfa  hay  the 
stockman  can  feed  it  to  all  farm  animals  with  economy  and  satis- 
faction. On  every  farm  where  stock  is  kept  there  should  be  an 
effort  made  to  grow  alfalfa.  If  the  attempt  results  in  failure,  re- 
course should  be  had  to  red  clover  or  some  other  legume. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Station1  it  was  found  that  while  alfalfa  hay  is 
one  of  the  richest  of  roughages  and  approximates  bran  in  crude  pro- 
tein content,  its  fiber  and  coarse,  bulky  nature  prevent  its  entirely 
taking  the  place  of  such  concentrates  as  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  etc., 
with  cows  giving  a  large  flow  of  milk.  Cows  fed  alfalfa  hay  in 
place  of  all  the  concentrates  lost  flesh,  and  their  coats  were  less 
smooth  and  glossy  than  those  getting  some  meal  as  a  part  of  their 
ration.  When  alfalfa  was  used  to  furnish  as  much  as  60  per  ct.  of 
the  crude  protein  usually  furnished  to  the  cows  in  the  form  of  bran, 
cotton-seed  meal,  etc.,  there  was  some  shrinkage  in  milk  flow,  but 
a  financial  saving  of  over  25  per  ct.  in  the  cost  of  producing  the 
milk.  (675) 

Cottrell  of  the  Kansas  Station2  reports  that  heifers  wintered  on 
alfalfa  hay  alone  made  an  average  gain  of  1.2  Ibs.  per  head  daily, 
returning  104  Ibs.  increase  for  each  ton  of  hay  fed.  (501) 

Alfalfa  feeding  has  revolutionized  the  sheep  fattening  industry  at 
the  West.  In  several  districts  by  combining  beet  pulp  from  the 
sugar  factories  with  alfalfa  hay,  vast  flocks  of  western  range  lambs 
and  sheep  are  economically  fattened.  (759) 

Cottrell3  reports  that  brood  sows  which  lived  thru  the  winter  on 
alfalfa  hay  with  no  grain  farrowed  large,  healthy  litters  of  pigs  in 
the  spring.  Numerous  trials  at  the  western  stations  have  established 

1  Bui.  204.  2  Bui.  114.  3Ibid. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay.  181 

the  value  and  importance  of  a  limited  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  in  the 
ration  of  fattening  swine.  (903) 

246.  Pasturing  alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  primarily  a  hay  and  not  a  pas- 
ture plant,  and  while  it  may  be  grazed  with  some  success  in  the  arid 
regions,  this  practice  means  almost  certain  failure  in  the  Eastern 
States.     Sheep   are   particularly   severe   on   alfalfa  pasture   because 
they  graze  so  closely.     The  loss  from  bloat  with  animals  grazing 
regularly  on  alfalfa  is  small,  tho  in  some  cases  it  reaches  5  per  ct. 
per  annum.     Stock  should  not  be  turned  on  alfalfa  pasture  for  the 
first  time  until  the  dew  is  off,  and  only  after  they  have  been  so 
well  filled  with  other  feed  that  they  are  not  hungry  and  will  not 
overeat.     Even  tho  pigs  may  injure  alfalfa  pastures,  on  account  of 
the  high  value  of  the  succulent,  nitrogenous   feed  furnished,  it  is 
often  most  profitable  to   set   aside   areas  of  limited  size   for  their 
use.     Hitchcock1  reports  a  case  where  pigs  weighing  from  30  to  60 
Ibs.  gained  100  Ibs.  each  during  the  season  when  turned  on  alfalfa 
pasture.      At    the   Kansas    Station2    pigs    on    alfalfa   pasture    were 
given  corn  in  addition.     After  allowing  for  the  corn,   the  alfalfa 
pasture  returned  776  Ibs.  of  pork  per  acre.  (895-6) 

247.  Alfalfa  for  soilage  and  silage. — Wherever  it  can  be  grown 
in  the  East,  alfalfa  will  prove  the  most  valuable  of  all  soiling  crops, 
fitting  admirably  into  the  soilage  system.     Voorhees  of  the  New  Jer- 
sey Station3  reports  that  the  first  cutting  is  ready  about  the  last  of 
May  or  the  first  of  June,  with  3  cuttings  following  at  intervals  of 
from   4  to   6   weeks.    Alfalfa   furnishes   a  more   nearly   continuous 
supply  of  summer  forage  than   any  other  crop.     Voorhees  recom- 
mends feeding  dairy  cows  from  35  to  40  Ibs.  of  fresh  alfalfa  forage 
daily  at  first,  and  gradually  increasing  the  allowance  to  50  Ibs.,  which 
will  furnish  nearly  2  Ibs.  of  digestible  crude  protein.     At  the  New 
Jersey  Station4  Voorhees  and  Lane  found  that  for  3  years  alfalfa 
yielded  annually  per  acre  an  average  of  over  18  tons  of  green  for- 
age, or  4.5  tons  of  hay.     Alfalfa  is  primarily  a  soilage  and  hay  plant, 
and  while  it  can  be  made  into  silage  it  is  less  satisfactory  for  that 
purpose  than  Indian  corn,  and  should  only  be  ensiled  when  it  can- 
not be  successfully  cured  into  hay.  (360) 

248.  Alfalfa  meal. — Ground  alfalfa  hay  and  alfalmo,  the  latter  a 
mixture  of  alfalfa  meal  and  beet  molasses,  are  products  brought  to 
public  notice  by  the  high  prices  ruling  for  concentrates.     In  view 
of  the  great  palatability  of  well-cured  alfalfa  hay  and  the  satisfac- 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  215.  3  Forage  Crops. 

2  Bui.  114.  *  Bui.  148. 


182 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


tion  with  which  it  is  eaten,  the  stockman  cannot  ordinarily  afford 
to  bear  the  heavy  expense  incident  to  grinding  and  mixing  these 
products  and  placing  them  on  the  market.  Where  ground  feed  of 
rather  coarse  nature  is  desired,  and  in  special  cases,  alfalfa  meal 
may  be  found  profitable.  (673) 

II.  RED  CLOVER. 

Red  clover,  Trifolium  pratense,  is  found  on  every  well-conducted 
farm  in  the  northeastern  United  States,  where  with  grasses  it  stands 
prominent  in  rotation  with  corn  and  the  cereals,  serving  for  pasture 
and  hay  production  and  for  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

249.  Yield.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Woll,  cutting  clover  3 
times  during  the  season,  secured  the  results  given  below: 

Yield  of  three  cuttings  of  red  clover. 


Date  of  cutting 

Green 
clover 

Dry 

matter 

Dry 

matter 

First  crop,  May  29           _  _      

Lbs. 
29,  220 

Per  cent 

8.2 

Lbs. 
2,402 

Second  crop,  July  16        _     __     

16,  020 

22.5 

3,599 

Third  crop,  September  1 

7,221 

27.5 

1,986 

The  table  shows  a  total  yield  per  acre  of  over  26  tons  of  green 
forage,  equal  to  4  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  From  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  this  amount  may  be  relied  upon  by  the  stockman  as  a  fair  crop 
under  practical  conditions.  In  this  case  the  first  crop  of  clover, 
carrying  but  8.2  per  ct.  of  dry  matter,  contained  more  water  than  is 
found  in  skim  milk.  This  crop  was  cut  while  lush  and  green,  long 
before  it  had  reached  the  proper  condition  for  making  hay.  The 
figures  are  of  interest  in  showing  why  green  clover,  when  used  for 
soilage,  so  often  proves  unsatisfactory.  It  shows  that,  cut  too  early, 
such  forage  is  mostly  water,  and  the  cattle  cannot  consume  enough 
of  it  to  secure  the  nourishment  they  require. 

250.  Development  of  nutrients. — Hunt  of  the  Illinois  Station2  has 
arranged  the  results  of  studies  of  the  medium  red  clover  plant,  made 
by  himself  and  Jordan  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station,  portions  of 
which  are  given  on  the  next  page. 

We  learn  from  these  studies  that  the  fiber,  or  woody  matter,  which 
is  the  least  valuable  carbohydrate  of  the  plant,  increased  up  to  the 
time  the  blossom  heads  were  dead.  On  the  other  hand,  the  protein, 
fat,  and  ash,  as  well  as  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  which  contains  the 


Ept.  1889. 


2  Bui.  5. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay. 


183 


more  valuable  carbohydrates,  reached  their  maximum  at  the  time 
the  plants  were  in  full  bloom,  and  diminished  in  amount  after  that 
period.  The  loss  after  blooming  was  probably  largely  due  to  the 
withering  and  dropping  off  of  the  lower  leaves  on  the  clover  stems. 
This  shrinkage  of  valuable  nutrients  in  the  clover  plant  after  the 
bloom  period  is  in  strong  contrast  with  their  continued  increase  up 
to  full  ripening  in  Indian  corn  and  other  grasses,  as  previously 
shown.  (16,  238) 

Yield  and  nutrients  in  an  acre  of  medium  red  clover. 


Stage  of  growth  when  cut 

Yield  of 
1  acre 
of  hay 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Illinois,  Hunt 
Full  bloom 

Lbs. 

3,600 
3,260 

4,210 
4,141 
3,915 

Lbs. 

217 
196 

260 
226 

208 

Lbs. 

400 
379 

539 
469 
421 

Lbs. 

660 
672 

1,033 

1,248 
1,260 

Lbs. 

1,052 
1,024 

1,731 
1,379 

1,378 

Lbs. 
197 
156 

116 
106 
94 

Heads  three-fourths  dead 
Pennsylvania,  Jordan 
Heads  in  bloom 

Some  heads  dead 

Heads  all  dead  ... 

The  table  clearly  points  to  full  bloom  as  theoretically  the  best  date 
for  cutting  clover  hay.  Practical  experience,  however,  places  the  time 
somewhat  later,  or  when  about  one-third  of  the  heads  have  turned 
brown.  This  is  because  at  any  earlier  date  the  plant  is  so  soft  and 
sappy  that  only  with  difficulty  can  it  be  cured  into  good  hay.  De- 
laying until  all  the  heads  are  dead  makes  haying  still  easier,  but 
means  poor,  woody,  unpalatable  hay. 

251.  Methods  of  haying. — Three  methods,  each  of  which  has  its 
advantages  and  its  disadvantages,  are  followed  in  making  clover 
hay.  Under  the  first  system  the  clover  is  mown  as  soon  as  the  dew 
is  off  in  the  morning,  and  by  frequent  tedding  and  turning,  aided 
by  bright  sunshine,  it  is  housed  before  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  at 
which  time  the  gathering  dew  shuts  off  further  operations.  To  se- 
cure good  results  under  this  system  the  clover  must  be  somewhat 
past  its  prime  for  the  best  hay,  the  ground  dry  and  warm,  and  the 
weather  favorable. 

The  second  system  differs  from  the  first  only  in  cutting  the  clover 
late  in  the  afternoon  so  that  the  dew  will  not  materially  affect  the 
plants  during  the  night,  as  they  will  then  have  wilted  but  little. 
The  following  day,  with  the  aid  of  the  tedder,  operations  should  pro- 
ceed as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  crop  be  placed  under  cover  be- 
fore night. 


184  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

By  the  third  method  the  clover  is  cut  in  the  forenoon  after  the 
dew  is  off,  and  remains  untouched  in  the  swath  until  afternoon, 
when  it  is  raked  into  loose  windrows,  and  from  these  bunched  into 
large  well-made  cocks  or  miniature  stacks  before  the  dew  falls.  The 
cocks  stand  for  several  days,  the  clover  undergoing  a  sweating  process 
which  is  essential  in  making  the  finest  quality  of  hay.  After  sweat- 
ing and  when  the  weather  is  favorable,  the  cocks  are  carefully 
opened  in  large  flakes  to  avoid  shattering  the  leaves.  These  flakes 
rapidly  give  off  their  moisture,  and  the  material  is  soon  ready  for 
the  barn.  Hay  cured  in  cocks  is  sometimes  protected  by  muslin 
covers  or  caps  to  keep  off  the  rain.  Whatever  the  system  adopted, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  to  preserve  the  leaves  and  blossom 
heads,  which  are  easily  wasted,  leaving  only  the  coarse,  woody  stems. 
Under  any  system  of  hay  making  the  clover  plant  should  never  be 
placed  in  barn  or  stack  when  carrying  moisture  from  either  dew  or 
rain. 

252.  Losses  by  faulty  curing. — According  to  Wolff,1  from  25  to 
40  per  ct.  of  the  dry  substance  of  clover  hay  can  be  extracted  by 
means  of  cold  water.     Eitthausen  cured  one  sample  of  clover  hay 
quickly  and  allowed  another  to  lie  a  fortnight  in  the  rain  with  the 
results  shown  below: 

Not  rained  upon  Rained  upon 

Water 16.0  per  cent  16.0  per  cent 

Crude  protein 14. 6  per  cent  15. 8  per  cent 

Fiber . 25.3  per  cent  37.4  per  cent 

N-free  extract  and  fat 36. 1  per  cent  23. 4  per  cent 

Ash __ 8.0  per  cent  7.5  per  cent 

The  table  shows  that  rain  decreased  by  one-third  the  content  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat,  which  have  high  feeding  value,  while 
percentagely  the  woody  fiber,  of  low  feeding  value,  was  materially 
increased,  and  the  crude  protein  slightly  augmented.  Rain  not  only 
injures  hay  by  washing  out  the  soluble  portions,  making  it  more 
woody,  but  also  destroys  the  aroma  and  favors  the  growth  of  molds 
and  mildew.  (213) 

253.  Spontaneous  combustion. — It  is  now  generally  conceded  that 
spontaneous  combustion  may  occur  in  partly  dried  clover  or  grass. 
Hoffmann2  states  that  when  hay  heats,  oxygen  is  taken  from  the 
air,  and  organic  matter  is  transformed  into  carbon  dioxid  and  water. 
The  water  thus  formed  further  moistens  the  hay,  which  then  fer- 
ments,  owing  to  the  presence  of  bacteria.     The  first   fermentation 

1  Farm  Foods,  Eng.  ed.,  p.  160.  2  Exp.  Sta.  Bee.,  10,  p.  880. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay.  185 

may  cause  a  temperature  of  133°  F.,  and  this  leads  to  a  higher  one 
of  about  194°  F.  When  this  temperature  is  reached,  the  hay  heats 
still  more  and  charring  goes  on  rapidly.  All  these  processes  together 
destroy  at  least  half  of  the  material  present.  According  to  tests, 
clover  hay  will  ignite  at  302°  to  392°  F.  Therefore  the  tempera- 
ture may  become  sufficiently  high  for  spontaneous  combustion, 
which  is  indicated  by  the  hay  becoming  darker  in  color  and  finally 
black,  by  sooty  odors,  and  by  smoke.  It  is  probable,  tho  not  cer- 
tain, that  spontaneous  combustion  does  not  occur  in  partially  dried 
clover  or  grass  even  if  quite  damp,  provided  it  carries  only  its  own 
natural  moisture.  Spontaneous  combustion  generally,  and  possibly 
always  occurs  in  stored  or  stacked  hay  that  carries  external  moisture 
in  the  form  of  dew  or  rain.  The  trouble  is  best  avoided  by  never 
placing  hay  material  in  stack  or  barn  when  it  carries  excessive 
moisture  or  is  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  When  curing  hay  heats  dan- 
gerously high  it  should  be  compacted  and  covered  with  other  mate- 
rial and  all  other  possible  means  taken  to  shut  out  the  air.  Rarely 
are  the  arrangements  for  putting  out  fires  by  water  sufficient  or 
available. 

254.  Use  of  clover. — Clover  hay  is  successfully  and  economically 
used  in  many  cases  with  both  farm  and  city  horses.  Mr.  T.  B. 
Terry,1  the  well-known  farmer- writer,  maintained  a  team  of  farm 
horses  for  several  years  on  clover  hay  with  no  grain  allowance  of 
any  kind.  There  are  instances  of  successfully  managed  livery  stables 
feeding  clover  hay  to  driving  horses.  Only  the  best  grades  should 
be  used  and  the  animals  gradually  accustomed  to  this  roughage.  (439) 

No  investigations  of  the  experiment  stations  in  cattle  feeding 
have  been  more  helpful  than  those  showing  the  great  value  of  the 
legumes,  including  clover  hay,  for  fattening  cattle.  By  adding 
clover  hay  to  the  ration  the  grain  required  by  the  fattening  steer 
can  be  materially  reduced  and  the  fattening  period  shortened — 
both  matters  of  great  importance  in  these  days  of  high-priced  con- 
centrates. (546-7,  554) 

For  the  cow,  clover  hay  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  roughages.  It 
furnishes  the  large  amount  of  crude  protein  so  essential  to  milk 
production,  and  is  palatable  and  much  relished.  Clover  hay  is  un- 
usually rich  in  lime,  which  is  needed  by  the  cow  in  large  quantity, 
and  is  often  otherwise  supplied  in  but  meager  amount  in  her  feed. 
Where  well-cured  clover  hay  furnishes  one-half  or  two-thirds  of 
the  roughage,  the  dairyman  is  able  to  cut  down  the  allowance  of 

1  Our  Farming. 


186  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

concentrates  and  materially  reduce  the  cost  of  the  ration.  (665) 
For  sheep,  calves,  and  young  stock  generally,  clover  or  other  legume 
hay  is  all-important.  (501,  764)  Chaffed  clover  hay,  or,  better,  the 
leaves  and  finer  parts  which  shatter  from  it,  when  softened  with 
water  and  mixed  with  their  slop,  serve  a  useful  purpose  with  swine, 
especially  breeding  stock.  (902) 

Clover  pasture  is  helpful  and  important  for  all  farm  animals. 
For  pigs  it  furnishes  about  sufficient  food  for  maintenance,  so  that 
all  the  grain  fed  goes  for  gain.  Clover-pastured  pigs  are  healthy 
and  have  good  bone  and  constitution — points  of  special  importance 
with  breeding  stock.  (899)  To  forestall  bloat  or  hoven,  cattle  and 
sheep  should  not  be  turned  on  clover  pasture  for  the  first  time 
while  hungry  or  before  the  dew  has  risen.  As  a  preventative,  dry 
forage,  such  as  hay  or  straw,  should  be  placed  in  feed  racks  in  the 
pasture.  To  these  cattle  and  sheep  will  resort  instinctively  when 
bloat  threatens. 

Clover  is  particularly  valuable  for  soilage,  ranking  next  to  alfalfa 
among  the  legumes  available  for  that  purpose.  By  cutting  clover 
early,  it  at  once  starts  growth  again  if  the  weather  is  favorable, 
and  will  furnish  three  or  four  cuttings  annually.  In  a  few  cases 
clover  has  made  fair  silage,  but  so  many  failures  have  occurred 
that  this  plant  cannot  be  recommended  for  such  purpose  except 
where  weather  conditions  prevent  its  being  properly  cured  into  hay. 

III.  OTHER  CLOVERS  AND  LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

255.  Mammoth  clover,  Trifolium  medium. — The  distinctive  char- 
acteristics of  mammoth  clover  are  its  rank  growth,  coarse  stems,  and 
blooming    two    or    three    weeks    later    than    the    medium    variety. 
Since  it  yields  but  one  cutting  during  the  season,  this  clover  is  fre- 
quently   pastured   for    several   weeks   in    the    early   spring.      After 
the  stock  is  removed  the  plants  shoot  up  and  are  soon  ready  for  the 
mower.     Wallace1  recommends  that  for  pasture  medium  and  mam- 
moth clover  seed  be  sown  in  equal  proportions,  together  with  grasses, 
holding  that  since  the  mammoth  variety  blooms  later  there  is  more 
nearly  a  succession  of  good  forage  than  is  possible  with  only  one 
variety. 

256.  Alsike  clover,   Trifolium  hybridum. — This  variety  of  clover 
has  weak  stems  which  fall  to  the  ground  unless  supported  by  attend- 
ant grasses.     Well-made   alsike  hay  ranks  with   the  best,   tho  the 

1  Clover  Culture. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay.  187 

yield  is  not  large.  At  the  Illinois  Station1  Hunt  and  Morrow  se- 
cured 1.2  tons  of  alsike  hay  per  acre  against  2.1  tons  of  medium 
clover.  Alsike  flourishes  on  land  that  is  too  acid  or  too  moist  for 
other  clovers,  tho  it  will  not  grow  in  really  wet  soils.  "While  red 
clover  usually  dies  out  the  second  year,  alsike  often  lives  for  several 
years,  a  feature  which  greatly  increases  its  value  for  pasture. 

257.  Crimson    clover,    Trifolium   incarnatum. — This   plant    grows 
best  in  the  region  south  of  New  York  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river,   flourishing  in  the  middle  Atlantic  seaboard  states.     It  has 
proved  vastly   helpful   to   agriculture  in   Delaware   and  Maryland. 
Crimson  clover  is  an  annual,  thriving  best  when  sown  in  the  fall, 
in  which  case  it  blossoms  the  following  spring,  and,  producing  seed, 
dies  by  early  summer.     While  its  main  use  has  been  to  enrich  the 
soil,  it  furnishes  green  forage,  and  makes  hay  of  fair  quality  when 
cut  early.     Garrison  of  the  South  Carolina  Station2  reports  a  yield 
of  over  7  tons  of  green  and  1.75  tons  of  dry  crimson  clover  per  acre. 
(676) 

The  blossom  heads  of  crimson  clover  are  covered  with  minute 
barbed  hairs,  which  become  rigid  as  the  heads  ripen.  Coville  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture3  writes:  "If  overripe 
crimson  clover  is  fed  to  horses,  the  bristly  hairs  (of  the  heads)  will 
accumulate  in  the  stomach  or  intestines  in  spherical  balls,  which 
are  increased  in  size  by  repeated  additions  of  the  same  matter  to 
their  surfaces,  the  whole  mass  tending  to  become  more  compact 
because  most  of  the  hairs,  upwardly  barbed,  are  constantly  push- 
ing toward  the  center,  base  foremost.  When  a  ball  has  reached 
sufficient  size,  ...  it  acts  as  a  plug  in  the  intestines,  interfering 
with  the  vital  functions,  and  finally,  after  a  few  hours  of  intense 
suffering,  the  horse  dies."  This  trouble  can  be  averted  by  cutting 
and  curing  crimson  clover  at  the  proper  stage.  Hay  from  overripe 
crimson  clover  and  the  refuse  chaff  left  when  seed  is  threshed  should 
not  be  fed  to  horses. 

258.  Japan  clover,  Lespedeza  striata. — This  plant  has  proved  most 
helpful  to  southern  agriculture  because  it  adds  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 
binds  it  together,  prevents  washing,  and  furnishes  a  nutritious  food 
for  stock.     On  sterile  land  it  grows  freely  but  yields  pasture  only, 
while  under  favorable  conditions  it  reaches  a  height  of  from  20  to 
30  inches,  furnishing  in  extreme  cases  as  much  as  3  tons  of  hay  per 
acre,  which,  according  to  Tracy,4  is  equal  to  the  best  clover  hay. 

1  Bui.  15.  3  Div.  of  Botany,  Cir.  8. 

2  Bui.  123.  4  Miss.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  20. 


188  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

259.  The  common  field-pea  vine. — The  common  field  pea,  Pisum 
sativum,  var.  arvense,  is  grown  in  Canada  and  the  northern  states 
for  seed,  for  human  food,  and  to  some  extent  for  forage.     A  com- 
bination of  peas  and  oats,  if  cut  early,  forms  a  forage  of  high  nutri- 
tive quality  much  appreciated  by  farm  stock,  especially  sheep  and 
dairy  cows.     In  the  grain  which  this  plant  furnishes  and  the  hay 
which   it  is  possible   to   secure   from   it,   the  stockman  located  far 
north  has  a  fair  compensation  for  the  corn  crop  which  he  cannot 
grow.  (805) 

260.  Pea-cannery  refuse. — The   bruised   pea  vines   with   exuding 
rich  juices  should  never  be  wasted.     If  piled  in  well  made  stacks, 
the  decaying  exterior  will  preserve  the  mass  within,  which  becomes 
silage.     Pea-vine  silage  is  useful  with  all  farm  animals,  especially 
dairy  cows,   fattening  cattle,   and  sheep.     Crosby1  reports  a  lot  of 
442  western  wethers  which  were  fattened  on  corn  and  pea-vine  silage 
for  50  days  topping  the  Chicago  market.    Breeding  ewes  can  be  main- 
tained on  5  or  6  Ibs.  of  pea-vine  silage  and  2  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay 
daily. 

Where  weather  conditions  are  favorable,  the  pea  vines  from  the 
cannery  can  be  quickly  and  economically  cured  into  hay.  The  vines 
should  be  drawn  directly  from  the  viner  to  a  clear,  airy  place  where 
the  grass  is  short,  such  as  a  pasture  lot  or  meadow,  and  there 
spread  out  thinly.  The  hot  sun  quickly  dries  the  bruised  stems  and 
leaves  with  their  exposed  juices,  and  the  result  is  a  most  palatable, 
nutritious  legume  hay,  worth,  according  to  Crosby,  20  per  ct.  more 
than  clover  hay. 

261.  Cowpea  vine,  Vigna  Catjang. — This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant legumes  of  the  South,  furnishing  grain  for  humans  and  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  soilage  and  hay.     In  the  Piedmont  region  of  North 
Carolina  cowpeas  are  planted  with  sweet  sorghum,  tho  more  gen- 
erally with  Indian  corn.     Under  favorable  conditions  the  yield  is 
from  2  to  3  tons  of  nutritious  hay  per  acre.    Duggar  of  the  Alabama 
Station2  found  that  the  leaves  formed  30  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of 
cowpea  hay,  and  were  about  twice  as  rich  in  crude  protein  as  the 
coarse  parts.     This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult   of  plants  to  cure 
satisfactorily  into  hay.     Duggar  advises  wilting  the  crop,  placing 
it  in  small  cocks  and  covering  with  hay  caps,  to  remain  until  cured. 
At  the  South  the  cowpea  vine  should  assume  vastly  greater  impor- 
tance than  it  has  as  yet  done.     It  should  be  extensively  used  with 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Indus.,  Cir.  45.  2  Bui.  118. 


Leguminous  Plants  for  Green  Forage  and  Hay.  189 

corn  forage  as  a  silage  crop,  thereby  greatly  reducing  the  cost  of  a 
properly  balanced  ration. 

In  a  feeding  trial  with  dairy  cows  at  the  New  Jersey  Station1  the 
substitution  of  cowpea  hay  for  wheat  bran  and  dried  brewers'  grains 
caused  a  shrinkage  of  7  per  ct.  in  the  milk  now,  but  reduced  the 
cost  of  the  ration  30  per  ct.  In  a  feeding  trial  with  dairy  cows  at 
the  Alabama  Station,2  substituting  cowpea  hay  for  wheat  bran  ef- 
fected a  saving  of  23  per  ct.  in  the  cost  of  the  ration.  Cowpea  hay 
may  be  successfully  substituted  for  at  least  half  the  concentrates  in 
the  ration  for  cows  and  fattening  steers.  (442,  554,  557-8,  678,  766. 
897) 

262.  Hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa. — The  hairy  vetch  is  a  legume  of 
increasing  importance,  attaining  special  prominence  in  Washington 
and  Oregon,  where  it  flourishes  to  a  surprising  degree.     The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  the  fall  with  rye,  the  stems  of  which  will  support 
the  weak  vetch  vines,  the  latter  being  from  4  to  10  feet  long.    Vetch 
can  be  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  pasture  or  extensively  as  soilage, 
and  finally  it  may  be  cured  into  a  nutritious,  useful  hay.     At  the 
South   Carolina   Station3   hairy  vetch   yielded   1.5   tons  of  hay  per 
acre.    French   of   the   Oregon   Station4   reports   a  yield   of   19    tons 
of  green  vetch  per  acre.    Pigs  grazing  on  vetch  at  that  station  gained 
0.68  Ib.  per  head  daily,  proving  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  forage  plants  for  swine,  ranking  with  alfalfa.     Spillman  of  the 
AA7ashington  Station5  reports  a  yield  of  1  ton  of  straw  and  over  14 
bu.  of  seed  per  acre.  (680) 

263.  Velvet  bean,  Mucuna  pruriens,  var.  utilis. — The  tropical  vel- 
vet bean  plant  flourishes   south  of  a   line   drawn   from   Savannah, 
Georgia,  to  Austin,  Texas.     The  vines,  which  sometimes  run  75  ft., 
are  difficult  to  cure  into  hay,  and  are  used  mostly  for  grazing.    Scott 
of  the  Florida  Station6  reports  a  yield  of  20  to  30  bushels  of  60  Ibs. 
each  of  shelled  beans  per  acre  and  that  3  Ibs.  of  beans  in  the  pod  are 
equal  to  1  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  for  milk  production.     Tracy7  re- 
ports that  20  acres  sown  to  velvet  beans  in  Florida  furnished  half 
the  daily  grazing  for  30  cows  during  27  days  in  winter,  after  which 
10  tons  of  beans  in  pod  were  harvested.     Eighty  acres  of  velvet 
beans  in  southern  Georgia  furnished  grazing  for  100  head  of  cattle 
for  4  months.     Seventy  days'  grazing  on  velvet-bean  pasture  was 
sufficient  to  put  steers  in  marketable  condition.  (555)     Scott  of  the 

1  Bui.  174.  4  Bui.  35.  •  Bui.  102. 

3  Bui.  123.  6  Bui.  41.  T  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers  '  Bui.  300. 

3  Bui.  123. 


190  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Florida  Station1  states  that  the  fat  of  pigs  fed  on  velvet  beans  has 
a  dark,  dirty  appearance  and  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  which 
may  be  avoided  by  feeding  corn,  cassava,  etc.,  with  a  limited  quan- 
tity of  beans.  The  charge  that  velvet  beans  cause  abortion  among 
cattle  and  swine  and  blind  staggers  with  horses  is  substantially  with- 
out foundation.  If  exclusively  fed  on  velvet-bean  hay,  horses  may 
suffer  from  kidney  trouble,  but  all  danger  may  be  averted  by  feed- 
ing equal  parts  of  velvet-bean  and  crab-grass  hay. 

264.  Peanut-vine,  Arachis  hypogaea. — Newman  of  the  Arkansas 
Station2  reports  hay  of  the  peanut  vine  close  in  value  to  that  from 
alfalfa  and  clover.     Hay  from  the  entire  peanut  plant  was  found 
rather  superior  to  a  ration  composed  of  ordinary  hay  and  corn  as  a 
feed  for  horses  and  mules.     The  yield  is  from  1  to  3  tons  per  acre. 
(557,  900) 

265.  Beggar  weed,  Desmodium  tortuosum. — This  legume  is  used 
both  for  green  forage  and  for  hay  production  in  the  sub-tropical 
regions  of  our  country.     Garrison  of  the  South  Carolina  Station3 
reports  a  yield  of  over  11.5  tons  of  green  and  2.25  tons  of  dry  forage 
from  1  acre.     Smith4  states  that  on  rich  lands  yields  of  from  4  to 
6  tons  of  hay  are  not  unusual. 

1  Bui.  102.  3  Bui.  123. 

2  Ept.  1905.  *  Yearbook,  U.  S,  Dept,  Agr.,  1897. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDING  STUFES. 
I.  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

266.  Yield  of  root  crops.— The  Cornell  Station1  secured  the  fol- 
lowing yields  of  fresh  and  dry  matter  per  acre  with  various  root 
crops  during  three  years  of  field  trials.  Potatoes  are  added  for 
comparison : 

Yield,  water,  and  dry  matter  per  acre  in  various  root  crops. 


Root  crop 

Yield 

Water 

Dry  matter 

Sugar  beet                         _    _      

Tons 

23.8 

Per  cent 
85.1 

Lbs. 
7,090 

Half  sugar  mangel 

26.6 

88.9 

5,880 

Mangel    __    __ 

23.6 

89.1 

5,155 

Rutabaga  (swede)  __      _    _    __    _ 

23.0 

88.6 

4,331 

Carrot  .  ___        _  _            

12.6 

87.6 

3,134 

Parsnip  _      __..  _ 

8.1 

80.7 

3,  130 

White  turnip  

12.9 

89.6 

2,680 

Potato  (200  bushels) 

6.0 

79.1 

2,508 

267.  Sugar  beet,  Beta  vulgaris,  var. — This  root  has  been  marvel- 
ously  developed  for  the  single  purpose  of  producing  sugar.    Because 
it  sets  deep  in  the  ground  the  sugar  beet  is  more  expensive  to  culti- 
vate and  harvest  than  most  other  roots.    If  liberally  fed,  this  root  is 
liable  to  produce  scouring  because  of  its  high  sugar  content.    Farm- 
ers patronizing  sugar  factories  should  utilize  cull  beets  as  well  as 
the  tops.  (656,  757,  873) 

268.  The  mangel,  Beta  vulgaris,  var. — Tho  the  most  watery  of  all 
roots  except  the  white  turnip,  the  mangel  has  a  high  total  dry  mat- 
ter content  because  of  its  enormous  yield.     As  the  large  roots  stand 
well  out  of  the  ground,  the  mangel  is  easily  cultivated  and  har- 
vested.    Tho  it  yields  less  dry  matter  per  acre  than  the  sugar  beet, 
only  half  the  labor  is  required  to  harvest  the  mangel,  and  further- 
more this  root  keeps  better  than  the  sugar  beet.     The  mangel  is  use- 
ful for  all  kinds  of  farm  stock  except  possibly  the  horse.     Day  of 
the  Ontario  College2  found  that  equal  weights  of  pulped  mangels 
and  grain  caused  pigs  to  fatten  faster  and  on  less  dry  matter  than 


1  Bui.  243. 


1  Rpt.  1901. 
191 


192  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

did  grain  alone.  The  bacon  from  the  root-fed  pigs  was  superior  to 
that  from  pigs  getting  grain  only.  The  danger  to  sheep  of  calculi 
or  stones  in  the  kidneys  and  bladder  from  mangel  feeding  has  been 
pointed  out  by  the  Iowa  Station.  (563,  567,  660-1,  758,  874) 

269.  Rutabaga,    Brassica    campestris. — The    -rutabaga    or     swede 
ranks  next   to   the  mangel  in   ease   of   cultivation   and  harvesting. 
Sheep  prefer  it  to  all  other  roots.     Like  other  turnips,  the  rutabaga 
may  taint  the  milk  of  cows,  and  for  this  reason  should  be  fed  im- 
mediately  after   milking.      This   root   is   of  vast   importance   to   the 
stock   interests   of    Great   Britain   and   is   likewise   a   favorite   with 
stockmen  of  Canada,  where  it  is  extensively  grown.  (444,  567,  768) 

270.  Flat    turnip,    Brassica   rapa. — This    watery   root   yields   less 
nutriment  than  the  rutabaga,   and  is  not  so  satisfactory  for  stock 
feeding.     Sown  as  a  catch  crop,  large  yields  are  often  secured  at 
small  cost.     It  is  used  mainly  for  sheep,  but  can  be  fed  to  cattle. 

271.  Parsnip,   Pastinaca  sativa. — The  parsnip   is  a   favorite   root 
with   the   dairy   farmers    on   the   islands   of   Jersey   and    Guernsey. 
Since   it   contains   more   nutriment   than   most   roots,    and   is   easily 
grown,  its  use  should  be  more  general. 

272.  Carrot,  Daucus  Carota. — This  root  is  relished  by  horses  of 
all  ages  and  conditions.     Being  watery,  it  cannot  be  fed  in  quan- 
tity to  hard-worked  or  driving  horses.     Carrots  also  serve  well  for 
other  stock,   especially  dairy  cows.     Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station1 
writes:     "Carrots  far  surpassed  beets  in  feeding  value."  (444) 

273.  Potato,    Solanum   tuberosum. — Despite    the    relatively    poor 
showing  made  by  the  potato  in  the  foregoing  table,  it  often  happens 
that  the  farmer  has  large  quantities  of  these  tubers  which  should 
be  fed  to  stock  rather  than  forced  on  a  profitless  market.     Accord- 
ing to  Fjord's  experiment,  400  Ibs.  of  potatoes  are  worth  100  Ibs.  of 
mixed  grain  for  pig  feeding.     Trials  by  the  author  showed  that  445 
Ibs.  of  potatoes,  when  cooked,  were  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  for 
pigs.     Potatoes  should  be  cooked  and  mixed  with  meal  for  pigs,  and 
for  sheep  and  cattle  they  should  be  sliced.     The  heavy  feeding  of 
raw  potatoes  induces  scouring.     Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station2  found 
the  butter  from   cows  fed  a  heavy  potato  ration  to  be  salvy  and 
poor.  (444,   875)      In   Germany  potatoes   are   sometimes   dried   and 
ground  to  a  meal  for  stock  feeding,  3.8  tons  of  raw  potatoes  making 
1  ton  of  the  dessicated  or  dried  product.3 

274.  Jerusalem   artichoke,    Helianthus   tuberosus. — Goessmann   of 
the   Massaclm setts   Station4   reports   artichokes  yielding  at   the  rate 

1  Rpt.  1907.  3  Daily  Cons,  and  Trade  Rpts.,  1910,  3716. 

2Ept.  1896.  4Ept.'lO. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  193 

of  8.2  tons  per  acre.  Artichokes  may  be  harvested  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  potatoes,  or  hogs  may  be  turned  in  the  field  to  root  out  the 
tubers.  At  the  Oregon  Station1  6  pigs  confined  to  one-eighth  of  an 
acre  of  artichokes  gained  244  Ibs.,  consuming  756  Ibs.  of  ground 
wheat  and  oats  in  addition  to  the  tubers.  Allowing  500  Ibs.  of  grain 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  we  find  that  an  acre  of  artichokes  was  worth 
3700  Ibs.  of  mixed  wheat  and  oats.  The  pigs  made  but  little  gain  on 
artichokes  alone.  No  individual  or  community  seems  to  continuously 
grow  and  make  use  of  the  artichoke — a  significant  fact.  (444,  876) 

275.  Use  and  value  of  roots. — Roots  may  be  regarded  as  watered 
concentrates  high  in  available  energy  for  the  dry  matter  they  con- 
tain.    The  extensive  feeding  trials  of  the  Danes  show  that  for  the 
dairy  cow  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  roots  has  the  same  feeding 
value  as  a  pound  of  corn,  wheat,  barley,  or  oats. 

Roots  of  some  kind  are  helpful  with  all  domestic  animals,  .their 
effect  being  tonic  as  well  as  nutritive.  Breeders  and  feeders  of  ex- 
hibition animals  find  them  invaluable.  They  are  usually  chopped  or 
sliced  before  feeding,  and  should  not  be  fed  alone,  but  always  with 
some  dry  forage,  since  they  carry  much  water.  The  daily  allowance 
of  roots  may  vary  from  25  to  50  Ibs.  per  thousand  Ibs.  of  animal, 
according  to  the  dry  concentrates  and  roughage  fed.  It  is  usual  to 
put  the  cut  roots  into  the  feed  box  and  sprinkle  meal  over  them. 
In  feeding  cattle  in  Canada  and  England,  roots  are  quite  commonly 
pulped  and  spread  in  layers  several  inches  thick,  alternating  with 
other  layers  of  cut  or  chaffed  hay  or  straw.  After  being  shoveled 
over,  the  mass  is  allowed  to  stand  several  hours  before  feeding,  to 
moisten  and  soften  the  chaffed  straw  or  hay.  In  this  manner  great 
quantities  of  straw  may  be  successfully  utilized.  (567,  768) 

276.  Root     crops     costly. — Despite     the    advice    of    agricultural 
writers   during   these   many   years  urging   the  use   of  roots   in  the 
United  States,  and  the  example  of  English  and  Canadian  feeders, 
who  rely  so  largely  on  this  crop,  roots  are  no  more  generally  grown 
in  this  country  than  they  were  50  years  ago.     The  reason  is  thus 
stated  by  Storerr    "The  well  nigh  universal  cultivation  of  Indian 
corn  in  this  country  has,  practically  speaking,  done  away  with  the 
need  of  growing  roots  as  cattle  food.   .    .    .   Occasionally  a  few  roots 
are  grown  among  us,  here  and  there,  to  be  fed  out  as  a  relish  to 
animals;  but  now  that  the  method  of  preserving  corn  fodder  in  silos 
has  become  generally  understood,  it  seems  improbable  that  roots  can 

1  Bui.  54.  a  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  315. 

14 


194  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

anywhere  hold  way  with  Indian  corn  in  places  proper  for  the  growth 
of  the  latter." 

277.  Roots  v.  corn  silage. — Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Station1  found 
rutabagas  more  expensive  and  not  much  more  effective  than  corn 
silage  as  a  milk-producing  food.     Sugar  beets  proved  the  best  of 
the   root   crops,   but   were   more   expensive   than   corn   silage.  (656) 
Shaw  and  Norton  of  the  Michigan  Station2  found  that  the  addition 
of  roots  to  a  balanced  ration  containing  silage  increased  the  yield 
of  milk  and  fat  to  a  limited  extent,  but  such  addition  was  not  eco- 
nomical.    They  state   that   some   roots   may   be   advantageously   em- 
ployed in  feeding  cows  for  records.    Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station3 
found  the  dry  matter  in  potatoes  less  valuable  for  milk  production 
than  an  equal  weight  of  dry  matter  in  corn  silage. 

278.  Roots  modify  the  carcass. — At  the  Utah  Station4  Sanborn, 
after  feeding  trials  with  roots,  wrote:     "(1)    The  live  weight  gain 
for  cattle  and  sheep  was  greater,  and  for  hogs  less,  when  fed  on 
roots.      (2)    The  dressed  weight  of  cattle,  sheep,   and  hogs  showed 
in  every  case  greater  shrinkage  for  those  fed  on  roots.      (3)    The 
root-fed  animals  contained  more  blood  and  necessarily  more  water 
in  the  blood.      (4)    The   root-fed  steers  had   heavier  vital   organs. 
(5)    The  fat  was  always  less  for  the  root-fed  animals."     Thus  we 
learn  that  roots  cause  a  more  watery  carcass  than  do  dry  feeds. 
May  not  this  be  a  point  of  value  and  importance  with  breeding  stock 
and  animals  in  the  early  stages  of  fattening?     The  shote  pastured 
on   clover   or   rape   likewise   has   watery  tissues,   yet   it   afterwards 
fattens  most  economically.     Grass-fed  steers  are  in  the  best  possible 
body  condition  to  make  rapid  gains  when  changed  to  more  solid  feed. 
A  steer  fed  roots  during  part  or  all  of  the  fattening  period  should 
remain  more  vigorous  and  make  better  gains  for  feed  consumed  than 
one  held  on  dry  feed  from  start  to  finish.     There  is  no  doubt  that, 
for  breeding  stock,  less  tense  and  more  watery  flesh,  a  natural  se- 
quence of  root  feeding,  is  more  conducive  to  vigorous  young  at  birth 
and  to  their  hearty  maintenance  after  birth  than  is  the  condition  of 
hard,  dry  flesh  produced  by  feeding  only  dry  forage  thru  our  long 
winters.     The  dairy  cow  takes  kindly  to  succulent  feed.     Whenever 
by  the  use  of  dry  feed  alone  we  can  produce  beef  cattle  and  mutton 
sheep  equal  to  those  of  Great  Britain,  where  roots  are  so  generally 
used,  and  cows  so  universally  good  as  those  of  Jersey,  where  kale, 
cabbage,  and  roots  are  liberally  fed,  then  and  not  until  then  may  we 
say  that  there  is  no  place  for  roots  or  other  succulent  feeds  during 

1  Ept.  1904.  2  BiU.  240.  a  Ept.  1896.  *  Bui.  17. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  195 

winter  on  American  stock  farms.  Admitting  that  the  corn  crop  is 
superior  to  the  root  crop  over  much  of  our  country,  stockmen  should 
watch  lest,  failing  to  make  the  proper  use  of  the  one,  they  also 
neglect  the  other. 

II.  FRUITS  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

279.  Apple,   Pyrus  mains. — Withycombe  of  the   Oregon   Station1 
fed  3  shotes  all  the  apples  they  would  eat,  897  Ibs.  of  apples  pro- 
ducing 38  Ibs.  of  gain  in  14  days.     During  the  second  period  of  15 
days,  1,119  Ibs.  of  apples  gave  only  3  Ibs.  of  gain.     In  another  trial 
lasting  79  days  3  sows  showed  a  gain  of  36  Ibs.,  or  1  Ib.  of  increase 
for  each  64  Ibs.  of  apples  fed.     Clark  of  the  Utah  Station2  found 
that:     ll Apples  fed  to  pigs  in  2  experiments  with  skim  milk  and 
shorts  had  a  value  ranging  from  nothing  to  18  cents  per  cwt.     In 
one  trial  apples  were  only  equal  to  grass  pasture." 

From  trials  with  dairy  cows  at  the  Vermont  Station,3  Hills  con- 
cludes that  apples  have  about  40  per  ct.  of  the  feeding  value  of 
corn  silage.  Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Station*  con- 
cluded that  4  Ibs.  of  apple  pomace  equals  1  Ib.  of  good  hay  for  cows. 
From  15  to  30  Ibs.  of  pomace  may  be  fed  daily  to  cows  with  ad- 
vantage. (657) 

280.  Pumpkin,    Cucurbita   Pepo. — As   a   result   of   several   trials, 
Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station5  found  that  2.5  tons  of  pumpkins,  in- 
cluding seeds,  was  equal  to  1  ton  of  corn  silage  for  dairy  cows. 
French  of  the  Oregon  Station6  found  that  200-lb.  pigs,  when  daily 
consuming  26  Ibs.  of  cooked  common  yellow  field  pumpkins  and  a 
small  allowance  of  wheat  shorts,  gained  1.5  Ibs.  daily.  (880)     There 
is  a  tradition  among  farmers  that  pumpkin  seeds  increase  the  kid- 
ney excretions  and  should  be  removed  before  feeding.     The  United 
States  Dispensatory  states  that  the  pumpkin  seed  is  a  vermifuge, 
with  no  reference  to  any  other  property.     The  seeds  contain  much 
nutriment  and  should  not  be  wasted. 

281.  Cabbage,  Brassica  oleracea. — On  rich  ground,  cabbage  gives 
as  good  returns  of  palatable  forage  as  do  root  crops.     It  is  highly 
prized  by  shepherds  when  preparing  stock  for  exhibition.     Gill  of 
England7  states  that  cabbage  is  superior  to  swedes  (rutabagas)   for 
milk  production  and  does  not  give  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  milk. 

282.  Rape,  Brassica  Napus. — Largely  thru  the  instrumentality  of 
our  experiment  stations  rape  is  now  extensively  grown  by  stockmen 

1  Bui.  80.  *  Kpt.  1904.  6  Bui.  54. 

2  Bui.  99.  5  Rpt.  1908.  7  Jour.  Brit.  Dairy  Ass  'n,  1898. 

3  Ept.  1901. 


196  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

thruout  the  United  States.  This  member  of  the  turnip  family 
stores  its  nutriment  in  the  numerous  leaves  and  stems,  the  parts 
eaten  by  stock.  The  Dwarf  Essex  variety  should  be  sown,  bird- 
seed rape  being  worthless.  While  rape  can  be  used  for  soiling,  it 
is  best  to  let  stock  harvest  the  crop.  Rape  is  too  watery  for  silage. 
The  seed  may  be  sown  from  early  spring  until  August  at  the  North 
and  later  at  the  South,  either  broadcast,  in  drills  and  cultivated,  or 
finally  with  corn  just  previous  to  the  last  cultivation.  In  from  8 
to  12  weeks  after  seeding  the  crop  is  large  enough  for  use.  Zavitz 
of  the  Ontario  College1  reports  a  yield  of  27  tons  of  rape  forage 
per  acre  from  2  Ibs.  of  seed  sown  in  drills  27  inches  apart,  the  crop 
having  been  cultivated  every  10  days. 

Cattle  which  during  the  fall  months  have  the  run  of  a  rape  field, 
together  with  pasture,  will  go  into  winter  quarters  in  high  condi- 
tion. To  avoid  tainting  the  milk,  rape  should  be  fed  or  grazed 
directly  after  milking  only.  Swine  having  the  run  of  a  rape  field, 
along  with  clover  or  blue-grass  pasture  and  grain,  find  in  the  rape 
both  succulence  and  nutriment.  Rape  alone  will,  however,  cause 
pigs  to  put  on  but  little  gain.  Pigs,  especially  the  white  breeds, 
running  in  rape  when  the  leaves  are  wet,  may  suffer  from  a  skin 
affection.  (895,  899)  Rape  has  its  largest  use  on  sheep  farms,  and, 
since  the  sheep  gather  the  crop,  its  cost  is  insignificant  compared 
with  the  returns.  Cabbage,  rape,  turnips,  etc.,  like  all  cruciferous 
plants,  have  an  unusually  high  content  of  sulfur,  which  may  ex- 
plain in  part  their  high  value  with  sheep.  (760,  761)  Access  to 
clover  or  blue-grass  pasture  when  on  rape  is  highly  advantageous 
to  all  stock,  besides  preventing  bloat  or  hoven.  When  feeding 
grain  to  rape-pastured  stock,  the  rape  will  about  support  the  ani- 
mal, leaving  the  grain  to  go  wholly  for  making  gain.  The  stock- 
man, familiar  with  the  value,  uses,  and  methods  of  growing  rape, 
will  prize  this  easily  grown  crop. 

283.  Spurry,  Spergula  arvensis. — The  dairy  farmers  of  Holland 
and    other    European    countries   cultivate    spurry   to    some    extent. 
The  plant  has,  however,  proved  of  little  value  in  this  country  and 
should  be  let  alone. 

284.  Prickly  comfrey,  Sympliytum  asperrimum. — This  plant,  oc- 
casionally exploited  by  advertisers,  has  little  merit  in  comparison 
with    the    standard    forage   plants.      When    carefully   cultivated    it 
gives  quite  large  returns  of  forage  which  at  first  is  not  relished  by 

1  Kpt.  19. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  197 

cattle.  Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station1  found  that  red  clover  re- 
turned 23  per  ct.  more  dry  matter  and  25  per  ct.  more  crude  pro- 
tein than  the  same  area  of  carefully  cultivated  prickly  comfrey. 

285.  Purslane,    Portulaca    oleracea. — The   succulent    weed   of   the 
garden,    purslane,    can    often    be    used    to    advantage    with    swine. 
Plumb  of  the  Indiana  Station2  fed  brood  sows  9  Ibs.  of  purslane 
each  daily,  along  with  wheat  shorts  and  hominy  meal,  and  secured 
fair  daily  gains. 

286.  Acorns. — In  some  portions  of  the  South  and  in  California, 
acorns,  the  fruit  or  nut  of  the  oak,  Quercus,  spp.,  are  of  importance 
in  swine  feeding.     Carver  of  the  Tuskegee  (Alabama)  Station3  re- 
ports the  successful  feeding  of  acorns  and  kitchen  slop  to  400  pigs, 
allowing  about  5  Ibs.  of  acorns  to  each  pig,  daily.     Acorns  make  a 
soft,  spongy  flesh  and  an  oily  lard,  which  can  be  overcome  by  feed- 
ing corn  for  2  or  3  weeks  before  slaughtering  time. 

287.  Tree  leaves  and  twigs. — The  small  branches  and  leaves  of 
trees  are  regularly  fed  to  farm  animals  in  the  mountain  regions  of 
Europe  where  herbage  is  scarce,  and  in  case  of  the  failure  of  pas- 
tures or  the  hay  crop  they  have  been  extensively  used  elsewhere. 
Tree  leaves  are  more  digestible  than  twigs,   and  the  better  kinds 
compare  favorably  with  ordinary  hay  in  feeding  value.     Leaves  of 
the  ash,   birch,   linden,   and   elder   are  valued  in  the  order   given. 
They  are  eaten  with  relish,  especially  by  goats  and  sheep.     These 
statements   apply  only  to  leaves  gathered  at   the  right  stage  and 
cured  substantially  as  is  hay  from  the  grasses.     Leaves  which  turn 
brown  and  drop  from  the  trees  in  autumn  are  worthless  for  feed- 
ing farm  animals. 

III.  UNDERGROUND  FORAGE  AVAILABLE  AT  THE  SOUTH. 

Pork  production  has  great  possibilities  at  the  South  where  vari- 
ous underground  crops  which  can  be  cheaply  grown  may  be  gathered 
by  pigs.  This  line  of  opportunity  is  worthy  of  considerate  atten- 
tion by  southern  farmers,  since  it  means  not  only  greatly  increased 
meat  production  but  also  improvement  of  the  soil. 

288.  Sweet   potato,    Ipomaea  Batatas. — Duggar   of   the   Alabama 
Station4  states  that  an  acre  of  sweet  potatoes  yields  from  10  to  15 
times  as  many  bushels  as  does  a  corn  crop  grown  on  the  same  quality 
of  land.     Both  the  vines  and  the  roots  are  used  in  stock  feeding. 
In  a  feeding  trial  with  pigs  at  the  above  station  sweet  potatoes  gave 

1Ept.  1889.  2  Bui.  82.  3  Bui.  1.  4  Bui.  93. 


198  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

only  fair  returns,  yet  their  common  use  on  many  southern  farms 
warrants  the  conclusion  that  pigs  can  gather  this  crop  with  profit. 
(877)  Conner  of  the  Florida  Station1  found  that  sweet  potatoes 
can  be  successfully  substituted  for  half  the  corn  in  the  ration  of 
work  horses,  3  Ibs.  of  sweet  potatoes  replacing  1  Ib.  of  corn.  Scott 
of  the  same  station2  found  that  for  dairy  cows  100  Ibs.  of  sweet 
potatoes  was  as  useful  as  150  Ibs.  of  corn  silage.  While  more  val- 
uable, sweet  potatoes  were  also  far  more  expensive  to  produce  than 
the  corn  silage.  (565,  877) 

289.  Cassava,    Manihot    utilissima. — This    plant,    resembling    the 
castor  bean  in  leafage,  grows  in  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast. 
Cassava  roots,  which  are  fleshy  like  those  of  the  sweet  potato,  yield 
from  5  to  6  tons  per  acre,  carrying  from  25  to  30  per  ct.  of  starch. 
They  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  starch  and   for  cattle  and 
swine  feeding.     At  Muscogee,  Alabama,3  200  steers  and  100  hogs 
were  fattened  by  using  1600  Ibs.  of  cassava  roots  daily  in  place  of 
grain.     The  roots  appear  to  be  about  as  useful  as  corn  for  swine 
feeding,  and,  because  of  the  heavy  yield,  this  plant  is  full  of  prom- 
ise to  stockmen  in  the  far  South.     The  cassava  waste  of  starch  fac- 
tories should  be  dried  for  feeding.  (565) 

290.  Chufa,   Cyperus  esculentus. — The  chufa  sedge,   frequently  a 
weed  on  southern  farms,   produces  numerous   small   edible  tubers 
which  are  relished  by  pigs.     Chufas  grow  best  on  light  sandy  soils, 
yielding  from  100  to  150  bushels  per  acre.     Like  artichokes  they  re- 
main  in   the   ground   uninjured   thru   the   winter.      Duggar   of   the 
Alabama  Station4  hurdled  young  pigs  on  a  chufa  field,  giving  them 
corn  and  cowpea  meal  additional.     The  average  of  2  trials  showed 
that,   after  due  allowance  was  made  for  the  grain  fed,  the  chufas 
produced  pork  at  the  rate  of  307  Ibs.,  worth  over  $15,  per  acre.  (879) 

291.  Peanuts,  Arachis  hypogaea. — The  yield  of  peanuts  runs  from 
40  to  100  bushels  per  acre.     Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station5  has 
carefully  studied  the  possibilities  of  the  peanut  for  pork  production. 
In  one  trial  pigs  turned  into  a  peanut  field  made  100  Ibs.  of  gain 
from  190  Ibs.   of  corn  and  140  Ibs.   of  peanuts,  together  with  the 
vines.     The  yield  in  this  case  was  estimated  at  63  bushels  per  acre. 
The  pork  returned  over  $18  per  acre  against  $10  or  $12  from  the 
same    area   planted    to    cotton.      Duggar    reports    various    trials   in 
which  peanuts  returned  from  225  to  432  Ibs.  of  pork  per  acre  when 
fed  in  combination  with  corn,  skim  milk,  etc.,  allowance  being  made 

1  Bui.  72.  3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  167.  5  Buls.  93, 122. 

2  Bui.  101.  4  Bui.  122. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  199 

for  these  feeds.  He  found  the  lard  from  peanut-fed  pigs  so  soft 
as  to  be  solid  only  in  the  coldest  weather,  but  otherwise  satisfactory. 
Finishing  off  on  corn  will  largely  remedy  this  defect.  When  con- 
sideration is  given  to  the  fact  that  the  peanut  crop  is  easily  grown, 
that  pigs  can  harvest  it,  that  the  vines  are  useful  for  forage,  and 
that,  being  a  legume,  the  plant  greatly  improves  the  soil,  the  pos- 
sibilities of  this  plant  in  advancing  the  animal  industries  of  the 
South  become  apparent.  (878-9,  900) 

IV.  PLANTS  OF  THE  DESERT. 

Sagebrush,  saltbush,  and  greasewood  flourish  on  the  plains  of 
Western  America  where  alkali  and  common  salt  shut  out  many  or 
even  all  of  the  ordinary  forage  plants. 

292.  Sagebrush.— Writing  of  the  Red  Desert  of  Wyoming,  Nel- 
son1  says:     "The  amount  of  sagebrush,  Artemisia,  spp.,  consumed 
in  the  desert  is  simply  amazing.   .    .    .  Whole  bands  (of  sheep)  will 
leave  all  other  forage  and  feed  on  sagebrush  for  a  day  or  two  at  a 
time.     After  that  they  will  not  touch  it  for  some   days,  or  even 
weeks. ' ' 

293.  Saltbush,  Atriplex,  spp. — Many  species  of  the  saltbush,  both 
annual  and  perennial,  furnish  forage  to  range  animals  on  the  West- 
ern  plains.      The   Australian   saltbush,   introduced   into    California 
and  Arizona,  will  under  favorable  conditions  produce  15  to  20  tons 
of  green  forage  per  acre,  or  3  to  5  tons  of  dry,  coarse  hay  which 
has  about  the  same  digestibility  as  oat  hay.     Peacock  of  New  South 
Wales2  reports  that  sheep  fed  saltbush  in  pens  lost  3  Ibs.  in  weight 
per  head,  but  remained  healthy  during  a  period  of  a  year.    Others 
getting  grass,  hay,  and  saltbush  made  substantial  gains.     Saltbush 
mutton  was  dry  and  tough,  but  had  a  good  flavor. 

294.  The  greasewoods,  Sarcobatus,  spp. — The  shrubby  greasewoods 
likewise  flourish  on  the  plains  and  are  browsed  by  range  animals. 
Forbes  and  Skinner  of  the  Arizona  Station3  report  an  analysis  of 
greasewood  which  compared  favorably  with  alfalfa  in  the  amount  of 
crude  protein  and  other  nutrients  contained.     Such  forage  is  readily 
eaten. 

295.  Russian  thist\e,Salsola  kali,  var.  tragus. — The  introduced  Rus- 
sian thistle  now  grows  over  great  areas  of  the  plains  east  of  the 
Rockies.    It  is  used  to  some  extent  for  pasture  and  hay.    The  mature 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.,  Bui.  13.  3  Kpt.  1903. 

2  Agr.  Gaz.  N.  IS.  Wales,  1906. 


200  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

plants  are  woody  and  loaded  with  alkali.  It  should  be  cut  when 
in  bloom  and  quickly  stacked. 

296.  Cacti. — In  western  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  various 
cacti,  principally  prickly  pear,  Opuntia,  spp.,  growing  wild  on  the 
ranges,  are  used  for  feeding  cattle,  especially  during  periods  of 
drought.  Cacti  grow  but  slowly  unless  the  soil  is  good  and  there  is 
reasonable  rainfall  during  some  part  of  the  year.  Because  of  its 
peculiar  structure  and  habits  this  plant  can  survive  protracted 
drought,  tho  it  makes  little  or  no  growth  at  such  times.  Under 
favorable  conditions  the  prickly  pear  may  be  harvested  about  once  in 
5  years.  In  Texas  Mexican  teamsters  make  free  use  of  the  pear  for 
feeding  their  work  oxen,  and  some  rangemen  have  fed  large  quan- 
tities along  with  sorghum  and  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal  to 
their  fattening  cattle.  Cacti  may  be  fed  where  they  grow  by  first 
singeing  off  the  spines  with  a  gasoline  torch,  after  which  the  cattle 
eat  them  with  apparent  satisfaction.  Under  favorable  conditions  a 
man  can  singe  the  spines  from  6  to  12  tons  of  standing  ''pears"  per 
day.  In  some  cases  the  pears  are  gathered  in  wagons  and  put  thru 
machines  which  chop  them  in  such  manner  that  the  spines  are  ren- 
dered more  or  less  harmless. 

The  prickly  pear  ranges  in  value  from  one  of  the  least  valuable 
of  feeds  to  about  the  equal  of  the  mangel  beet.  The  full-grown  steer 
requires  from  125  to  200  Ibs.  of  the  pear  daily,  and  the  dairy  cow 
should  have  from  40  to  70  Ibs.,  along  with  some  other  more  nutri- 
tious feed,  for  she  cannot  maintain  a  flow  of  milk  on  the  pear  alone. 
Cotton  seed,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  sorghum  hay  go  well  with  the 
pear.  Griffiths1  found  that  cactus-fed  steers  made  an  average  gain 
of  1.75  Ibs.  each  per  day,  requiring  55  Ibs.  of  pear  and  2.5  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  for  each  Ib.  of  gain.  When  fed  with  rice  bran  and 
cotton-seed  meal,  about  6  Ibs.  of  fresh  pears  equaled  1  Ib.  of  dry 
sorghum  hay  in  feeding  value  for  the  dairy  cow. 

Spineless  cacti  have  long  been  known  and  grown  in  Mexico.  These 
cacti  cannot  survive  on  the  range  because  cattle  will  graze  and  de- 
stroy them.  On  the  other  hand,  in  its  wild  state  the  prickly  cactus 
is  able  to  grow  and  hold  its  own  on  the  ranges  of  the  Southwest. 
When  pasture  is  reasonably  abundant  the  animals  do  not  feed  on  the 
cacti,  so  that  when  serious  droughts  come  on,  this  forage  is  avail- 
able and  proves  most  valuable.  It  seems  reasonable  to  hold  that  in 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  91. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs. 


201 


most  cases  there  are  other  more  refined  and  productive  agricultural 
plants  which  will  serve  the  cattlemen  of  the  plains  better  than  cacti, 
if  plants  which  require  protection  and  cultivation  are  to  be  grown. 

V.  Cow's  MILK  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

From  its  nature  and  purpose  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  normal 
milk  contains  all  the  nutrients  necessary  to  sustain  the  life  of  young 
animals  and  that  these  are  arranged  in  proper  proportion.  For  this 
reason  milk  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  the  student  of  animal  nutrition. 
The  solids  of  milk  are  98  per  ct.  digestible,  exceeding  all  other  com- 
mon feeding  stuffs  in  digestibility. 

297.  Colostrum. — The  first  milk  yielded  by  the  mother  for  her 
young,  called  colostrum,  is  thick  and  viscous  and  differs  from  ordi- 
nary milk  in  being  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  that  of  the  cow  being 
low  in  fat  and  milk  sugar.  The  following  table  shows  the  average 
composition  of  colostrum  and  normal  milk  of  various  farm  animals:1 

Composition  of  colostrum  and  normal  milk. 


Animal  and  character 
of  milk 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Sugar 

Ash 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Cow,  colostrum  
Cow,  normal       

Per  cent 
75.1 

87.3 

Per  cent 
17.2 
3.4 

Per  cent 
4.0 
3.7 

Per  cent 
2.3 
4.9 

Per  cent 
1.5 
0.7 

1:0.7 
1:3.9 

Ewe,  colostrum  
Ewe,  normal 

61.8 

80.8 

17.1 
6.5 

16.1 
6.9 

3.5 

4.9 

1.0 
0.9 

1:2.3 
1:3.1 

Sow,  colostrum 

70.1 

15.6 

9.5 

3.8 

0.9 

1:1.6 

Sow,  normal 

84.1 

7.2 

4.6 

3.1 

1.1 

1:2.0 

The  high  protein  content  of  colostrum  is  largely  due  to  its  excess 
of  albumen,  which  causes  such  milk  to  clot  on  heating.  Colostrum 
is  laxative  and  highly  important  for  cleansing  the  alimentary  tract 
of  accumulated  fecal  matter  and  properly  starting  the  work  of  diges- 
tion. During  the  week  following  birth  the  yield  of  milk  usually  in- 
creases and  its  composition  gradually  changes  to  the  normal. 

298.  Milk  sugar. — Cow's  milk  contains  from  4  to  5  per  ct.  of  milk 
sugar  or  lactose.  Commercial  milk  sugar  is  a  white  powder  of  low 
sweetening  power  and  is  much  less  soluble  than  cane  sugar,  which  it 
resembles  in  chemical  composition.  It  has  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  the  same  weight  of  starch.  When  milk  sours,  some  of  the 
sugar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid,  which  curdles  the  casein.  When 

1  Konig,  Chem.  Nahrungs-und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  T,  1903. 


202  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

about  0.8  of  1  per  ct.  of  acid  has  developed,  this  fermentation  ceases, 
so  that  sour  milk  may  still  contain  milk  sugar. 

299.  Milk  fat. — Cow's  milk  contains  from  about  3  to  above  5  per  ct. 
of  fat,  *he  amount  varying  with  the  breed,  individual,  etc.  The  per- 
centage of  fat  varies  greatly  between  the  first  and  last  milk  drawn 
at  each  milking,  as  the  following  table  by  Babcock  of  the  Wisconsin 
Station1  shows: 

Composition  of  first  and  last  milk  from  the  cow. 


Water 

Solids 

Fat 

First  milk  drawn    _.  

Per  cent 

88.73 

Per  cent 
11.27 

Per  cent 
1.07 

Stripping^    _  _           

80.37 

19.63 

10.36 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  last  drawn  milk  contained  about  10  times 
as  much  fat  as  that  first  drawn.  (597) 

300.  Ash. — One  hundred  Ibs.  of  cow's  milk  supplies  about  0.20  Ib. 
of  phosphoric  acid,  0.17  of  lime,  and  0.17  of  potash. 

301.  Whole  milk. — With  rare  exceptions  whole  milk  is  too  valu- 
able for  feeding  to  stock,  tho  one  should  never  hesitate  to  supply  it 
when  required  by  very  young  or  valuable  animals.    Young  stock  being 
prepared  for  exhibition  can  be  forced  ahead  rapidly  by  the  judicious 
use  of  unskimmed  milk.  (123,  473,  492-4,  881) 

302.  Skim  milk. — Because  of  the  protein  and  ash  it  carries  skim 
milk  is  of  high  value  in  building  the  muscles  and  bony  framework  of 
young  animals.     While  great  care  and  good  judgment  are  necessary 
in  feeding  skim  milk  to  calves,  it  serves  its  highest  purpose  when  so 
used.    According  to  Pott,2  the  horses  of  the  Cooperative  Association 
of  Hamburg  are  fed  large  quantities  of  skim  milk  and  buttermilk. 
(474-6)     For  pigs,  from  5  to  6  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  has  the  feeding 
value  of  1  Ib.  of  corn.     It  should  always  be  fed  in  combination  with 
corn,  barley,  or  other  carbohydrate-rich  feeds.  (882-5) 

303.  Buttermilk. — This  by-product  has  substantially  the  same  com- 
position as  skim  milk,  tho  it  is  usually  somewhat  richer  in  fat.    In  east- 
ern Prussia  suckling  foals  are  fed  buttermilk  and  sour  skim  milk. 
Some  feeders  use  buttermilk  successfully  in  rearing  calves,  tho  most 
efforts  are  failures.  (477)     Tests  at  the  Massachusetts  Station3  show 
that  buttermilk  has  the  same  feeding  value  as  skim  milk  for  pigs. 
(886)     Creameries  often  dilute  buttermilk  with  water,  thereby  re- 

1  Bui.  18.  2  Futtermittel,  p.  645.  :!  Buls.  13,  18. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  203 

ducing  its  value.     If  allowed  to  ferment  in  dirty  tanks  it  may  be- 
come a  dangerous  food. 

304.  Whey. — Whey  is  a  poor  feed  for  calves  and  can  be  used  only 
in  a  limited  way  at  best.  (478)     For  pigs  it  has  about  half  the  value 
of  skim  milk.    It  should  be  fed  in  combination  with  wheat  middlings, 
corn,  linseed  oil  meal,  etc.     At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,1 
Day  secured  as  good  results  with  whey,  somewhat  soured,  as  with 
sweet  whey.     The  feeder  should  not  conclude  from  this  that  decom- 
posing whey  held  in  filthy  vessels  is  a  suitable  feed  for  stock.  (887) 

305.  Spreading  tuberculosis.— Since  milk  from  different  farms  is 
mixed  at  the  creamery  or  cheese  factory,  the  germs  of  bovine  tuber- 
culosis may  be  widely  spread  from  a  diseased  herd  in  the  skim  milk, 
buttermilk,  or  whey.    The  careful  farmer  will  insist  that  these  prod- 
ucts be  first  pasteurized  at  the  factory,  as  is  successfully  done  in 
Denmark, 

VI.  SLAUGHTER-HOUSE,  SUGAR-FACTORY,  AND  DISTILLERY  BY-PRODUCTS. 

306.  Flesh  waste. — The  slaughter  houses  now  furnish  to  the  feeder 
great  quantities  of  by-products,  such  as  meat  meal,  beef  meal,  tank- 
age, dried  blood,  etc.     These  are  usually  extremely  rich  in  protein, 
and  those  carrying  bone  are  also  rich  in  lime  and  phosphorus.    Farm 
animals  rarely  object  to  these  feeding  stuffs  and  they  are  highly 
digestible.     Owing  to  the  high  prices  which  such  feeds  command, 
the  feeder  should  understand  their  nature  and  know  how  to  com- 
pound them  with  other  feeding  stuffs  in  order  to  make  the  most  of 
them.    Shaw  of  the  Michigan  Station2  found  that  tankage  could  suc- 
cessfully take  the  place  of  skim  milk  in  pig  feeding  from  weaning 
time  on,  a  fact  of  importance  to  many  stockmen.  (888-891)     Accord- 
ing to  Wolff,3  meat  meal  has  been  found  satisfactory  in  cattle  feed- 
ing.    For  cows  and  oxen  a  limited  quantity  should  at  first  be  sup- 
plied, the  amount  being  gradually  increased  until  each  animal  re- 
ceives 2  or  3  Ibs.  daily.    Sheep  digest  meat  meal  as  completely  as  do 
pigs,  and  thrive  on  it. 

La  Querriere4  states  that  boiled  meat  meal  mixed  with  hay  and 
straw  is  excellent  for  horses.  The  Arabs  feed  their  horses  camel's 
flesh  mixed  with  other  feed  in  the  form  of  cakes.  Scheurer5  has  shown 
that  meat  scrap,  mixed  with  ground  grain  and  baked  into  a  bread, 
can  be  kept  7  years  without  deterioration.  English  army  horses 

1  Rpt.  1896.  *  Milchzeitung,  1881,  p.  753. 

2  Bui.  237.  °  Loc.  cit. 

3  Farm  Foods,  Eng.  ed.,  p.  204. 


204  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

fed  American  meat,  made  into  biscuits  with  oats,  showed  superiority 
over  those  fed  in  the  ordinary  way.  Meat  biscuits  have  been  recom- 
mended for  feeding  race  horses.  Dried  blood,  the  richest  of  all  these 
products,  is  particularly  useful  with  young  pigs  and  calves.  (485) 

Since  tankage  is  in  part  produced  from  the  carcasses  of  diseased 
animals,  the  question  arises  whether  it  may  not  carry  disease  to 
animals  fed  on  it.  Mohler  and  Washburn,1  who  have  studied  the 
matter,  write:  "As  tankage  is  thoroly  steam-cooked  under  pressure 
it  comes  out  a  sterilized  product,  and  owing  to  its  dryness  there  is 
little  danger  of  infection/'  None  of  the  many  stations  that  have  fed 
tankage  have  reported  any  trouble  of  such  nature. 

307.  Dried  fish. — Along  the  coasts  of  Europe  the  waste  parts  of 
fish,  as  well  as  entire  fishes  not  used  for  human  food,  are  fed  in  dried 
form  to  animals.    Speir  of  Scotland2  reports  no  bad  influence  on  milk 
when  reasonable  quantities  of  dried  fish  are  fed  to  dairy  cows.    Nil- 
son3  found  that  80  parts  of  herring  cake  could  replace  100  parts  of 
linseed  cake  in  the  ration  for  cows.     The  better  grades  of  dried  fish 
meal  should  be  used  for  feeding  farm  animals. 

308.  Bone  meal  and  ground  rock  phosphate. — Trials  at  the  sta- 
tions have  shown  that  pigs  fattened  largely  or  entirely  on  corn  will 
profit  greatly  by  the  addition  of  bone  meal  or  ground  rock  phosphate 
to  the  ration.     The  production  of  milk  makes  a  steady  drain  on  the 
cow  for  lime,  phosphorus,  etc.,  which  often  causes  a  depraved  appe- 
tite, shown  by  eating  horse  manure,  chewing  old  bones,  etc.     This 
craving   can   often  be   satisfied  by  adding  bone   meal  or  probably 
ground  rock  phosphate  to  the  ration.    Colts  and  growing  horses  may 
likewise  be  benefited  by  such  addition  to  their  rations.  (90,  892) 

309.  Wet  beet  pulp. — This  by-product,  of  great  volume  at  the  beet 
factories,  contains  about  90  per  ct.  water  and  10  per  ct.  solids.    The 
dry  matter  of  wet  beet  pulp  is  equal  to  that  of  roots  in  feeding 
value,  and  the  pulp  can  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  are  roots  for 
feeding  farm  animals.     The  Colorado  Station4  found  that  1  ton  of 
wet  beet  pulp  had  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  200  Ibs.  of  corn 
for  fattening  lambs.     The  wet  pulp  is  relished  by  dairy  cows  and 
produces  a  good-flavored  milk.    For  fattening  steers  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay  should  be  combined  with  the  pulp,  but  no  concentrates  should  at 
first  be  fed.    On  this  combination  the  animal  will  for  some  time  gain 
rapidly  in  weight,  tho  the  flesh  will  be  soft  and  watery.     After  a 
time  such  concentrates  as  corn,  barley,  etc.,  should  be  gradually  sub- 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Cir.  144. 
a  Trans.  Highl.  &  Agr.  Soc.,  1888,  pp.  112-128. 

3  Kgl.  Landtbr-Akad.  Handl.,  1889,  p.  257. 

4  Bui.  76. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  205 

stituted  for  a  part  of  the  wet  pulp,  so  that  6  weeks  prior  to  the  close 
of  the  feeding  period  no  pulp  is  fed,  but  concentrates  instead.1  Be- 
cause the  beet  pulp  ferments  quickly  it  is  usually  sour  when  fed. 
Fortunately  the  soured  pulp  is  best  liked  by  stock. 

310.  Beet  pulp  silage. — Maercker2  found  that,  owing  to  fermenta- 
tion, ensiled  wet  beet  pulp  lost  rather  more  than  one-fourth  of  its 
total  nutrients.     Such  heavy  losses  teach  that,  where  possible,  the 
pulp  should  be  dried.     Where  it  cannot  be  dried  it  may  be  ensiled 
the  same  as  corn  forage.    It  keeps  quite  well  if  merely  piled  in  large 
heaps,  as  the  outside  mass  on  rotting  protects  the  interior.    The  pulp 
may  be  better  preserved,  with  or  without  alternate  layers  of  beet 
leaves,  in  shallow,  well-drained  pits  dug  in  the  earth.     The  pitted 
mass,  extending  several  feet  above  ground,  should  be  covered  with 
straw  and  earth  to  keep  out  air  and  frost.  (360) 

Steers  are  annually  fattened  by  thousands  and  sheep  by  ten-thou- 
sands on  wet  soured  beet  pulp  at  the  western  beet  sugar  factories. 
Owing  to  the  high  prices  of  concentrates,  and  the  favor  with  which 
the  dried  pulp  is  being  received  by  stockmen,  the  factories  are  grad- 
ually being  equipped  for  drying  the  pulp.  (541,  644,  759) 

311.  Dried  beet  pulp. — Dried  beet  pulp  is  now  a  by-product  of 
large  volume  and  of  increasing  importance.     Shaw  of  the  Michigan 
Station3  found  that  dried  beet  pulp  compared  favorably  with  corn 
meal  for  fattening  sheep  and  steers.     It  produced  larger  gains  with 
growing  animals,  while  corn  meal  put  on  more  rapid  gain  with  fat- 
tening animals  nearing  the  finishing  period.     From  German  inves- 
tigations Ware4  concludes  that  1  Ib.  of  dried  pulp  is  equal  to  8  Ibs. 
of  wet  pulp  in  feeding  value.     The  New  Jersey  Station5  secured  the 
best  results  by  softening  the  dried  pulp  with  water  before  feeding 
to  dairy  cows.  (542,  645,  755) 

312.  Beet  molasses. — The  molasses  of  the  beet  sugar  factories  is  a 
bitter,  purging  substance  containing  considerable  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter of  low  nutritive  value,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  sugar  and 
alkaline  mineral  matters.     European  investigators  have  taxed  their 
ingenuity  to  utilize  beet  molasses  for  feeding  farm  animals.    As  one 
result,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  combine  molasses  with  peat  dug 
from  the  marshes.     The  dried  peat  neutralizes  the  alkali  of  the  mo- 
lasses and  renders  it  harmless  to  animals.    Clausen  and  Friderichsen6 

1  Loc.  cit. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chem.,  Bui.  52. 

3  Buls.  220,  247. 

*  Cattle  Feeding  with  Sugar  Beets,  Sugar  and  Molasses,  etc. 

5  Bui.  189. 

8  New  Kational  Method  for  the  Utilization  of  Blood,  Copenhagen,  1896. 


206  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

of  Denmark  have  shown  that  fresh  blood  will  not  putrefy  when  there 
has  been  added  to  it  the  proper  amount  of  beet  molasses,  containing 
50  per  ct.  sugar.  By  adding  the  blood-molasses  mixture  to  corn  meal 
or  other  cereal  products  and  drying,  a  palatable,  highly  nutritious 
feed  is  obtained.  Beet  molasses  may  be  directly  fed  in  a  limited  way 
with  chopped  straw,  hay,  or  the  various  concentrates.  (426,  544) 
Much  of  the  beet  molasses  is  now  utilized  by  combining  it  with  beet 
pulp  and  drying.  Molasses-beet  pulp  is  somewhat  more  palatable 
than  the  dried  pulp  and  has  about  the  same  feeding  value.  (646,  755) 

313.  Beet  leaves. — At  harvest  an  acre  of  sugar  beets  will  usually 
yield  about  4  tons  of  fresh  leaves  and  1  ton  of  the  severed  upper  por- 
tion of  the  beet  roots.    The  leaves  have  about  half  the  feeding  value 
of  the  roots.     Ware1   reports  that  the  German  farmers  ensile  beet 
leaves  and  the  tops  of  the  roots  in  pits  about  6  feet  deep  with  rounded 
corners  and  slanting  sides,  5  inches  of  leaves  alternating  with  4  inches 
of  straw.     Seven  Ibs.  of  salt  are  used  with  each  ton  of  leaves.     The 
mass,  which  extends  3  or  4  feet  above  the  ground  level,  is  covered 
with  straw  and  earth.    As  fresh  or  ensiled  leaves  tend  to  purge  the 
animals,  they  should  always  be  fed  in  a  limited  way  with  such  dried 
roughages  as  corn  stover,  straw,  or  hay. 

314.  Cane  molasses. — Craig  and  Marshal  of  the  Texas  Station2  de- 
scribe cane  molasses,  or  black  strap,  as  follows:    "It  is  a  thick  black 
mass,  having  somewhat  the  color  of  coal  tar,  but  a  pleasant  odor  and 
sweet  taste."    It  averages  about  50  gals.,  or  600  Ibs.,  to  a  barrel  and 
runs  on  the  average  12  Ibs.  to  a  gallon  or  170  gals,  to  the  ton.     The 
Texas  factories  produced  in  1904  a  crop  of  32,500  bbls.  of  this  mo- 
lasses, of  which  amount  3,000  bbls.  were  sold  to  cattle  feeders  of  the 
state. 

The  composition  of  cane  and  beet  molasses  is  as  follows,  according 
to  Browne8  of  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment  Station: 

Louisiana 
cane  molasses  Beet  molasses 

Water.. _ 20.93  per  cent  23.70  per  cent 

Cane  sugar 30.73  per  cent  46.70  per  cent 

Other  sugars 29.67  per  cent  0.60  per  cent 

Ash  (salts) 8.85  per  cent  13.20  per  cent 

Organic  non-sugar _ 9.82  per  cent  15.80  per  cent 

Unlike  beet  molasses,  that  from  the  cane  plant  is  bland,  extremely 
palatable,  and  much  relished  by  farm  animals.  It  may  be  rated 
equal  to  the  same  weight  of  corn  in  feeding  value.  Cane-sugar  mo- 

1  Cattle  deeding  with  Sugar  Beets,  Sugar  and  Molasses,  etc. 

'Bui.   86. 

3  Breeder 's  Gazette,  47,  p.  471. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  207 

lasses  is  not  only  appetizing,  but  according  to  Patterson  of  the  Mary- 
land Station1  tends,  when  fed  in  moderation,  to  increase  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  other  feeding  stuffs.  Investigations  by  the  Louisiana 
Station2  show  that  the  planters  of  that  state  use  cane-sugar  molasses 
extensively,  feeding  as  much  as  10  Ibs.  daily  to  each  mule.  They 
hold  that  its  use  reduces  the  cases  of  colic  and  other  digestive  ail- 
ments, increases  the  capacity  for  work,  keeps  the  animals  in  better 
flesh,  and  effects  a  saving  of  15  to  20  per  ct.  in  the  cost  of  mainte- 
nance. Marshal  and  Burns  of  the  Texas  Station3  after  several  trials 
conclude  that  1  gallon  of  cane-sugar  molasses  per  head  daily  is  the 
maximum  profitable  allowance  for  fattening  steers.  (425,  543) 

Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station,4  as  the  result  of  feeding 
trials  and  in  view  of  the  high  price  which  cane-sugar  molasses  com- 
mands in  many  of  the  northern  markets,  writes :  ' '  No  advantage  is 
to  be  gained  by  northern  farmers  from  the  use  of  molasses  as  a  feed 
for  dairy  stock,  pigs,  or  horses  in  the  place  of  corn  meal  and  similar 
carbohydrates,  except  as  an  appetizer  for  animals  out  of  condition 
and  for  facilitating  the  disposal  of  unpalatable  and  inferior  rough- 
age."  Molasses  is  quite  commonly  used  in  preparing  animals  for 
shows  or  sales.  Fed  in  large  quantity  it  is  said  to  be  deleterious  to 
breeding  animals,  leading  to  sterility,  especially  with  males. 

315.  Molasses  mixtures. — Cane  and  beet  molasses  are  now  exten- 
sively used  in  combination  with  a  wide  range  of  materials,  good  and 
bad,  to  render  them  more  palatable  with  farm  animals.     Cocoa  waste, 
peanut  hulls,  worthless  weed  seed,  as  well  as  the  useful  screenings 
and  by-products  of  elevators,  flouring  mills,  breweries,  etc.,  after  be- 
ing sweetened  with  molasses  and  dried,  are  sold  under  various  trade 
names.     Molasses  can  properly  and  legitimately  be  used  to  improve 
feeding  stuffs  of  low  to  fair  feeding  value.    Unfortunately  it  is  often 
employed  to  conceal  or  disguise  material  having  little  or  no  feeding 
value.     Because   of   the   widespread  fraud  in   molasses  feeds,   they 
should  only  be  purchased  after  one  has  consulted  with  the  feed-con- 
trol station  of  his  state. 

316.  Sugar. — Tho  sugar  has  the  same  nutritive  value  as  an  equal 
weight  of  starch,  the  great  fondness  for  it  shown  by  farm  animals 
renders  it  helpful  in  some  cases.     Owing  to  heavy  internal  taxes  laid 
upon  sugar  for  human  consumption  in  France  and  Germany,  it  is 
sometimes    denatured   by   mixing   it    with   vermouth   powder,    lamp 
black,  salt,  peat,  etc.,  after  which  it  is  used  for  feeding  to  animals. 

1  Bui.  117.  *  Bui.  86.  *  Bui.  97.  4  Bui.  118. 


208  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

317.  Dried  distillers'  grains. — In  the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  the 
corn,  rye,  etc.,  after  grinding  are  treated  with  a  solution  of  malt  to 
convert  the  starch  into  sugar,  which  is  next  converted  into  alcohol  by 
the  action  of  yeast.    This  is  distilled  off  and  leaves  a  watery  residue, 
known  as  distillers'  slops  or  slump.     Formerly  the  slump  was  fed  to 
fattening  steers  at  the  distillery;  now  it  is  largely  dried  in  vacuum 
and  the  product  placed  on  the  market  as  a  cattle  feed  under  various 
proprietary  names.     In  1904  Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch) 
Station1  placed  the  annual  output  of  dried  distillers'  grains  at  60,000 
tons.    Until  recently,  most  of  this  product  was  exported  to  Germany. 
Dried  distillers'  grains  are  rich  in  digestible  crude  protein  and  fat, 
with  a  fair  content  of  carbohydrates.    Corn  makes  the  richest  and  rye 
the  poorest  dried  distillers'  grains. 

Plumb  of  the  Indiana  Station2  found  that  horses  did  not  relish 
dried  distillers'  grains.  At  the  Kentucky  Station3  May  found  a 
combination  of  dried  distillers'  grains  and  corn  the  most  economical 
of  the  several  rations  tested  for  fattening  steers.  Lindsey,4  in  a  trial 
with  dairy  cows,  found  the  grains  rather  superior  to  Buffalo  gluten 
feed  in  nutritive  value  and  in  no  way  objectionable.  He  recom- 
mended that  dairy  cows  receive  from  2  to  4  Ibs.  daily  mixed  with 
other  concentrates.  He  valued  the  grains  at  50  per  ct.  more  than 
wheat  bran.  Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station5  found  that  a  mixture  con- 
taining dried  distillers'  grains  produced  more  milk  than  one  contain- 
ing dried  brewers'  grains.  (510,  647,  754,  862) 

VII.  POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

Only  the  briefest  mention  can  be  made  of  the  leading  plants  poison- 
ous to  stock.  One  in  trouble  should  send  suspected  specimens  to  his 
State  Experiment  Station  or  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

318.  Loco  poisoning. — Great  numbers  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 
have  been  lost  on  the  great  ranges  of  Western  America  thru  "loco" 
poisoning  brought  about  by  eating  various  plants,  mostly  legumes. 
The  loss  from  this  cause  in  Colorado  alone  has  been  estimated  at  a 
million  dollars  annually.6    "Locoed"  animals  have  a  rough  coat  and 
staggering  gait,  carry  a  lowered  head,  and  show  paralytic  symptoms — 
in  general,  going  "crazy."     Until  recently  the  source  of  this  plague 
has  eluded  solution.     The  studies  of  Marsh  and  Crawford7  seem  to 


1  Bui.  94.  B  Ept.  1903. 

2  Bui.  97.  8  U.  S.  Dept.  Agrv  Bur.  Plant  Indus.,  Bui. 

3  Bui.  108.  121,  Pt.  Ill;  Farmers '  Bui.  380. 

4  Mass.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  94.  7  Loc.  cit. 


Miscellaneous  Feeding  Stuffs.  209 

show  that  the  poisoning  is  due  to  the  presence  of  barium  salts  in  cer- 
tain legume  plants.  Barium  does  not  generally  exist  in  the  soil,  so 
the  dangerous  plants  are  found  only  in  certain  districts.  Loco  poison- 
ing is  most  prevalent  in  springtime  when  the  ranges  provide  scant 
feed,  and  the  emaciated  animals  are  forced  to  subsist  largely  on 
plants  which  they  would  ordinarily  reject  Well-nourished  animals 
are  rarely  affected. 

319.  Plants  carrying  Prussic  acid. — Prussic  acid,  a  most  deadly 
poison,  has  been  found  in  over  200  species  of  plants.     It  is  present 
in  the  wild  cherry,  laurel,  locust,  vetch,  Java  bean,  flax,  etc.     The 
leaves  of  the  wild  cherry,  especially  when  wilted,  are  particularly 
fatal  to  cattle.     Peters  and  Avery  of  the  Nebraska  Station1  have 
shown  that  when  sorghum  and  kafir  are  stunted  by  drought,  Prussic 
acid  may  develop  in  such  quantity  as  to  bring  death  to  cattle  browsing 
upon  them,  the  affected  animals  often  dying  soon  after  eating  a  few 
mouthfuls  of  the  poisonous  forage.     While  normal  plants  are  en- 
tirely harmless,  authorities  advise  caution  in  the  use  of  the  sorghums, 
kafirs,  Johnson  grass,  etc.,  growing  on  rich  soil,  as  well  as  in  the  use 
of  second-growth  and  stunted  plants.     The  poison  is  not  found  in 
wilted  or  cured  kafir  or  sorghum,  which  are  therefore  always  safe  for 
feeding. 

320.  Cornstalk  disease. — A  mysterious  ailment  in  the  West  at  times 
attacks  cattle  turned  into  the  stalk  fields  during  fall  and  winter  after 
the  corn  ears  have  been  removed.    All  efforts  to  determine  the  cause 
have  thus  far  proved  futile.    Alway  and  Peters  of  the  Nebraska  Sta- 
tion2 investigated  the  losses  from  cornstalk  disease  in  one  county  in 
Nebraska  in  which  404  farmers  lost  1,531  head  of  cattle  during  a 
single  fall.     They  state  that  no  precaution  and  no  feed  or  combina- 
tion of  feeds  has  so  far  been  found  to  prevent  or  mitigate  the  losses 
from  this  disease.     They  further  conclude  that  farmers  in  districts 
in  which  the  disease  is  prevalent,  unless  they  are  to  lose  the  valuable 
forage  of  their  corn  stalks,  must  choose  between  two  alternatives: 
(1)   Cutting  the  stalks  when  the  corn  ripens,  shocking  them  in  the 
field  and  feeding  the  fodder,  thus  avoiding  all  trouble.     (2)  Pas- 
turing the  standing  stalks  with  the  knowledge  that  they  are  liable 
to  lose  as  many  as  one-twentieth  of  their  cattle  in  an  unfavorable 
season. 

321.  Ergot. — The  seeds  of  rye  and  many  grasses  are  sometimes  at- 
tacked by  a  fungus  which  produces  enlarged  black,   sooty  masses, 

1  Bui.  77.  -  Press  Bui.  27. 

15 


210  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

known  as  ergot.  Occasionally  hay  or  straw  bearing  the  fungus  se- 
verely injures  cattle  which  are  continuously  fed  thereon  during  win- 
ter. Ergot  acts  on  the  nervous  system,  depressing  heart  action  and 
thereby  restricting  the  blood  circulation.  In  advanced  cases  the  ears, 
tail,  and  lower  parts  of  the  limbs  of  affected  animals  lose  warmth  and 
sensibility,  dry  gangrene  sets  in,  and  the  diseased  parts  finally  slough 
away.  Animals  showing  symptoms  of  this  trouble  should  have  their 
feed  changed  to  remove  the  cause,  and  also  be  warmly  housed  and 
liberally  supplied  with  nourishing  food. 

322.  Corn  smut. — At  the  Wisconsin  University1  the  author  fed  2 
milch  cows  on  well-cleaned  corn  smut  mixed  with  wheat  bran,  start- 
ing with  a  few  ounces  and  increasing  until  32  ounces  of  smut  was 
supplied  daily  to  each  cow.    At  this  point  one  refused  her  feed,  but 
the  allowance  of  the  other  was  increased  until  64  ounces,  or  1  peck, 
was  fed  daily.    This  cow  seemed  to  thrive  on  the  smut  and  was  grow- 
ing fat,  when  she  suddenly  sickened  and  died.     Smith  of  the  Mich- 
igan Station2  fed  4  cows  on  well-cleaned  corn  smut  until  each  was 
eating  from  1  to  10  Ibs.  daily.     Only  one  cow  showed  any  indisposi- 
tion, and  she  recovered.     In  experiments  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,3  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  corn  smut  was 
fed  to  heifers  without  harmful  effect.     It  is  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  corn  smut  is  generally  harmless  to  cattle,  tho  animals  becoming 
fond  of  it  and  eating  inordinately  may  suffer  harm. 

323.  Castor   bean. — The   castor  bean   and  the  pomace   remaining 
after  the  oil  has  been  extracted  contain  a  deadly  poison.    Castor  beans 
or  pomace  accidentally  getting  into  feeding  stuffs  sometimes  cause 
mysterious  deaths.     Carnivan4  reports  that  exposing  castor  oil  cake 
to  the  air  for  5  or  6  days  or  cooking  the  seeds  or  cake  for  2  hours  de- 
stroys the  poison. 

324.  Saltpeter. — Mayo   of  the  Kansas   Station5   reports  losses   of 
cattle  from  eating  corn  forage   carrying  quantities  of  saltpeter  in 
and  on  the  stalks.     The  dangerous  forage  had  been  grown  on  land 
previously  used  as  feed  lots  where  the  soil  was  excessively  rich. 

325.  Miscellaneous  poisonous  plants. — The  common  horsetail,  water 
hemlock,  poison  hemlock,  death  camas,  several  species  of  larkspur, 
cockle  bur,  and  many  other  plants  are  more  or  less  poisonous  to  farm 
animals. 

1  Rpt.  of  Eegents,  1881.  *  Ann.  Soc.  Agr.,  Lyon,  1887. 

2  Bui.  137.  e  Bui.  49. 

3  Bui.  10. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SOILAGE— THE  PKEPAKATION  OF  FEED— STOCK  FOODS- 
FEEDING  STUFFS  CONTKOL. 

I.  SOILAGE. 

Soilage*  means  supplying  forage  fresh  from  the  field  to  animals  in 
confinement  It  was  first  brought  to  public  attention  in  this  country 
by  Josiah  Quiney,  whose  admirable  essays,  printed  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Journal  in  1820,  were  later  gathered  into  a  book- 
let entitled  "The  Soiling  of  Cattle,"  long  since  out  of  print.  Soilage 
is  one  of  the  most  advanced  forms  of  husbandry,  and  is  especially 
helpful  where  it  is  desirable  to  concentrate  labor  and  capital  in  main- 
taining farm  animals  on  a  relatively  small  area  of  land.  Partial 
soilage  with  dairy  cows  is  already  widely  practiced  in  this  country, 
and  exclusive  soilage  is  growing  in  favor  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
cities. 

326.  Soilage  v.  pasturage. — Quincy  points  out  six  distinct  advan- 
tages from  soiling:  First,  the  saving  of  land;  second,  the  saving  of 
fencing;  third,  the  economizing  of  food;  fourth,  the  better  condition 
and  greater  comfort  of  the  cattle;  fifth,  the  greater  product  of  milk; 
and  sixth,  the  attainment  of  manure. 

According  to  this  author  there  are  six  ways  in  which  farm  animals 
destroy  the  articles  destined  for  their  food.  First,  by  eating ;  second, 
by  walking;  third,  by  dunging;  fourth,  by  staling;  fifth,  by  lying 
down;  and  sixth,  by  breathing  on  it.  Of  these  six,  the  first  only  is 
useful ;  all  the  others  are  wasteful. 

Quincy  reports  his  own  experience  where  20  cows,  kept  in  stalls, 
were  fed  green  food  supplied  6  times  a  day.  They  were  allowed 
exercise  in  an  open  yard.  These  20  cows  subsisted  on  the  green  crops 
from  17  acres  of  land  where  50  acres  had  previously  been  re- 
quired. (663) 

The  disadvantages  of  soilage  are:  The  greater  expenditure  for 
labor,  seed,  and  fertilizer  in  providing  the  crops  and  for  labor  in 

*  So  far  as  known  to  the  author  the  word  "soilage"  was  used  for  the  first 
time  in  an  editorial  in  the  New  York  Independent  of  March  11,  1909,  by  E.  P. 
Powell,  the  helpful,  charming  writer  on  rural  topics.  It  is  in  a  class  with  the 
words  "leafage,"  "herbage,"  "forage,"  "pasturage,"  and  "silage."  and  is 
here  adopted  as  a  valuable  accession  to  our  all  too  brief  distinctively  agricul- 
tural vocabulary. 

211 


212 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


cutting  and  carrying  them  to  the  animals,  pasturage  costing  the 
minimum  for  labor.  During  wet  spells  the  palatability  of  the  forage 
is  reduced,  and  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  and  cart  the  food  to  the 
animals  without  injury  to  the  land.  On  the  other  hand,  pastures  also 
suffer  while  wet. 

327.  Blue-grass  pasture  v.  soilage. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  the 
author  kept  3  cows  during  summer  on  an  excellent  blue-grass  pasture. 
During  the  same  period  3  other  cows  were  maintained  in  stable  and 
yard  by  soilage.  The  pastured  cows  consumed  the  grass  from  3.7 
aeres,  while  the  soiled  cows  ate  the  forage  from  1.5  acres.  The  yield 
of  forage  was  as  follows: 

Pounds 

Green  clover,  3  cuttings 18,792 

Green  fodder  corn 23,658 

Green  oats 2,385 

Total  green  forage  produced 44,835 

Waste  from  the  above 1,655 

Total  green  forage  eaten  from  1 . 5  acres 43, 180 

The  products  obtained  were  as  follows : 

Blue-grass  pasture  compared  with  soiling  crops. 


Prom  3.7 
acres  pasture 

From  1.5 
acres  soiling 
crops 

Returns  per  acre 

Pasture 

Soilage 

Milk 

Lbs. 
6,583 
303 

Lbs. 
7,173 
294 

Lbs. 
1,780 

82 

Lbs. 
4,782 
196 

Butter 

This  shows  that  in  Wisconsin  1  acre  of  soilage  crops  equals  about 
2.5  acres  of  good  blue-grass  pasture  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  (223) 

328.  Labor  involved. — Many  who  concede  the  advantages  of  soilage 
are  deterred  from  practicing  it  because  of  the  large  amount  of  labor 
required  in  growing,  gathering,  and  feeding  the  green  forage.    Wil- 
son2 shows  that  green  forage  gathered  twice  each  week  and  spread 
thinly  on  the  barn  floor  will  keep  in  good  condition  until  required  for 
feeding.    Most  soilage  crops  can  be  cut  with  a  mower,  gathered  by  a 
horse  rake,  and  loaded  with  a  hay  loader.    Even  if  pitched  by  hand,  a 
large  quantity  of  forage  can  be  gathered  in  a  short  time.    A  cow  or 
steer  will  require  from  60  to  100  Ibs.  of  green  forage  daily. 

329.  Partial  soilage. — So  revolutionary  is  complete  soilage  that  few 
farmers  are  prepared  to  adopt  it.    On  the  other  hand,  partial  soilage 


1  Ept.  1885. 


2  Iowa  Eul.  15. 


Soilage. 


213 


is  not  only  practical  but  is  absolutely  essential  to  reasonable  success 
on  most  stock  farms.  The  usual  midsummer  shrinkage  in  milk  flow 
with  cows  and  in  flesh  with  beef  cattle  can  best  be  avoided  by  housing 
them  in  darkened  stables  during  the  heated  portion  of  the  day,  and 
by  feeding  liberally  with  fresh-cut  green  forage,  turning  the  cattle 
to  pasture  at  night  for  exercise  and  grazing.  Under  this  system 
young  animals  continue  growing,  steers  increase  in  fatness,  and 
cows  yield  a  normal  flow  of  milk  during  a  period  of  the  year  when, 
because  of  heat,  flies,  and  scant  pastures,  there  is  usually  no  profit, 
but  often  serious  loss.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  supply  extra  green 
forage  during  the  fall  months,  even  tho  the  pastures  have  then  in 
part  recovered  their  ability  to  supply  nutriment. 

330.  A  soiling1  chart. — Below  is  given  a  soiling  chart  by  Voorhees1 
of  the  New  Jersey  Station : 

Forage  crops  grown  at  the  New  Jersey  Station  for  the  support  of  a  herd 
equal  to  50  dairy  cows  for  6  months. 


Crops  grown 

Total 
seed 
used 

Date  of 

seeding1 

Period  of  cutting 
and  feeding 

Total 
yield 

Rye,  2  acres 

Bushels 
4  0 

Sept.  27 

May     1    7 

Tons 
9  4 

Rye,  2  acres 

4.0 

Oct.      3 

May     7  19 

19  2 

Alfalfa,  1  acre,  1st  cutting 

0.6 

May    14 

May   19-25 

11.1 

Wheat,  2  acres 

4.0 

Sept.  26 

May   25-June  1 

10.4 

Crimson  clover,  6  acres  _ 

1.2 

July    16 

June    1-21 

42.8 

Mixed  grasses,  1  acre 

June  21-26 

8.3 

Oats-and-peas,  2  acres  . 

1   4.0} 

April    2 

June  26-July  4 

12.4 

Oats-and-peas,  2  acres             

(   3.0) 
f   4.0) 
i    o  A  r 

April  11 

July     4-  9 

8.2 

Alfalfa,  2d  cutting 

I  3.0  ) 

July     9  11 

2.1 

Oats-and-peas,  5  acres 

Wi 

April  19 

July  11-22 

16.4 

Southern  white  corn,  2  acres  
Barnyard  millet,  2  acres 

\   7.5) 
0.5 
1.4 

May      2 
June  19 

July  22-Aug.  3 
Aug.    3-19 

17.7 
23.2 

Soybeans,  1  acre    .     .__ 

2.0 

June     1 

Aug.  19-25 

8.8 

Cowpeas,  1  acre  _        _  _  _  _ 

2.0 

June  10 

AugJ25-Sept.  1 

10.5 

Cowpeas-and-kaflr  corn,  2  acres  _ 
Pearl  millet,  2  acres 

(   2.0) 

i  i.of 

0.25 

July    10 
July    11 

Sept.    1-16 
Sept.  16-Oct.    1 

24.4 
20.2 

Cowpeas,  1  acre 

1.5 

July    24 

Oct.     1-5 

8.0 

Mixed  grasses,  5  acres 

Oct.     -5-27 

20.0 

(partly  dried) 
Barley,  2  acres  

3.5 

Sept.     2 

Oct.    27-Nov.  1 

5.2 

Total  

278.3 

This  chart  is  especially  helpful  as  an  example  of  a  practical  system 
of  soilage,  since  it  records  the  actual  attainment  of  one  who  has  suc- 

1  Forage  Crops,  p.  35. 


214  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

cessfully  specialized  in  this  system  for  many  years.  The  results 
here  reported  were  obtained  upon  lands  once  regarded  as  of  low  agri- 
cultural value,  brought  to  high  productiveness  by  systematic  soilage 
and  fertilization.  The  table  shows  that  24  acres  of  land,  producing  2 
and  sometimes  3  crops  during  the  season,  yielded  278.3  tons  of  green 
forage,  supplying  an  average  of  60.4  Ibs.  of  green  forage  daily  per 
head  to  an  equivalent  of  50  dairy  cows  from  May  1  to  November  1,  a 
period  of  6  months. 

Wherever  soilage  is  practiced  there  must  be  a  high  degree  of  order 
and  system,  so  that  suitable  green  forage  is  available  from  early 
spring  until  late  fall,  without  excess  or  shortage.  Only  experience 
and  close  study  will  make  it  possible  for  one  to  successfully  carry  out 
the  details.  This  experience  in  time  finds  expression  in  such  a  soil- 
ing chart  as  the  foregoing,  which  each  operator  will  formulate  to  meet 
his  own  particular  conditions. 

Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station1  found  that  it  required  0.71  acre  of 
soiling  crops,  one-half  alfalfa,  to  furnish  a  cow  roughage  for  144  days, 
while,  when  the  cow  was  grazed,  during  the  same  period  it  required 
3.6  acres  of  pasture  composed  of  prairie  and  mixed  grasses.  After 
allowing  for  the  grain  consumed,  soilage  returned  $18.08  and  pas- 
turage $4.23  per  acre.  Land  intelligently  devoted  to  soilage  will  pro- 
duce from  2  to  3  times  the  feed  yielded  by  the  same  land  in  pasture. 
Voorhees2  found  that  to  produce  a  ton  of  dry  matter  in  soiling  crops 
yielding  from  3  to  4.5  tons  of  dry  matter  per  acre,  annually,  cost  on 
an  average  $6.50,  and  that  the  total  cost  per  ton  of  dry  matter,  in- 
cluding the  cost  of  cutting  and  hauling  to  the  barn,  would  be  about 
$9.3  The  feeding  value  of  this  dry  matter  was  nearly  equal  to  that 
in  purchased  concentrates  costing  over  $20  per  ton. 

Soiling  crops  should  not  be  fed  until  reasonably  mature.  Green, 
immature  plants  are  composed  largely  of  water,  and  often  cattle 
cannot  consume  enough  of  them  to  secure  the  required  nourish- 
ment. (16,  249)  For  this  reason,  where  quite  green  crops  are  fed, 
some  dry  forage  should  also  be  supplied.  The  use  of  silage  in  summer 
is  practically  soilage.  The  dairvman  should  use  either  silage  or  soil- 
age during  summer  to  secure  me  best  returns  from  his  herd.  The 
New  Jersey  Station4  found  that  when  concentrates  were  fed,  soilage 
and  silage  were  of  equal  value  in  milk  production.  (662) 

1  Press  Bui.  71.  3  Rpt.  New  Jersey  Sta.,  1907. 

*  Forage  Crops.  4  Epts.  1906, 1907. 


Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  215 

II.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS. 

In  the  nomadic  stage  of  husbandry  the  animals  gathered  their  own 
food,  the  care  of  the  owner  ending  when  grazing,  water,  and  protec- 
tion from  marauders  were  provided.  With  the  change  from  primitive 
times  the  growing  of  plants  and  their  conservation  for  animal  use 
becomes  an  ever-increasing  burden  on  the  stockman.  After  growing 
the  feed  the  next  step  is  to  harvest,  store,  and  prepare  it  economically. 

331.  Grinding  corn  for  steers. — In  a  comprehensive  study  of  the 
practices  of  the  cattlemen  of  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Illinois,  Waters  of 
the  Missouri  Station,1  summarizing  reports  from  852  feeders,  found 
that: 

74  per  cent  fed  ear  corn  during  all  or  part  of  the  feeding-  period, 

50  per  cent  fed  ear  corn  exclusively, 

25  per  cent  fed  shelled  corn  during  some  part  of  the  feeding  period, 
6.2  per  cent  fed  crushed  corn  exclusively, 
3.2  per  cent  fed  ground  corn  regularly. 

The  ear  corn  was  given  either  husked  or  unhusked,  whole  or  broken, 
and  pigs  followed  the  cattle  to  work  over  the  droppings.  These  feed- 
ers fed  ear  corn  not  thru  ignorance  or  inability  to  grind,  but  because 
long  experience  and  close  observation  had  taught  the  economy  of  so 
feeding  it. 

In  trials  with  fattening  steers  getting  clover  hay  for  roughage, 
Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Station2  reached  the  conclusion  that  whole 
corn  was  more  efficient  than  shelled  corn,  and  that,  including  the 
gains  made  by  pigs  running  with  the  steers,  shelled  corn  was  as  eco- 
nomical as  corn  meal,  closing  his  report  with  the  statement,  "The 
cheapest  gains  were  made  where  the  labor  element  in  preparing  the 
feed  was  reduced  to  the  minimum." 

Whoever  studies  the  subject  impartially  will  agree  with  Georgeson 
of  the  Kansas  Station,3  who,  on  reviewing  his  own  feeding  trials 
bearing  on  this  problem,  writes :  ' '  This  is  not  a  very  favorable  show- 
ing for  corn  meal,  and  I  confess  the  result  is  contrary  to  my  expecta- 
tions. A  considerable  percentage  of  the  whole  corn  passes  thru  the 
animal  undigested,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  digestive  juices  could 
act  to  better  advantage  on  the  fine  corn  meal  than  on  the  partially- 
masticated  corn  and  extract  more  nourishment  from  it,  but  appar- 
ently this  is  not  the  case."  Where  pigs  do  not  run  with  cattle  it  is 
usually  best  to  grind  or  crush  the  corn  before  feeding.  (523) 

1  Bui.  76.  -  Bui.  103.  3  Buls.  34,  60. 


216  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

332.  Grinding  grain  for  cows. — Shaw  and  Norton  of  the  Michigan 
Station1  saved  the  droppings  of  animals  fed  whole  grain  with  the 
following  results: 

Average  per  ct.  of  grain  left  whole  when  fed  to  cows,  heifers,  and  calves. 


Grain  fed 

Cows 

Heifers 

Calves 

Corn 

Per  cent 

22.8 

Per  cent 
10  8 

Per  cent 
6.3 

Oats  _    _ 

12.1 

5.5 

3.0 

Corn  and  oats  

26.5 

17.5 

5.8 

This  shows  that  as  much  as  26.5  per  ct.,  or  over  one-quarter,  of 
the  grain  eaten  by  cows  may  pass  undigested.  Four  per  ct.  of  the 
corn  and  11  per  ct.  of  the  oats  in  the  droppings  germinated,  and 
analyses  showed  that  it  had  lost  but  little  of  its  nutriment.  Un- 
fortunately there  have  been  no  extensive  trials  where  whole  and 
ground  grains  for  cows  were  directly  compared.  In  a  trial  by  Lane 
of  the  New  Jersey  Station2  in  which  corn-and-cob  meal  and  whole 
corn  were  fed  in  opposition  one  to  the  other  in  rations  otherwise  the 
same,  the  yield  of  milk  was  9.3  per  ct.  greater  from  the  meal  ra- 
tion. (621,  703) 

333.  Grinding  corn  for  pigs.— Each  fall  for  10  years  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station  (821)   one  lot  of  fattening  pigs  was  fed  old  shelled 
corn  while  the  other  received  ground  corn.     The  average  saving  by 
grinding  was  6  per  ct.,  an  amount  too  small  to  pay  for  grinding  in 
most  cases.    It  was  observed  that  the  pigs  getting  meal  gained  faster 
than  those  fed  whole  corn,  but  they  also  ate  more  feed  in  a  given 
time.     This  explains  in  part  the  quite  common  opinion  of  farmers 
that  it  pays  to  grind  corn  for  fattening  pigs. 

The  question  of  grinding  corn  for  pigs  may  be  considered  as  now 
settled  negatively  by  the  exhaustive  studies  conducted  at  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station.  (822,  845) 

334.  Cooking  feed. — In  1854  Professor  Mapes  voiced  the  sentiment 
of  the  times  when  he  wrote  :3    ' '  Raw  food  is  not  in  condition  to  be  ap- 
proximated to  the  tissues  of  animal  life.    The  experiment  often  tried 
has  proved  that  18  or  19  Ibs.  of  cooked  corn  are  equal  to  30  Ibs.  of 
raw  corn  for  hog  feed."    A  book  could  be  filled  with  similar  state- 
ments made  in  the  earlier  times.  (60) 

335.  Artificial  digestion  trials. — At  the  New  York  (Geneva)   Sta- 
tion* Ladd  determined  artificially  the  digestibility  of  the  crude  pro- 

1  Bui.  242.     J  Rpt.  1898.     3  Trans.  Am.  Inst.,  1854,  p.  373.    *  Ept.  1885. 


Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  217 

tein  in  several  common  feeds,  before  and  after  cooking,  with  the  re- 
sults shown  below: 

Uncooked  Cooked 

Fresh  corn  meal 68.6  per  cent  60.5  per  cent 

Old  corn  meal 72. 6  per  cent  63.2  per  cent 

Cloverhay 67.7percent  53.3percent 

Cotton-seed  meal 87.7  per  cent  73.8  per  cent 

In  each  case  cooking  lowered  the  digestibility  of  the  crude  protein. 

336.  Steaming  roughage  for  cattle.— As  late  as  30  years  ago  there 
could  be  found  in  this  country  establishments  more  or  less  elaborate, 
used  for  steaming  or  boiling  straw,  corn  stalks,  hay,  etc.,  for  cattle 
feeding.     It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  today  a  single  establishment  for 
this  purpose.  Feeding  steamed  hay  to  oxen  at  Poppelsdorf,  Germany,1 
showed  that  steaming  rendered  the  components  of  hay,  especially  the 
crude  protein,  less  digestible.     When  dry  hay  was  fed,  46  per  ct.  of 
the  crude  protein  was  digested,  while  in  steamed  hay  only  30  per  ct. 
was  digested.     The  advice  given  years  ago  by  the  editor  of  an  agri- 
cultural journal  is  as  sound  today  as  when  given:2   "The  advantages 
are  very  slight  and  not  worth  the  trouble  of  either  building  the  fire, 
cutting  the  wood,  or  erecting  the  apparatus,  to  say  nothing  of  all 
these  combined,  with  danger  and  insurance  added." 

337.  Cooking  feed  for  swine. — While  cooking  feed  for  cattle  was 
abandoned  years  ago,  it  is  still  practiced  to  some  extent  for  swine. 
Fortunately  the  matter  has  been  carefully  studied  by  several  experi- 
ment stations  and  definite  conclusions  reached.     The  most  extended 
trial  was  one  running  nine  years  at  the  Maine  Agricultural  College,3 
in  which  cooked  and  uncooked  corn  meal  were  fed.    In  each  case  there 
was  a  loss  by  cooking.    It  is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  the  inves- 
tigators of  this  subject  usually  began  their  studies  in  the  full  belief 
that  the  common  feeding  stuffs  would  be  improved  by  cooking.     The 
following  are  fair  samples  of  the  comments  which  commonly  accom- 
panied the  reports  of  feeding  trials  with  cooked  and  uncooked  feed 
for  swine. 

Shelton4  closes  an  account  of  his  own  findings  with  these  words: 
"The  figures  given  above  need  but  little  comment.  They  show  as 
conclusively  as  figures  can  show  anything,  that  the  cooked  corn  was 
less  useful  than  the  raw  grain.  .  .  .  Such  entire  unanimity  of  re- 

'  Hornberger,  Landw.  Jahrb.,  8,  p.  933 ;  Armsby,  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding, 
p.  266. 

2  Country  Gentleman,  1861,  p.  112. 

3  Ann.  Ept.  of  Trustees  of  the  Maine  State  Col.  of  Agr.,  1878. 
*  Ept.  Prof.  Agr.,  Kan.  Agr.  Col.,  1885. 


218  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

suits  can  only  be  explained  on  the  theory  that  the  cooking  was  an  in- 
jurious process  so  far  as  its  use  for  food  for  fattening  animals  is 
concerned. ' ' 

Brown  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,1  reviewing  several 
trials  with  cooked  and  uncooked  peas  and  corn,  wrote :  i  i  I  am  not  at 
present  prepared  to  say  definitely  what  other  kinds  of  food  may  do, 
raw  or  cooked,  with  pigs  or  other  domestic  animals,  or  how  the  other 
animals  will  thrive  with  peas  or  corn,  raw  or  boiled,  but  I  now  assert 
on  the  strongest  possible  grounds  .  .  .  that  for  fast  and  cheap  pro- 
duction of  pork,  rawr  peas  are  50  per  ct.  better  than  cooked  peas  or 
Indian  corn  in  any  shape." 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  the  author,  starting  with  the  belief  that 
cooking  must  increase  the  value  of  the  common  feeds  for  swine,  after 
some  15  trials  with  cooked  and  uncooked  whole  corn,  corn  meal, 
ground  barley,  and  wheat  middlings,  was  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Maine  findings  were  correct.  (823) 

338.  Concerning  cooked  feed. — No  one  can  review  the  large  accu- 
mulation of  data  from  the  experiment  stations  without  being  con- 
vinced that  generally  it  does  not  pay  to  cook  feed  for  stock.     How- 
ever, some  feeds,  the  potato  and  field  bean  of  the  North,  for  example, 
can  be  successfully  fed  to  swine  only  after  being  cooked.     Unless 
first  thoroughly  softened  by  cooking  or  soaking,   such  small  hard 
grains  as  rice,  wheat,  and  rye  cannot  be  advantageously  fed  except 
to  sheep.     Musty  hay  and  corn  fodder  are  rendered  more  palatable 
and  safe  by  steaming. 

An  occasional  allowance  of  steamed  or  cooked  barley,  bran,  etc., 
is  especially  helpful  to  horses  because  of  its  favorable  action  on  the 
bowels,  and  is  doubtless  true  in  lesser  degree  with  fattening  cattle. 
In  winter,  breeding  swine  and  stock  hogs  are  benefited  by  a  daily 
feed  of  steamed  roots,  tubers,  clover  or  alfalfa  chaff,  etc.,  with  meal 
added.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  it  does  not  generally  pay  to  cook  feed 
for  farm  stock  when  such  feed  will  be  satisfactorily  consumed  with- 
out cooking.  It  is  often  advantageous  to  administer  warm  feed  in 
winter,  especially  to  swine,  but  warming  should  not  be  confused  with 
cooking  feed.  (823) 

339.  Soaking  feed. — Corn  becomes  hard  and  flinty  a  few  months 
after  husking,  and  sometimes  causes  sore  mouths,  so  little  being  then 
eaten  that  gains  may  cease  or  the  animals  lose  in  weight.     Grain 
which  is  difficult  of  mastication  should  be  either  ground  or  softened 
by  soaking,  so  that  the  animals  may  at  all  times  consume  full  rations. 

1  Kpt.  1876.  2  Rpt.  1893. 


Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 


219 


Studying  the  results  of  12  feeding  trials  with  pigs  at  8  stations,  Rom- 
mel1 finds  a  difference  of  slightly  over  2  per  ct.  in  favor  of  soaked 
over  dry  feed  for  fattening  pigs.  Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experi- 
mental Farms2  found  a  loss  from  soaking  ground  grain,  while  whole 
grain  returned  better  gains  when  soaked.  (522,  822,  824) 

340.  Chaffing  hay  and  straw. — The  use  of  cut  or  "chaffed"  hay 
and  straw  is  common  in  establishments  where  large  numbers  of  horses 
are  kept.    A  little  water  lays  the  dust  of  chaffed  hay,  and  the  feeder 
can  rapidly  and  accurately  apportion  the  allowance  for  each  animal. 
If  meal  is  mingled  with  a  limited  portion  of  moistened  chaffed  hay, 
the  mixture  is  in  condition  to  be  quickly  masticated  and  swallowed 
so  that  it  can  remain  longer  in  the  stomach  undergoing  digestion — 
an  item  of  importance  with  hard-worked  horses  which  are  in  the 
stable  only  at  night.  (447)     In  feeding  trials  with  short-  and  long-fed 
steers,  Cummings  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College3  found  little 
difference  between  cut  and  uncut  hay  of  good  quality.    Jordan  of  the 
Maine  Station4  fed  cows  long  hay  and  meal  for  30  days,  and  then  for 
51  days  following  they  were  fed  cut  hay  and  meal  which  had  been 
moistened  with  water  and  allowed  to  stand  for  several  hours  before  it 
was  fed.     At  the  close  of  this  period,  long  hay  and  dry  meal  were 
once  more  supplied  for  30  days.    The  returns  from  the  5  cows  were : 

Milk  Butter 

Average  daily  yield  when  meal  and  long  hay  were  fed  dry..  115.31bs.  4.61bs. 
Average  daily  yield  when  meal  and  cut  hay  were  fed  wet__  113.21bs.  4.21bs. 

It  is  shown  that  long  hay  and  dry  meal  gave  somewhat  better  re- 
turns than  wet  cut  hay  and  meal.  These  findings  are  confirmed  by 
Speer  of  the  Iowa  Station,5  who  fed  calves  dry  meal  and  long  hay  in 
opposition  to  a  wet  mixture  of  cut  hay  and  meal. 

341.  Shredding  corn  forage. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station6  the  author 
conducted  3  trials  in  which  cows  were  fed  either  shredded  or  un- 
shredded  corn  stover  or  fodder  corn,  with  the  same  allowance  of  grain 
and  hay  for  all.     The  results  follow: 

Feeding  shredded  corn  stover  or  fodder  to  cows. 


Forage 
fed 

Forage 
eaten 

Forage 
refused 

Yield 
of  milk 

Lot 

T 

fed 

shredded  stover  or  fodder 

Lbs. 
3,538 

Lbs. 
All 

Lbs. 
None 

Lbs. 
3,794 

Lot 

II' 

fed 

long"  stover  or  fodder 

4,661 

3,788 

879 

3,730 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  47.  *  Rpt.  1890. 

2  Bui.  33.  5  Bui.  12. 

3  Rpt.  1903.  6  Rpt.  1886. 


220  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

It  is  seen  that  3,538  Ibs.  of  shredded  corn  stover  or  fodder  corn  gave 
as  good  returns  as  4,667  Ibs.  of  long  forage — a  saving  of  24  per  ct.  by 
shredding.  At  the  Kansas  Station1  Shelton,  conducting  experiments 
covering  3  seasons,  fed  stover  cut  into  lengths  varying  from  0.25  to  2 
inches  to  cows,  and  found  an  average  waste  of  31  per  ct.  of  the  cut 
stover,  with  no  greater  milk  returns  than  from  the  uncut  stover.  It 
was  observed  that  the  finer  the  stover  was  cut  the  larger  was  the 
waste,  and  the  conclusion  was  that  the  only  advantage  from  cutting 
stover  lay  in  the  greater  convenience  in  handling  it  in  the  stable. 
The  findings  of  Shelton  for  Kansas  conditions  are  confirmed  by  those 
of  Waters  at  the  Missouri  Station.2  In  accounting  for  the  difference 
between  these  results  and  those  from  Wisconsin  it  may  be  said  that 
the  stalks  of  corn  grown  in  the  middle  and  lower  portions  of  the  corn 
belt  are  larger,  coarser,  more  woody,  and  doubtless  less  nutritious 
than  the  smaller,  softer  stalks  of  the  northern  states.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible that  in  the  Kansas  trial  the  sharp  edges  of  the  cut  stalks  made 
the  mouths  of  the  cattle  sore.  This  can  be  avoided  by  changing  the 
length  of  the  cut  or  by  shredding.  Cutting  or  shredding  corn  forage 
makes  it  easier  to  handle.  The  only  other  possible  advantage  comes 
in  getting  the  animals  to  eat  more,  or  to  eat  those  parts  that  would 
otherwise  be  wasted,  rather  than  that  the  finer  material  is  more 
digestible.  (500) 

342.  General  conclusions. — It  has  generally  been  assumed  that  by 
cutting,  grinding,  and  cooking  feed  much  labor  was  saved  the  animal, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  feeder.  This  idea  is  based  on  the  general 
theory  that  the  less  work  the  animal  does  in  mastication  and  diges- 
tion the  larger  the  net  production  of  work,  flesh,  or  milk.  On  the 
contrary,  we  know  that  the  muscles  of  the  body  do  not  grow  strong 
thru  idleness,  and  that  work  and  activity  are  conducive  to  bodily 
health,  growth,  and  strength.  We  must  therefore  conclude  that  the 
organs  of  mastication  and  digestion  would  best  be  kept  at  work  to 
their  reasonable  capacity.  Feeding  liberally  and  in  an  orderly  man- 
ner, with  ample  variety  and  in  wise  combination,  is  more  important 
and  helpful  than  making  feeds  fine  and  soft  so  that  they  can  be 
quickly  swallowed  with  little  chewing. 

When  cutting,  grinding,  cooking,  or  pulping  brings  more  satisfac- 
tion to  fattening  animals  soon  to  be  slaughtered,  and  causes  them  to 
consume  heavier  rations,  such  preparation  may  pay,  (275)  as  it  may 
also  with  exceptionally  hard-worked  animals  that  have  but  limited 

1  Ept.  1889.  2  Bui.  75. 


Condimental  or  Stock  Foods.  221 

time  for  taking  their  rations.  For  horses  which  are  extremely  hard 
worked  and  spend  much  of  their  time  away  from  the  stable,  most  of 
the  grain  should  be  ground  and  mixed  with  a  small  allowance  of 
moistened  chaffed  hay.  Ordinarily  horses  can  grind  their  own  oats 
and  corn,  and  idle  horses  should  always  do  so.  Steers  with  pigs  fol- 
lowing usually  give  the  most  economical  returns  from  ear  corn,  husked 
or  unhusked  as  best  suits  them.  (523)  When  no  pigs  follow  and  where 
a  high  finish  is  required,  necessitating  a  long  period  of  feeding,  the 
use  of  meal,  especially  during  the  latter  stages  of  fattening,  will 
usually  prove  economical.  A  cow  yielding  a  large  flow  of  milk  should 
be  regarded  as  a  hard-worked  animal,  and  her  feed  should  usually 
be  prepared  by  grinding.  Sheep  worth  feeding  can  always  grind 
their  own  grain. 

III.  CONDIMENTAL  OR  STOCK  FOODS. 

Proprietary  articles  styled  "stock  foods,"  "seed  meals,"  "condi- 
tion powders,"  etc.,  costing  from  10  to  30  cents  or  more  per  lb.,  are 
extensively  advertised  and  sold  to  American  farmers.  Woll  of  the 
\Yisconsin  Station,1  after  ascertaining  the  amount  of  stock  foods  sold 
in  three  counties  in  Wisconsin,  estimates  that  the  farmers  of  the  state 
pay  annually  about  $300,000  for  1,500  tons  of  such  material.  Michel 
and  Buckman  of  the  Iowa  Station2  estimate  that  Iowa  farmers  paid 
$190,000  for  stock  foods  in  1904.  (445,  893) 

343.  Composition  of  stock  foods. — The  better  class  of  stock  foods 
have  for  their  basis  such  substances  as  linseed  meal  or  wheat  mid- 
dlings, while  the  cheaper  ones  contain  ground  screenings,  low-grade 
milling  offal,  the  ground  bark  of  trees,  etc.  To  this  "filling"  is 
added  a  small  per  cent  of  such  materials  as  common  salt,  charcoal, 
copperas,  fenugreek,  gentian,  pepper,  epsom  salts,  etc.,  with  or  with- 
out turmeric,  iron  oxide,  etc.,  for  coloring.  The  stockman  is  told  that 
a  tablespoonful  of  the  compound  with  each  feed  will  cause  his  stock 
to  grow  faster,  fatten  quicker,  give  richer  milk,  etc.,  etc.  Tests  of 
many  of  these  stock  foods  by  the  experiment  stations  support  the 
view  of  Sir  John  Lawes,  the  world's  greatest  investigator  in  scien- 
tific and  practical  agriculture,  who,  after  carefully  testing  the  stock 
foods  then  being  sold  in  England,  wrote:3  "In  conclusion,  I  feel 
bound  to  say  that  I  require  much  clearer  evidence  than  any  that  has 
hitherto  been  adduced,  to  satisfy  me  that  the  balance-sheet  of  my 
farm  would  present  a  more  satisfactory  result  at  the  end  of  the  year, 

1  Bui.  151.  2  Bui.  87.  3  Rothamsted  Memoirs,  Vol.  H. 


222  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

were  I  to  give  to  each  horse,  ox,  sheep,  and  pig,  a  daily  allowance  of 
one  of  these  costly  foods." 

Farm  animals  managed  with  reasonable  care  have  appetites  which 
do  not  need  stimulating.  Sick  animals  or  those  out  of  condition 
should  receive  specific  treatment  rather  than  be  given  some  cure-all. 
A  good  manager  of  live  stock  has  no  use  for  high-priced  stock  foods 
or  condition  powders,  and  a  poor  manager  will  never  have  fine  stock 
by  employing  them.  In  rare  cases  the  available  feeding  stuffs  may  be 
of  such  poor  quality  that  some  condiment  may  cause  the  animal  to 
eat  more  heartily,  and  where  animals  are  in  low  condition  and  with- 
out appetite  some  spice  may  prove  helpful.  To  cover  such  rare  cases 
the  formulae  for  three  "stock  foods"  or  "spices"  are  presented. 

First  formula  Second  formula  Third  formula 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Fenugreek... 2      Powdered  gentian .      8      Ground  gentian 4 

Allspice 2      Ginger 8      Powdered  saltpeter      1 

Gentian 4      Fenugreek 8      Ground  ginger 1 

Salt 5     Powdered  sulfur. __  8     Powdered  copperas      1 

Saltpeter 5     Potassium  nitrate.  8 

Epsom  salts 10     Kesin 8 

Linseed  meal 100     Cayenne  pepper 4 

Linseed  meal 44 

Powdered  charcoal.  20 

Common  salt 20 

Wheat  bran 100 

The  above  materials  are  easily  obtainable  and  there  is  no  trouble 
in  compounding  them.  Oil  meal  or  middlings  is  not  necessary  if  one 
will  thoroly  mix  together  the  other  ingredients  and  give  the  proper 
amount  along  with  some  rich  concentrate  like  oil  meal,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, or  ground  oats.  At  ordinary  prices  for  the  materials,  either 
formula  can  be  made  up  for  about  5  cents  per  lb.,  or  about  one-fourth 
what  is  usually  charged  for  something  no  better.  A  tablespoonful  in 
each  feed  will  supply  more  drugs  of  possible  value  than  the  same 
measure  of  most  of  the  advertised  stock  foods. 

IV.  COMMERCIAL  FEEDING  STUFFS  CONTROL. 

A  large  part  of  all  the  by-products  of  the  grain  elevators,  flouring 
mills,  sugar,  glucose  and  oil  factories,  breweries,  distilleries,  etc., 
form  legitimate  feeding  stuffs,  usually  of  high  quality.  There  is 
next  a  middle  class,  such  as  the  light  grains  of  wheat,  barley,  and 
oats,  certain  weed  seeds,  oat  hulls,  oat  dust,  etc.,  which  range  from 
low  to  fair  in  feeding  value,  and  should  not  be  wasted.  Finally  there 
is  the  trash  of  elevators  and  mills — rice  hulls,  corn  cobs,  peanut  hulls, 
cocoa  waste,  certain  weed  seeds,  etc.,  ranging  from  worthless  to  dan- 


Feeding  Stuffs  Control.  223 

gerous.  As  most  of  the  mill  and  factory  by-products  are  legitimate 
and  useful,  so  most  of  them  are  properly  handled  and  sold.  On  the 
other  hand,  all  over  the  country  individuals  and  firms  are  practicing 
all  degrees  of  adulteration  of  feeding  stuffs. 

344.  Examples  of  feed  adulteration. — In    Tennessee    the    United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture1  seized  a  shipment  labeled  "Mixed 
Wheat  Middlings,  from  Pure  Wheat  Bran  and  Ground  Corn,"  which 
consisted  of  bran  and  ground  corn  cobs.    WToll  and  Olson  of  the  Wis- 
consin Station,2  examining  a  carload  of  so-called  wheat  bran  shipped 
into  Wisconsin,  found  that  each  pound  of  the  whole  carload  contained 
on  an  average  28,000  pigeon  grass  seeds,  16,000  wild  buckwheat  seeds, 
5,000  pigweed  seeds,  and  many  seeds  of  other  kinds.     Beach  of  the 
Vermont  Station,3  examining  18  brands  of  molasses  and  flax  feeds 
offered  for  sale  in  his  state,  found  from  1,150  to  131,000  weed  seeds 
in  each  pound  of  such  feeds.    In  one  case  it  was  estimated  that  there 
were  129  million  weed  seeds,  weighing  400  Ibs.,  in  a  ton  of  one  of 
these  feeds.    Beach  found  that  2  to  13  per  ct.  of  these  seeds  would 
grow  after  having  passed  thru  the  cow.     The  New  York   (Geneva) 
Station4  found  that  7  out  of  12  gluten  feeds  examined  contained  free 
mineral  acid  and  a  coloring  matter  used  to  give  the  feed  a  yellow 
color.  (158) 

345.  State  and  national  regulation. — To  protect  honest  dealers  as 
well  as  the  users  of  commercial  feeding  stuffs,  laws  have  been  passed 
by  the  general  government  and  by  many  of  the  states  which  in  general 
direct   that   each  package  or  car  of  concentrated  feed   must  have 
a  label,  tag,  or  statement  attached  giving  the  weight  of  the  contents 
and  stating  the  percentage  of  crude  protein  and  fat  the  feed  contains. 
From  time  to  time  the  experiment  stations  or  boards  of  agriculture, 
intrusted  with  feed  supervision,  issue  bulletins  setting  forth  the  re- 
sults of  examinations,  analyses,  etc.     Those  interested  should  consult 
the  bulletins  issued,  and  aid  and  support  the  officers  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  laws. 

Users  of  purchased  feeds  in  large  quantity  are  generally  expe- 
rienced and  buy  only  the  better  grades  of  standard  feeding  stuffs  at 
close  prices.  The  small  buyer,  often  feeling  the  pinch  of  poverty, 
too  frequently  is  looking  for  something  that  sells  for  less  than  is  de- 
manded for  standard  goods,  and  so  is  the  more  easily  caught  by  the 
low-grade  trashy  articles  often  bearing  catchy,  high-sounding  names. 
Low-grade  feeding  stuffs,  no  matter  what  their  names,  are  almost 
sure  to  bring  hardship  to  the  animals  that  are  fed  on  them,  and  to 

1  Notices  of  Judgment,  66,  67 — Food  and  Drugs  Act.  3  Bnls.  131, 133, 138. 

2  Bui.  97.  *  Bui.  303. 


224 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


the  owners  of  such  animals  as  well.  Whenever  one  is  in  doubt  he 
should  purchase  only  the  pure  unmixed  grains,  standard  mill  or  fac- 
tory by-products,  or  proprietary  feeds  of  the  highest  grade  that  have 
won  a  good  reputation,  always  remembering  that,  as  a  rule,  the  high- 
est priced  concentrates  are  usually  the  cheapest. 

346.  Standards. — Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station1  gives  the 
following  standards  of  quality  for  first-class  commercial  feeding 
stuffs  bearing  the  different  names: 

Standards  for  commercial  feeding  stuffs. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Crude 
protein 

Fat 

Fiber 

Feeds  rich  in  crude  protein 
Blood  meal 

Per  cent 
85 

Per  cent 
0.2 

Per  cent 
0 

Cotton-seed  meal  (high  grade) 

41-46 

8-10 

7 

Cotton-seed  meal  (medium  grade) 

36-41 

7-9 

8 

Cotton-seed  meal  (low  grade) 

24 

5-6 

18 

Linseed  meal  (n.  p.) 

38 

2 

9 

Linseed  meal  (o.  p.)       _.  _ 

32 

6 

9 

Gluten  meal                 _    _  _  _    

35 

1 

2 

Gluten  feed           _    -_            

25 

3 

7.5 

Germ  meal                __    .    

22 

10 

9.5 

Dried  distillers'  grains  

32 

10 

12 

Malt  sprouts          _        

25 

1 

12.5 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

22 

5 

12 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 

18-20 

5 

3.5 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) 

17-19 

5 

7 

Wheat  mixed  feed 

16-18 

4-5 

8.5 

Wheat  bran 

15-17 

4-5 

10 

Oat  middlings 

17 

7 

2.5 

Rye  feed                                                             

15 

3 

4 

Starchy  (carbohydrate)  feeds 
Ground  oats                                         

11 

4 

10 

Ground  wheat                                _  .  

11 

2 

3 

Barley  meal                            _           .  ._ 

11 

1-5 

6 

Rye  meal        _                       _           

10 

1-5 

2 

Corn  meal                       _.  -     -  _  - 

9 

3 

2 

Hominy  meal 

10 

7.5 

4.5 

Provender 

10 

3.5 

6 

Corn  and  oat  feed 

8  10 

3-5 

Fortified  oat  feed 

12-14 

3-5 

Oat  feed                                                        -  -    - 

5-8 

2 

20-26 

Corn  bran                                           -  

9 

5 

10 

Dried  beet  pulp 

8 

0.3 

18 

The  crude  protein  and  fat  set  forth  in  the  table  represent  valuable 
parts  of  the  feeds,  while  the  fiber  indicates  the  woody  and  more  or 
less  inert,  useless  matter.  Accordingly,  the  higher  a  feed  is  in  crude 
protein  and  fat  above  the  standard  and  the  more  it  falls  below  it  in 
fiber  the  better  is  that  feed. 


Bui.  120. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  ENSILAGE  OF  FODDER. 
I.  CONCERNING  SILAGE. 

The  preservation  of  beet  leaves,  beet  waste,  and  other  green  forage 
by  gathering  into  heaps  or  into  earthen  pits  and  covering  with  earth 
has  long  been  practiced  in  Europe.  In  1877  the  French  farmer,  Gof- 
fart,  published  his  "Manual  of  the  Culture  and  Siloing  of  Maize  and 
Other  Green  Crops,"  the  first  book  of  its  kind,  covering  25  years  of 
practical  experience.  To  Goffart  belongs  the  credit  of  describing  the 
first  modern  silo  and  of  observing  and  recommending  the  peculiar 
merits  and  advantages  of  the  maize  (corn)  plant  for  silage.  In  1876 
Francis  Morris,  Oakland  Manor,  Howard  county,  Maryland,  built  the 
first  silo  in  America.  In  1879  Mr.  J.  B.  Brown  of  New  York  gave 
American  readers  a  translation  of  Goff art's  book,  and  in  1880  Dr. 
J.  M.  Bailey  issued  ' '  The  Book  of  Ensilage,  the  New  Dispensation  for 
Farmers."  In  1881  Professor  I.  P.  Roberts1  of  Cornell  University, 
and  the  author2  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  built  and  filled  the 
first  silos  used  for  experimental  purposes  in  America.  By  these  means 
silos  and  silage  were  brought  prominently  before  the  farmers  of  this 
country,  and  the  interest  which  was  awakened  has  steadily  increased 
until  the  ensilage  of  fodders  has  become  a  factor  of  vast  importance 
in  American  agriculture. 

347.  Indian  corn  for  silage. — Indian  corn  is  preeminently  suited 
for  silage.     The  solid,  succulent  stems,  when  cut  into  short  lengths, 
pack  closely  and  form  a  solid  mass  which  not  only  keeps  well  but  fur- 
nishes a  product  that  is  greatly  relished  by  stock — especially  cattle. 
It  is  reasonable  to  estimate  that  there  are  over  100,000  silos  now  in 
use  in  America.    Probably  95  per  ct.  of  all  the  forage  stored  in  them 
is  from  the  corn  plant  and  95  per  ct.  of  the  silage  made  is  fed  to 
dairy  cows.  (220) 

348.  Losses  by  ensiling  and  field  curing. — After  studying  the 
losses  of  forage  preserved  in  wooden  silos  during  4  seasons  at  the 
Wisconsin  Station,3  King  concludes  that,  omitting  the  top  and  bot- 
tom waste,  which  is  the  same  for  deep  or  shallow  silos,  the  losses  of 

1  From  information  to  the  author. 

2  Ept.  on  Amber  Cane  and  the  Ensilage  of  Fodders,  1881,  pp.  60-69. 

3  Bui.  59. 

16  225 


226 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


dry  matter  need  not  exceed  10  per  ct.  for  corn  silage  and  18  per  ct. 
for  red  clover  silage.  The  chemist's  conclusions  are  that  consider- 
able of  the  protein  in  ensiled  fodder  is  changed  to  amids,  (5)  and 
some  of  the  starch  and  sugar  is  destroyed,  while  the  fiber  is  not 
diminished;  thus  the  losses  fall  on  the  best  portions  of  the  ensiled 
material.  Numerous  trials  at  the  stations  show  practically  no  differ- 
ence between  the  digestibility  of  corn  silage  and  dry  corn  fodder, 
while  both  are  somewhat  less  digestible  than  the  green  forage. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  comparative  losses  in  pre- 
serving corn  forage  by  ensiling  and  field-curing  as  reported  by  4 
stations : 

Relative  losses  of  field-curing  and  ensiling  the  corn  crop. 


Station  'and  reference 

Corn  silage 

Corn  fodder 
in  shocks 

Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Vermont,  av.  4  yrs.,  Rpts.  1889  94 

Per  cent 
18.2 
18.0 

Per  cent 
12.0* 

Per  cent 
17.7 
17.3 

Per  cent 
12.7* 

New  Jersey,  Bui.  19 

Pennsylvania,  Ept.  1889 

10.8 
15.6 

4.4 
16.8 

21.0 

23.8 

11.6 
24.3 

Wisconsin,  av.  4  yrs.,  Rpt.  1891 

Average  at  4  stations    ___ 

15.7 

11.1 

20.0 

16.2 

*Averag-e  of  3  years. 

The  table  shows  that  in  10  trials  at  4  stations  more  dry  matter  and 
crude  protein  were  lost  by  drying  corn  forage  in  shocks  than  by  en- 
siling. 

349.  Milk  per  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter. — From  feeding  trials  with 
dairy  cows  at  several  stations,  the  following  data  are  taken,  showing 
the  yield  of  milk  from  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  fed  in  silage  and  in 
corn  fodder: 

Milk  produced  from  100  Us.  of  dry  matter  in  silage  and  dry  fodder  corn. 


Station  and  reference 

No.  of 
trials 

Based  upon 
dry  matter  in— 

Silage 

Fodder 
corn 

Wisconsin,  7th  Report 

2 

Whole  ration 

Lbs. 
76.9 

Lbs. 
86.0 

Wisconsin,  8th  Report 

1 

Whole  ration 

70.4 

78.7 

Vermont,  Report  1892 

1 

Whole  ration 

82.0 

76.5 

Vermont,  Report  1892 

1 

Whole  ration 

73.5 

73.4 

Pennsylvania,  Report  1890 

2 

Whole  ration 

111.9 

106.3 

Wisconsin,  6th  Report 

3 

Exptl.  forage  only  . 

155.0 

146.1 

Wisconsin,  5th  Report.  _ 

3 

Exptl.  forage  onlv  . 

166.2 

149.6 

Vermont,  Report  1891 

1 

Exptl.  forage  onlv 

240.0 

218.0 

Average 

122.0 

116.8 

The  Ensilage  of  Fodder.  227 

We  observe  that  in  all  but  the  first  Wisconsin  trials  the  dry  matter 
in  corn  silage  gave  larger  returns  than  that  in  field-cured  fodder 
corn,  the  average  difference  in  14  trials  being  about  5  per  ct.  in  favor 
of  silage. 

350.  Corn  silage  v.  fodder  corn. — Tests  of  corn  silage  and  field- 
cured  fodder  corn  at  the  Vermont1  and  Wisconsin2  Stations  were 
conducted  in  the  following  manner :  Two  rows  of  maturing  corn  ex- 
tending across  the  field  were  placed  in  shocks,  while  the  next  2  rows 
were  run  thru  the  feed  cutter  and  placed  in  the  silo.  By  thus  alter- 
nating until  the  silo  was  filled,  substantially  equal  quantities  of  ma- 
terial having  the  same  composition  were  obtained.  The  field-cured 
fodder,  after  being  run  thru  the  cutter,  was  fed  in  opposition  to  the 
silage  to  dairy  cows  along  with  equal  quantities  of  hay  and  grain. 

The  results  at  the  Vermont  Station  were: 

24,858  Ibs.  green  fodder  corn  when  dried  and  fed  with  a  uniform  daily 
Allowance  of  hay  and  grain  produced  7,688  Ibs.  of  milk. 

24,858  Ibs.  of  green  fodder  corn  when  converted  into  silage  and  fed  with 
che  same  daily  ration  of  hay  and  grain  produced  8,525  Ibs.  of  milk. 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station  the  results  were: 

From  29,800  Ibs.  of  green  fodder  were  obtained  24,440  Ibs.  of  silage,  which, 
fed  with  1,648  Ibs.  of  hay  and  2,884  Ibs.  of  grain,  produced  7,496  Ibs.  of  milk, 
containing  340.4  Ibs.  of  fat. 

From  29,800  Ibs.  of  green  fodder  were  obtained  7,330  Ibs.  of  field-cured 
fodder  corn,  which,  fed  with  1,567  Ibs.  of  hay  and  2,743  Ibs.  of  grain,  pro- 
duced 7,119  Ibs.  of  milk,  containing  318.2  Ibs.  of  fat. 

At  the  Vermont  Station  the  silage  ration  produced  837  Ibs.,  or  11 
per  ct.,  more  milk  than  the  dry-fodder  ration.  At  the  Wisconsin 
Station  the  silage  ration  produced  377  Ibs.,  or  5  per  ct.,  more  milk 
and  22  Ibs.,  or  nearly  7  per  ct.,  more  fat  than  did  the  dry-fodder  ra- 
tion. 

We  have  seen  that  the  losses  of  nutrients  by  ensiling  and  drying 
corn  forage  are  not  materially  different,  tho  somewhat  favoring  silage, 
and  that  silage  and  dry  forage  are  about  equally  digestible.  On  the 
other  hand,  actual  feeding  trials  with  dairy  cows,  as  here  reported, 
show  that  silage  gives  better  results  than  a  corresponding  amount  of 
dry  fodder.  The  difference  in  favor  of  silage  is  doubtless  due  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  cattle  usually  reject  the  dry  butts  of  the  corn  stalks 
even  when  cut  fine,  while  in  silage  they  are  eaten  without  waste. 
Again,  silage-fed  animals  will,  if  permitted,  consume  a  larger  ration 

1  Ept.  1891.  2Ept.  1891. 


228 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  thereby  have  more  nutriment  available  for  milk  or  flesh  produc- 
tion after  supplying  the  wants  of  the  body.  (654) 

351.  Yield  of  silage  corn  and  roots. — Since  corn  silage  and  roots 
are  both  succulent  and  equally  relished  by  stock,  the  choice  between 
them  will,  in  many  cases,  finally  turn  upon  the  cost  of  production  and 
the  amount  of  nutriment  yielded  by  each  crop  on  a  given  area  of 
land.  The  following  table  from  Woll1  and  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion2 shows  the  green  substance  and  dry  matter  yielded  by  an  acre 
of  fodder  corn  and  roots,  grown  under  the  same  conditions  at  4  sta- 
tions : 

Yield  of  fresh  and  dry  matter  per  acre  of  roots  and  fodder  corn. 


Crops 
compared 

Maine  Station 

Pennsylvania 
Station 

Ohio  Station 

Ontario  College 

Green 
sub- 
stance 

Dry 

matter 

Green 
sub- 
stance 

Dry 

matter 

Green 
sub- 
stance 

Dry 

matter 

Green 
sub- 
stance 

Dry 

matter 

Rutabagas  __ 
Mangels  

Lbs. 
31,695 
15,  375 
17,645 
39,  645 

Lbs. 
3,415 
1,613 

2,590 
5,580 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
42,  780 
55,  320 
32,  663 
41,172 

Lbs. 
4,877 
5,034 
4,737 
8,135 

38,273 
25,591 
18,332 

4,554 

4,683 
6,763 

31,500 

3,000 

Sugar  beets  . 
Fodder  corn. 

6,000 

It  is  shown  that  crops  of  corn  yield  about  twice  as  much  dry  mat- 
ter as  do  crops  of  roots  grown  on  similar  land. 

352.  Dry  matter  in  roots  and  silage.— The  value  of  the  dry  mat- 
ter in  roots  and  silage  for  milk  production  has  been  studied  at  the 
Ohio,3  Pennsylvania,4  and  Vermont5  Stations  with  the  following  re- 
sults : 

Milk  from  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in  corn  silage  and  "beet  rations. 


Station 

Beet  ration 

Silage  ration 

Ohio  Station,  1889 

Lbs. 
59 

Lbs. 
62 

Ohio  Station,  1890        _ 

59 

60 

Ohio  Station,  1891    ... 

62 

66 

Ohio  Station,  1892  

69 

76 

Pennsylvania  Station 

87 

82 

Vermont  Station 

113 

119 

It  will  be  seen  that,  altho  practically  all  of  the  dry  matter  in  beets 
is  digestible  and  only  a  part  of  that  in  corn  silage,  dairy  cows  gave 
somewhat  better  returns  on  the  dry  matter  of  silage  than  on  that  in 
the  beet  ration. 


1  Book  on  Silage. 
a  Ept.  1898. 


3  Ept.  1893. 

4  Ept.  1890. 


Ept.  1895. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder. 


229 


At  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Station1  in  a  feeding  trial  with 
dairy  cows  fed  equal  amounts  of  hay  and  grain,  those  getting  30  Ibs. 
of  corn  silage  daily  gave  4  per  ct.  more  milk  than  those  getting  40 
Ibs.  of  mangels  daily.  (563,  656,  757-8) 

353.  Relative  cost  of  beets  and  silage. — At  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion2 Waters  and  Hess  estimated  the  cost  of  1  acre  of  corn  placed 
in  the  silo  at  $16.17,  while  to  grow  and  house  an  acre  of  beets  cost 
$57.54.     In  this  case  it  cost  5  times  as  much  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of 
dry  matter  in  roots  as  in  corn  silage.     At  the  Ohio  Station3  Thorne 
found  that  to  grow  and  harvest  an  acre  of  beets  yielding  15.75  tons 
and  containing  3,000  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  cost  more  than  an  acre  of 
corn  yielding  57  bushels  of  grain  and  containing  6,000  Ibs.,  or  twice 
as  much,  dry  matter.     Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms4 
found  turnips  more  expensive  and  not  much  more  effective  than  corn 
silage  for  milk  production.     Sugar  beets  proved  the  best  of  the  root 
crops,  but  were  more  expensive  than  corn  silage.    After  experiment- 
ing with  steers  fed  roots  and  corn  silage  with  hay  and  grain,  Day  of 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  College5  concludes  that  when  a  ton  of  roots 
is  worth  $2,  corn  silage  is  worth  $2.44  per  ton  for  beef  production. 

354.  Southern  v.  northern  seed  for  silage  corn. — At  the  North 
corn  plants  from  southern  seed  grow  much  larger  than  those  from 
northern  seed.    The  merits  of  the  two  classes  of  seed  corn  have  been 
tested  at  several  stations,  as  the  data  given  below  will  show. 

Yield  of  corn  forage  at  the  North  from  northern  and  southern  seed. 


Station  reporting 

Green  weight 

Dry  matter 

Digestible 
substance 

Maine*  —  7  trials,  5  years 
Southern  corn 

Lbs. 
34,  761 

Lbs. 
5,036 

Lbs. 
3,251 

Field  corn  ... 

22,  269 

4,224 

3,076 

Pennsylvania**  —  3  years 
Southern  corn 

32,  321 

7,993 

5,042 

Dent  corn  

18,606 

6,177 

4,149 

Cornell  $ 
White  Southern  corn 

34,060 

7,320 

4,758 

Pride  of  the  North  corn 

16,  980 

4,102 

2,953 

Wisconsin^ 
B.  &  W.  silage  corn     

47,040 

8,329 

5,414 

Dent  corn  _. 

24,890 

7,263 

5,229 

Minnesota]. 
Southern  corn 

43,000 

7,985 

3,887 

Dent  corn 

19,500 

4,518 

2,911 

'Rpt.  1893. 


**  Rpt.  1892. 


$Bul.  16. 


t  Rpt.  1888. 


t  Bui.  40. 


1  Ept.  1893. 

2  Ept.  1898. 


3  Ept.  1893. 
*  Ept.  1904. 


5  Ept.  1902. 


230  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  table  shows  larger  yields  of  green  forage  in  every  instance 
from  southern  corn,  which  likewise  leads  in  dry  matter  and  digestible 
substance.  Southern  corn  is,  however,  percentagely  lower  in  diges- 
tibility, as  shown  by  Jordan  of  the  Maine  Station,1  who  found  as  a 
result  of  studies  covering  5  seasons  65  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter 
of  silage  from  southern  and  73  per  ct.  of  that  from  northern  corn 
was  digestible. 

355.  When  to  use  southern  corn  for  silage. — The  table  shows  that 
larger  returns  of  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  matter  are  assured 
at  the  North  by  growing  the  large  southern  varieties  of  corn.    How- 
ever, such  corn  should  not  be  used  for  either  silage  or  dry  forage 
unless  the  climatic   conditions  permit  the  ears  to   develop  kernels 
which  reach  the  glazing  stage  at  time  of  harvest.    This  southern  corn 
will  prove  a  favorite  for  both  silage  and  dry  forage  where  there  is  an 
urgent  demand  for  the  largest  possible  amount  of  palatable  roughage 
from  a  given  acreage.     By  its  use  northern  farmers  can  provide  an 
enormous  quantity  of  forage  from  a  given  area.    On  the  other  hand, 
the  stockman  who  has  hay,  straw,  or  stover  at  command  will  aim  to 
fill  his  silo  with  a  richer  feeding  stuff  than  southern  corn  yields,  and 
for  this  purpose  will  use  northern  dent  or  flint  varieties,  planting  in 
such  manner  as  to  secure  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  grain  to 
roughage.     The  smaller  varieties  of  northern  corn,  planted  not  too 
thickly  and  carrying  a  goodly  weight  of  ears,  will  provide  a  rich 
silage  that  will  materially  reduce  the  amount  of  concentrates  that  are 
required  when  feeding  southern  corn  silage. 

356.  Removing  the  ears  before   ensiling. — It   has   been   recom- 
mended that,  instead  of  ensiling  the  entire  corn  plant,  the  ears  be 
removed  and  cured  elsewhere,  and  only  the  stalks  and  leaves  con- 
verted into  silage.     This  grain-free  silage  would  then  be  fed  along 
with  more  or  less  of  the  grain  separately  saved.     This  matter  has 
been  tested  by  Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station2  and  Hills  of  the  Ver- 
mont Station3  with  adverse  results.     Hills  found  that  1  acre  of  green 
corn  fodder,  including  ears,  reduced  to  silage  was  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  1.26  acres  of  silage  from  stalks  stripped  of  their  ears  fed  with 
the  meal  made  by  grinding  the  dry  ear  corn  which  was  produced  by 
the  crop. 

357.  Frozen  corn  silage. — Hills  of  the   Vermont    Station4    found 
that  frozen-corn  silage  is  not  necessarily  poorer  in  quality  because  of 
having  been  frosted.     It  is  not  dangerous  to  cows  and  does  not  in- 
juriously affect  the  milk.     He  concludes  that  it  is  often  advisable  to 

1  Bpt.  1893.  2  Epts.  1891-2.  3  Bpt.  1892.  4  Ept.  1906. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder.  231 

allow  a  crop  of  immature,  watery  corn  to  stand  one  or  two  weeks 
longer  than  usual,  thereby  gaining  from  6  to  15  per  ct.  in  dry  matter 
should  no  frost  come.  When  frosted,  corn  forage  should  be  quickly 
ensiled,  for  the  storm  which  usually  follows  the  first  fall  frosts  will 
wash  out  much  nutriment  from  the  frosted  forage,  and  the  winds 
will  soon  whip  off  the  dried,  brittle  leaves. 

358.  Cured  fodder-corn  silage. — Neale  of  the  Delaware  Station1 
placed  field-cured  fodder  corn,  cut  fine,  in  a  silo  and  poured  over 
it  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  its  weight  of  water.     A  rise  in  tem- 
perature followed,  and  an  aromatic  odor  was  developed  as  with  silage 
from  green  forage.     Stock  ate  this  moistened  dry-fodder  silage  with- 
out waste  in  preference  to  dried  shredded  fodder.     Such  treatment 
of  dried  corn  forage  seems  practical  only  in  special  cases. 

359.  Steaming  silage. — At  the  Oregon  Station2  Withycombe  and 
Bradley  found  in  digestion  trials  with  cows  that  steaming  corn  silage 
immediately  after  placing  it  in  the  silo  reduced  the  digestibility  of 
the  dry  matter  16  per  ct.,  the  crude  protein  91  per  ct.,  the  ash  79 
per  ct.,  and  the  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  to  a  slight  extent. 
Hence,  tho  the  steamed  silage  was  admirably  preserved  and  contained 
only  half  as  much  acid  as  ordinary  silage,  its  feeding  value  was 
greatly  reduced.  (60) 

360.  Crops  for  the  silo. — Indian  corn  is  the  one  great  silage  plant. 
By  seeding  a  little  thicker  than  for  grain  the  proper  proportion  of 
ears  and  stalks  develops  to  form  a  rich  silage.     Corn  should  be  cut 
for  silage  while  most  of  the  leaves  are  yet  green  and  succulent,  but 
not  until  the  kernels  are  dented  and  hardened.    Immature  corn  makes 
sour  silage  of  low  feeding  value.  (214) 

Sorghum  is  possibly  next  to  corn  for  the  silo,  yet  because  of  the 
high  content  of  sugar  it  usually  makes  a  sour  silage.  Soule,  as  the 
result  of  5  years'  experience  at  the  Tennessee  Station,3  reports  that 
well  matured  sorghum,  properly  ensiled,  makes  sweet  silage.  The 
bagasse,  or  waste  of  the  sorghum  syrup  factories,  which  has  con- 
siderable feeding  value,  should  not  be  wasted  but  may  be  satisfac- 
torily ensiled.  (222)  In  England  meadow  grasses  have  been  con- 
verted into  stack  silage,  in  which  case  the  decaying  outside  protects 
the  interior  of  the  mass — a  practice  which,  however,  is  not  gaining 
favor.  Potts  of  Australia4  reports  that  3  tons  of  grass  silage  is  esti- 
mated to  be  worth  1  ton  of  oat  hay.  A  stack  containing  200  tons  of 
grass  silage,  opened  after  10  years,  furnished  good  feed.  Georereson 

1  Kpt.  1903.  3  Bul  Yol  xvil,  No.  l. 

2  Bul.  102.  *  N.  S.  Wales  Gaz.,  Vol.  15,  p.  82. 


232  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

of  the  Alaska  Experiment  Station1  reports  that  fresh  native  grasses 
kept  well  when  stored  in  a  log  silo  made  smooth  inside,  and  that  such 
silage  satisfactorily  maintained  oxen  during  3  winters.  Green  rye  is 
fairly  satisfactory  for  silage,  providing  it  is  ensiled  by  the  time  th€ 
heads  have  shot  and  before  the  stems  have  become  woody.  Since  the 
hollow  stems  contain  air,  rye  forage  must  be  closely  compacted  in  the 
silo. 

As  a  class  the  legumes  have  proved  disappointing  for  silage.  (247) 
Red  clover  silage  usually  has  a  rank,  tenacious  odor  and  is  not  par- 
ticularly relished  by  stock.  At  the  Agassiz  (British  Columbia)  Sta- 
tion2 3  cuttings  of  red  clover,  yielding  32  tons  of  green  forage  per 
acre,  made  a  cheaper  silage  than  that  from  the  corn  plant.  Dean  of 
the  Ontario  (Canada)  Agricultural  College3  reports  that  an  acre  of 
clover  silage  did  not  yield  one-half  the  returns  of  an  equal  area  of 
corn  silage.  The  Colorado  Station4  reports  fair  results  from  ensiling 
alfalfa,  and  that  the  silage  was  relished  by  cows  and  calves.  The 
cowpea,  so  valuable  in  southern  agriculture,  fortunately  shows  favor- 
ably as  a  silage  plant.  Doane  of  the  Maryland  Station5  found  cow- 
pea  silage  slightly  superior  to  corn  silage  for  dairy  cows.  Crenshaw 
of  Georgia6  recommends  that  cowpeas  carrying  a  heavy  crop  of  grain 
be  ensiled  when  well  matured,  since  immature  vines  make  watery, 
sour  silage.  While  the  reports  on  the  soybean  plant  for  silage  are 
not  in  accord,  it  is  probable  that  further  experience  will  rank  it  with 
the  cowpea  for  this  purpose. 

Such  substances  as  beet  pulp,  beet  leaves,  apple  pomace,  and  sor- 
ghum bagasse  may  be  successfully  ensiled  in  silos,  or  placed  in  heaps 
and  covered  with  earth,  or,  if  no  better  provision  can  be  made, 
massed  in  large  heaps  without  covering,  in  which  case  the  outside  por- 
tion on  decaying  forms  a  preserving  crust.  (310)  Cooke  of  the  Ver- 
mont Station7  found  that  ensiled  apple  pomace  was  preferred  by 
cows  to  either  hay  or  corn  fodder,  and  concludes  that  it  has  equal 
value  with  corn  silage  for  cows.  (657)  Boyce  of  Australia8  reports 
prickly  pears  making  silage  relished  by  cattle,  the  thorns  softening 
and  becoming  harmless.  Weeds  and  other  waste  vegetation  may  some- 
times be  advantageously  ensiled.  Featherstonhaugh  of  Australia9  re- 
ports a  case  where  800  tons  of  ensiled  thistles  made  satisfactory 
silage.  Attempts  to  ensile  cabbage,  rape,  and  turnips  have  failed,  the 
product  being  ill-smelling  and  watery. 

1  Bui.  1.  8  Country  Gentleman,  Feb.  16, 1899. 

2  Canada  Expt.  Farms  Ept.  1905.  7  Rpt.  1903. 

3  Ept.  Ontario  Dairyman 's  Ass  'n,  1901.  s  N.  S.  Wales  Gaz.,  Vol.  8,  p.  505. 
<  Bui.  57.  9  N.  S.  Wales  Gaz.,  Vol.  9,  p.  71. 

5  Bui.  98. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder.  233 

361.  Pea-vine  silage. — Especially  in  Wisconsin,  great  quantities 
of  the  pea-vine  silage,  a  waste  product  of  the  canning  factories,  are 
employed  in  fattening  lambs  and  cattle.    According  to  The  Breeder's 
Gazette,1  western  lambs  fed  60  to  90  days  on  pea-vine  silage  fre- 
quently top  the  Chicago  market.     Cases  are  cited  where  fattening 
steers  made  an  average  gain  of  nearly  100  Ibs.  during  8  weeks'  feed- 
ing on  pea-vine  silage  alone.    A  bunch  of  range  cows  gained  77  Ibs. 
in  6  weeks. 

362.  Effects  of  silage  on  milk. — The  largest  milk  condensing  com- 
pany in  this  country  prohibits  the  use  of  silage  by  its  patrons.     On 
the  other  hand,  three  companies,  one  of  which  has  two  factories  in 
Michigan  and  two  in  New  York,  permit  or  favor  the  feeding  of  silage 
by  patrons.  The  Michigan  Condensed  Milk  Company  not  only  accepts 
milk  from  silage-fed  cows,  but  some  years  since  prepared  and  distrib- 
uted to  its  patrons  a  pamphlet  containing  directions  for  constructing 
silos  and  making  and  feeding  silage.    Mr.  C.  B.  McCanna,2  President 
of  the  Wisconsin  Condensed  Milk  Company,  in  order  to  thoroly  test 
the  matter,  constructed  a  silo  on  his  own  farm,  and  from  it  fed  silage 
to  cows  furnishing  milk  to  his  condensary  with  satisfactory  results. 

Fraser  of  the  Illinois  Station3  fed  a  ration  of  40  Ibs.  of  corn  silage, 
with  a  small  allowance  of  clover  hay  and  grain,  to  one  lot  of  cows, 
while  a  second  received  clover  hay  and  grain.  The  milk  from  the  two 
lots  was  sampled  by  372  persons,  60  per  ct.  of  whom,  without  knowl- 
edge of  the  feeds  used,  expressed  a  preference  for  the  silage-made 
milk.  Experts,  as  a  rule,  can  detect  a  silage  odor  or  flavor  in  the 
milk  of  silage-fed  cows,  but  such  flavor  is  rarely  as  marked  as  that 
of  cows  freshly  turned  to  grass  in  springtime.  With  over  100,000 
silos  in  use  by  the  dairymen  of  this  country,  thousands  of  whom  are 
furnishing  the  choicest  of  dairy  products — milk,  cream,  and  butter — 
to  critical  customers,  the  time  is  surely  at  hand  when  objections  to 
silage  should  cease,  just  as  have  the  early  charges  that  it  would  burn 
the  farm  buildings,  destroy  the  cows'  teeth,  eat  up  their  stomachs, 
induce  tuberculosis,  etc.  Like  any  other  feed,  silage  may  be  abused. 
Only  that  which  is  well  made  should  be  used,  and  this  should  be  fed 
after  milking  and  be  eaten  up  clean  at  each  feed,  none  being  left 
scattered  on  the  floor  of  the  stable,  the  air  of  which  should  be  kept 
pure  and  wholesome  by  proper  ventilation.  If  such  conditions 
prevail,  no  one  need  fear  ill  effects  from  feeding  silage  to  dairy 
cows.  (620) 

1  Vol.  55, 1909,  p.  450.  2  Communication  to  the  author.  3  Bui.  101. 


234  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

363.  Silage  as  a  feeding  stuff. —  Silage  is  preeminently  a  feed  fof 
the  dairy  cow.  (654-9)     iii  almost  equal  degree  it  is  a  necessity  with 
breeding  cattle,  growing  stock,  and  young  animals,  which  would  other- 
wise be  wintered  exclusively  on  dry  forage.     Given  to  breeding  and 
growing  stock,  silage  tends  to  keep  the  bowels  normal,  the  body  tis- 
sues sappy,  the  skin  pliant,  and  the  coat  glossy,  all  of  which  mark 
the  animals  as  in  condition  to  make  the  most  from  their  feed.    This  is 
also  true  of  fattening  cattle.     At  the  Utah  Station1  Sanborn  found 
that  the  flesh  of  steers  fed  silage  contained  6  per  ct.  and  that  of  sheep 
2  per  ct.  more  water  than  the  flesh  of  others  fed  dry  forage.     If 
cattle  are  at  their  best  on  summer  pastures,  then  winter  conditions 
which  most  nearly  approach  those  of  summer  are  to  be  desired.    Those 
interested  in  pure-bred  beef  cattle  and  in  beef  production  who  do  not 
use  roots  for  their  stock  in  winter  should  take  lessons  from  dairymen 
who  feed  silage.  (559-564)     Silage  can  be  advantageously  fed  in  mod- 
eration to  breeding  ewes,  especially  after  they  have  yeaned,  and  to 
fattening  sheep  and  lambs.  (757-8)     It  may  also  be  used  in  a  limited 
way  with  idle  horses  and  those  not  hard  worked  in  winter,  especially 
brood  mares  and  growing  animals.  (443)     The  high  fiber  content  of 
corn  silage  plainly  indicates  that  it  cannot  be  successfully  used  to 
any  extent  in  swine  feeding.  (904) 

364.  The  position  of  silage  on  the  stock  farm. — The  silo  and  its 
products  are  now  fixed  factors  of  vast  importance  in  American  agri- 
culture.   Old-style  farming,  where  corn  is  planted  for  the  grain  only, 
the  forage  being  wasted,  and  where  straw  stacks  slowly  rotting  in  the 
barnyard  show  that  grain  production  dominates,  has  no  place  for  the 
silo.    There  should  be  no  thought  of  the  silo  on  such  farms  until  the 
present  wastage  is  properly  conserved  and  more  mouths  are  waiting 
for  feed  than  the  system  of  farming  in  vogue  will  support.     On  too 
many  farms  stock  cattle  barely  hold  their  own  during  winter.     This 
means  that  for  half  of  each  year  all  the  feed  consumed  goes  for  body 
maintenance,  returning  nothing  to  the  owner,  and  serving  only  to 
carry  the  animals  over  winter  and  to  pasture  time,  when  they  once 
more  begin  to  gain  in  weight  and  thereby  really  increase  in  value. 
By  the  use  of  corn  silage,  combined  with  other  cheap  roughages, 
young  cattle  can  be  made  to  gain  steadily  all  winter  at  small  cost,  so 
that  with  the  coming  of  spring  they  will  not  only  have  increased  in 
weight  but  are  in  condition  to  go  on  pasture  and  make  the  largest 
possible  gains. 

1  Bui.  8. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder.  235 

On  farms  heavily  stocked  with  cattle,  where  everything  already 
raised  finds  mouths  waiting  and  demanding  still  more,  the  owner  will 
find  Indian  corn  and  the  legumes  his  best  crop  allies.  Heavily  ma- 
nured land  will  yield  enormous  crops  of  corn  forage  carrying  much 
grain,  and  this,  utilized  in  part  as  dry  forage  but  mostly  as  silage, 
will  materially  extend  the  feeding  powers  of  the  farm  in  roughage 
rich  in  carbohydrates.  Then  let  red  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  vetch, 
or  other  legumes  be  grown  to  furnish  a  protein-rich  dry  roughage. 
With  an  abundance  of  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  and  legume  hay,  the 
stockman  has  then  to  supply  his  cattle  with  only  the  minimum  of 
rich  concentrates  which  he  must  either  grow  or  purchase,  and  so  the 
cost  of  producing  meat  and  milk  is  cut  to  the  minimum,  while  the 
number  of  animals  the  farm  will  carry  is  greatly  increased.  By  grow- 
ing corn  for  silage  and  the  legumes  for  hay,  the  number  of  cattle 
which  a  farm  can  carry  may  often  be  doubled,  to  the  great  advantage 
of  both  land  and  owner. 

365.  Cost  of  silage. — The  following  data  show  the  entire  cost  of 
silage  per  ton,  including  the  rent  of  land,  cost  of  fertilizers,  and 
the  labor  involved  in  growing  and  ensiling  the  crop,  as  reported 
from  \\idely  different  sources: 

The   ton-cost  of  silage. 


Source  of  information 

Crop  ensiled 

Produc- 
tion cost 
per  ton 

Soiling1  Crops  and  Ensilage,  Peer 

Corn 

Dollars 
1  20 

Country  Gentleman,  1904,  p.  831 

Corn 

1  69 

Canada  Expt  Farm  Rpt.  1903 

Cora 

1  64 

Kansas  Expt.  Station,  Bui.  123       

Kafir 

1.65 

Kansas  Expt  Station,  Bui.  123 

Corn  and  cowpeas 

1  95 

Tennessee  Expt.  Station,  Vol.  XVII,  No.  1  ... 
New  Jersey  Expt.  Station,  Rpt.  1906        

Corn 
Corn 

2.00 
2  55* 

*Not  including  rent  of  land. 

Carrier  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,1  collect- 
ing data  from  31  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  farms,  found  the  amount 
of  corn  forage  placed  in  the  silo  daily  varied  from  3.3  to  7.4  tons  for 
each  man  employed,  and  that  the  expense  for  fuel,  binding  twine, 
teams,  engine  hire,  and  labor  ranged  from  46  cts.  to  86  cts.  for  each 
ton  ensiled. 

366.  Space  occupied  by  silage  and  dry  fodder. — A  cubic  foot  of 
hay  in  the  mow  weighs  about  5  Ibs.  According  to  King,2  an  average 

1  Farmers '  Bui.  292.  -  Wis.  Bui.  59. 


236  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

cubic  foot  of  corn  silage  in  a  30-ft.  silo  weighs  39.6  Ibs.  Estimating 
that  hay  contains  86.8  per  ct.  and  corn  silage  26.4  per  ct.  of  dry 
matter,  we  have  the  following: 

1  cubic  foot  of  hay  in  the  mow  contains  4.34  Ibs.  of  dry  matter. 
1  cubic  foot  of  silage  in  a  30-ft.  silo  contains  10.45  Ibs.  dry  matter. 

We  learn  that  a  given  volume  of  silage  contains  nearly  2.5  times 
as  much  dry  matter  as  the  same  volume  of  hay  stored  in  the  mow. 

367.  Silage  waste. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  King  placed  about 
65  tons  of  green  corn  forage  in  8  layers  in  a  silo  lined  with  galvanized 
iron,  which  entirely  prevented  the  passage  of  air  thru  its  walls.    The 
forage  was  so  placed  that  the  loss  incurred  in  each  of  the  8  layers 
after  standing  from  September  to  March  was  determined,  with  the 
following  results: 

Surface  layer,  8,934  Ibs.,  lost  32.5  per  cent  dry  matter 
Seventh  layer,  8,722  Ibs.,  lost  23.4  per  cent  dry  matter 
Sixth  layer,  14,661  Ibs.,  lost  10.3  per  cent  dry  matter 
Fifth  layer,  48,801  Ibs.,  lost  2.1  per  cent  dry  matter 
Fourth  layer,  13,347  Ibs.,  lost  7.0  per  cent  dry  matter 
Third  layer,  7,723  Ibs.,  lost  2.8  per  cent  dry  matter 
Second  layer,  12,689  Ibs.,  lost  3.5  per  cent  dry  matter 
Bottom  layer,  12,619  Ibs.,  lost  9.5  per  cent  dry  matter 

It  is  seen  that  the  surface  layer  of  silage  lost  over  32  per  ct.  of  its 
original  dry  matter,  while  the  third  layer  from  the  bottom  lost 
less  than  3  per  ct.,  showing  the  importance  of  air-tight  walls  and  deep 
silos. 

368.  Summer  silage. — In  many  dairy  districts  summer  droughts 
frequently  injure  the  pastures,  greatly  reducing  the  milk  flow,  and 
again,  many  dairymen  desire  to  keep  more  cows  than  their  pastures 
will  support.     These  conditions  can  often  best  be  met  by  feeding 
silage  in  summer.     Silage  left  over  from  winter  may  be  advanta- 
geously used  in  summer,  tho  it  is  better  to  employ  a  special  silo  for 
the    purpose.     Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms2  writes 
concerning  summer  silage:    "It  was  always  at  hand,  no  matter  what 
the  weather  nor  how  busy  the  teams  and  men  in  the  field;  it  was 
always  in  good  shape  to  feed,  that  is,  did  not  vary  in  character  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  affect  the  digestive  organs,  as  not  infrec[uently 
happens  when  soiling  crops  are  fed.     It  was  always  palatable  and 
eaten  with  apparent  relish,  no  matter  how  much  other  feed  was  avail- 
able.    It  required  a  smaller  area  to  furnish  a  given  amount  of  feed 
than  would  have  been  required  had  soiling  crops  been  used."     The 

1Bal.  83.  2Kpt.  1906,  p.  50. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder.  237 

only  disadvantage  of  summer  silage  is  the  tendency  to  decay  more 
rapidly  than  in  winter.  This  can  be  minimized  by  so  limiting  the 
diameter  of  the  silo  that  somewhat  more  than  2  inches  of  silage  is 
fed  off  daily  from  the  surface  of  the  mass. 

369.  Filling  the  silo. — Provided  the  material  is  closely  packed,  it 
is  not  essential  that  green  forage  be  cut  into  bits  to  preserve  it  in 
the  silo.    The  legumes,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  vines,  etc.,  are 
often  ensiled  uncut,  and  some  farmers  prefer  to  ensile  whole  corn 
forage,  tied  in  bundles.     Because  of  the  greater  ease  in  filling  and 
especially  in  removing  the  material,  corn  forage  is  usually  cut  into 
lengths  varying  from  0.5  to  2  inches.     When  filling  the  silo  the  in- 
pouring  material  should  be  thoroly  mixed,  evenly  spread,  and  well 
tramped  next  the  walls,  as  the  friction  there  tends  to  unevenness  in 
settling.     The  filling  should  be  by  daily  additions,  tho  experience 
shows  that  intermissions  of  1  or  2  days  work  little  or  no  harm.     If 
possible  the  operation  should  extend  over  1  or  2  weeks,  as  this  per- 
mits close  packing  and  insures  better  silage  than  is  made  by  hurry- 
ing the  operation.     Time  is  required  for  the  forage  to  soften,  settle, 
and  thereby  expel  the  entangled  air  thru  heat  and  the  generation  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.     If  feeding  is  not  to  begin  immediately,  there 
should  be  a  covering  of  about  a  foot  of  any  cheap  or  waste  material 
such  as  straw,  corn  stalks,  weeds,  etc.     This  should  be  spread  evenly 
and  wet  with  water  so  as  to  quickly  decay  and  seal  the  ensiled  mass 
beneath.     Oats  scattered  over  the  cover  will  germinate  and  help  in- 
crease the  density  of  the  cover. 

370.  Danger  from  carbon  dioxid. — In  silo  filling  there  is  possi- 
ble danger  to  those  who  go  into  the  pit  after  an  intermission,  due  to 
the  generation  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  sometimes  accumulates  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  prove  fatal  to  life.     The  possibility  of  danger 
may  be  ascertained  by  lowering  a  lighted  candle  into  the  pit.    If  the 
candle  continues  to  burn  at  the  bottom  human  beings  can  live  in  the 
same  atmosphere,  but  if  the  light  goes  out  it  means  death  to  one  en- 
tering the  pit.    The  opening  of  a  door  low  down  in  the  silo  will  allow 
the  poisonous  gas  to  pour  out,  or  pouring  a  lot  of  cut  forage  into 
the  pit  soon  creates  a  circulation  which  removes  the  danger. 

II.  THE  SILO. 

This  work  can  present  only  the  primary  principles  relating  to  silo 
construction,  advising  those  interested  to  secure  from  the  experiment 


238 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


stations  or  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  instructions 
concerning  the  form,  materials,  manner  of  construction,  etc.,  as  de- 
tailed in  bulletins  which  are  available  for  the  asking. 

371.  The  cylindrical  silo. — With  the  devising  of  the  cylindrical 
silo  by  King  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,1  its  form  and  construction 
emerged  from  uncertainty  and  imperfection  to  definiteness  and  sta- 
bility, thereby  greatly  advancing  and  strengthening  the  practice  of 
ensiling  forage  plants.    The  cylindrical  form  of  silo  should  usually  be 
adopted  because  it  is  the  most  economical  of  building  material,  its 
sides  are  unyielding,  and  it  has  no  corners,  which  are  specially  to 
be  avoided. 

372.  Weight  of  silage. — King2  reports  the  weight  of  silage  2  days 
after  filling  the  silo  to  be  as  follows : 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  corn  silage  in  silos  of  different  depths. 


Depth 

Weight  at  given  depth 

Mean  weight  for  whole  depth 

Feet 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 

18.7 

18.7 

10 

33.1 

26.1 

20 

46.2 

33.3 

30 

56.4 

39.6 

36 

61.0 

42.8 

The  second  column  shows  that  10  ft.  from  the  top  corn  silage 
weighs  about  33  Ibs.  per  cubic  ft.,  while  36  ft.  down  it  weighs  61  Ibs., 
or  nearly  twice  as  much.  The  last  column  shows  that  the  whole 
mass  down  to  10  ft.  has  a  mean  weight  of  about  26.1  Ibs.,  while  the 
whole  mass  in  a  36-ft.  silo  has  a  mean  weight  of  42.8  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. 

373.  Proper  size  of  the  silo. — The  diameter  of  the  silo  should  be 
gauged  by  the  number  and  kind  of  animals  to  be  fed  from  it,  and 
its  height  by  the  length  of  the  feeding  period.  About  2  inches  of 
silage  should  be  removed  daily  from  the  exposed  silage  surface  to 
minimize  the  loss  from  molding.  Two  inches  in  depth  of  ordinary 
corn  silage  weighs  about  3  Ibs.  per  surface  square  foot  near  the  top 
of  the  silo  and  10  Ibs.  near  the  bottom,  averaging  about  7.5  Ibs.  On 
this  basis  the  proper  feeding  area  may  be  placed  at  about  5  sq.  ft.  per 
cow  daily.  Gurler3  allows  6  sq.  ft.,  with  8  as  the  limit.  King4  gives 
the  following  table,  showing  the  proper  inside  diameter  of  a  silo 
where  silage  is  to  be  fed  off  at  the  rate  of  2  inches  per  day,  allow- 


1  Bui.  28,  issued  July,  1891. 

2  Wis.  Bui.  59. 


3  The  Farm  Dairy. 

4  Physics  of  Agriculture. 


The  Ensilage  of  Fodder. 


239 


ing  40  Ibs.  of  silage  daily  per  cow,  the  silo  being  30  ft.  deep  and  hold- 
ing sufficient  silage  for  6  months: 

Number  of  cows  to  be  fed       30          40          50          60          70          80          90        100 

Diameter  in  feet..          15.2      17.5      19.6      21.4      23.2      24.8      26.3      27.7 
Tons  of  silage  held__     108.0    144.0    180.0    216.0    252.0    288.0    324.0    360.0 


It  is  shown  that,  where  30  cows  are  to  be  fed  a  daily  allowance  of 
40  Ibs.  of  silage  each  for  6  months,  a  silo  30  feet  deep  should  have  an 
inside  diameter  of  15.2  ft.,  while  one  of  the  same  depth  holding  6 
months'  feed  for  100  cows  should  have  an  inside  diameter  of  27.7  ft. 

374.  Silo  economy. — King1  states  that  a  silo  36  ft.  in  depth  will 
store  5  times  as  much  feed  as  one  12  ft.  deep,  due  to  the  greater 
compactness  of  the  stored  mass.    A  silo  20  ft.  in  diameter  will  hold 
4  times  as  much  as  one  having  half  that  diameter,  while  it  costs  but 
twice  as  much  to  build.     Gurler2  advises  against  silos  over  25  ft.  in 
diameter  on  account  of  the  increased  labor  involved  in  removing  the 
silage.     He  found  no  objections  to  silos  38  ft.  in  depth. 

375.  Capacity  of  the   silo. — The   next  table,   likewise   by  King,3 
gives  the  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  of  different  depths  and  varying 
inside  diameters. 

Approximate  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  stated  in  tons  of  corn  silage. 


Depth 

Inside  diameter  in  feet 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

Feet 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

20 

59 

67 

76 

85 

94 

105 

115 

127 

138 

151 

163 

177 

21 

63 

72 

81 

91 

101 

112 

123 

135 

148 

161 

175 

189 

22 

67 

77 

86 

97 

108 

120 

132 

145 

158 

172 

187 

202 

23 

72 

82 

92 

103 

115 

128 

141 

154 

169 

184 

199 

216 

24 

76 

87 

98 

110 

122 

135 

149 

164 

179 

195 

212 

229 

25 

81 

90 

104 

116 

129 

143 

158 

173 

190 

206 

224 

242 

26 

85 

97 

110 

123 

137 

152 

168 

184 

201 

219 

237 

257 

27 

90 

103 

116 

130 

145 

160 

177 

194 

212 

231 

250 

271 

28 

95 

108 

122 

137 

152 

169 

186 

204 

223 

243 

264 

285 

29 

100 

114 

128 

144 

160 

178 

196 

215 

235 

256 

278 

300 

30 

105 

119 

135 

151 

168 

187 

206 

226 

247 

269 

292 

315 

31 

110 

125 

141 

158 

176 

195 

215 

236 

258 

282 

305 

330 

32 

115 

136 

148 

166 

185 

205 

226 

248 

270 

295 

320 

346 

The  table  shows  that  a  silo  20  ft.  deep  and  15  ft.  in  diameter  will 
hold  about  59  tons  of  cut  corn  silage,  while  one  32  ft.  deep  and  26 
ft.  in  diameter  will  hold  about  346  tons. 


1  Physics  of  Agriculture. 
3  The  Farm  Dairy. 


Loc.  cit. 


240 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  following  from  '  *  Modern  Silage  Methods ' ' 1  gives  approximately 
the  capacity  of  silos  of  different  sizes,  the  area  of  land  required  to 
furnish  a  corn  crop,  when  averaging  15  tons  per  acre,  which  will  fill 
such  silos,  and  also  the  number  of  cows  provided  for,  allowing  40 
Ibs.  of  silage  per  cow  daily  for  6  months: 

Area  of  corn  crop  required  to  fill  silos  of  different  sizes. 


Diameter 

Depth 

Capacity 

Area  of  crop  required 

Cows  it  will  keep 

Feet 

Feet 

Tons 

Acres 

Number 

10 

20 

26 

2.0 

8 

12 

20 

38 

3.0 

11 

12 

24 

49 

3.4 

13 

12 

28 

60 

4.0 

15 

14 

22 

61 

4.5 

17 

14 

24 

67 

4.7 

19 

14 

28 

83 

5.7 

22 

14 

30 

93 

6.0 

23 

16 

26 

97 

7.0 

26 

16 

30 

119 

8.0 

29 

18 

30 

151 

10.2 

37 

18 

36 

189 

12.3 

45 

The  above  shows  that  a  silo  10  ft.  in  diameter  and  20  ft.  deep  has 
a  capacity  of  26  tons.  To  fill  a  silo  of  this  size  will  require  about 
2  acres  of  corn,  and  it  will  furnish  8  cows  40  Ibs.  of  silage  daily  for  6 
months. 


1  Silver  Manufacturing  Co.,  publishers. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

MANUEIAL  VALUE   OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  the  soil  is  now  so  depleted  of 
fertility  that  those  who  till  it  are  forced  to  use  commercial  fertilizers 
in  order  to  secure  remunerative  crops.  The  commercial  fertilizers 
sold  in  this  country  during  the  year  1907  amounted  to  4,451,523 
tons.1  At  $20  per  ton,  a  reasonable  valuation,  we  have  a  total  of 
nearly  $90,000,000  paid  in  a  single  year  by  farmers,  planters,  and 
gardeners,  principally  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  for  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  In  the  year  1907  there  were  purchased  in  Massa- 
chusetts 85,000,  in  Ohio  140,000,  and  in  California  21,000  tons  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  while  Georgia  led  all  the  states,  using  nearly 
800,000  tons. 

376.  Composition  and  value  of  fertilizers. — Of  the  constituents 
which  plants  remove  from  the  soil,  only  three  need  ordinarily  be 
replaced,  viz.  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  Phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  when  naturally  lacking,  or  when  they  have  been 
carried  off  in  crops  or  animals  sold,  must  be  replaced  by  buying 
fertilizer  or  by  applying  the  manure  made  from  feeds.  The  nitro- 
gen may,  however,  be  indirectly  obtained  from  the  air  by  raising 
legumes.  In  practice  much  nitrogen  is  purchased  along  with  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash. 

Barnyard  manures  benefit  the  soil  because  the  vegetable  matter 
they  contain  forms  humus,  helps  retain  moisture,  improves  its  phys- 
ical condition,  etc.;  but  for  directly  feeding  the  plant  their  worth 
is  in  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  they  contain.  The 
selling  price  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  is  based  on  its  content  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  and  because  of  the  enormous 
quantity  used  thruout  the  civilized  world  each  of  these  constituents 
has  a  recognized  price,  which  fluctuates  no  more  than  that  of  any 
other  standard  article  of  worldwide  commerce.  In  this  country 
the  average  price  of  these  ingredients  to  those  who  buy  in  large 
quantities  is  about  as  follows:  Nitrogen  18,  phosphoric  acid  5,  and 
potash  5  cents  per  Ib. 

The  officials  of  the  Ohio  Station,2  after  much  practical  work,  give 
to  the  elements  of  fertility  in  farm  manures  the  same  value  they 

1  American  Fertilizer,  Jan.  1909.  2  Bui.  183. 

17  241 


242 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


have  in  tankage,  bone  meal,  and  muriate  of  potash,  all  of  which 
are  standards  in  their  class  among  commercial  fertilizers.  Animal 
manures  not  only  supply  plant  food,  but  also  benefit  the  soil  by  fur- 
nishing humus,  increasing  its  moisture-holding  power,  improving 
the  mechanical  condition,  and  favoring  bacterial  and  chemical 
action.  Such  being  true,  it  is  usually  safe  to  value  animal  manures 
on  equal  terms  with  commercial  fertilizers,  based  on  the  content  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  at  the  market  price  of  these 
constituents. 

377.  Fertilizing  constituents  of  plant  and  animal  products. — Table 
III  of  the  Appendix  shows  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  contained  in  the  various  feeding  stuffs.  From  this  table 
and  Table  V  the  following  examples  are  taken  showing  the  fertil- 
izing constituents  in  various  plant  and  animal  products : 

Fertilizing  constituents  in  1,000  Ibs.  of  various  plant  and  animal  products. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Wheat  straw    _  .__ 

Lbs. 
5.0 

Lbs. 
2.2 

Lbs. 
6.3 

Timothy  hay.  ...     

9.4 

3.3 

14.2 

Clover  hay  _  

19.7 

5.5 

18.7 

Corn 

16.5 

7.1 

5.7 

Wheat 

19.0 

5.5 

8  7 

Wheat  bran 

24.6 

26.9 

15.2 

Oil  meal,  o.  p. 

54.2 

16.6 

13.7 

Fat  ox 

23.3 

15.5 

1.8 

Fat  pig- 

17.7 

6.5 

1.4 

Milk     . 

5.8 

1.9 

1.7 

Butter  . 

1.2 

0.4 

0.4 

From  the  table  we  learn  that  1,000  Ibs.  of  wheat  straw  contains 
5.0  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  while  the  same  weight  of  timothy  hay  carries 
nearly  twice  as  much,  or  9.4  Ibs.  Clover  hay  is  much  richer  than 
timothy  hay  in  nitrogen  and  especially  in  potash,  tho  poorer  in  phos- 
phoric acid.  Wheat  bran  contains  much  more  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  than  does  the  wheat  grain.  This  is  because  the 
starchy  part  of  the  grain,  which  constitutes  most  of  the  flour,  holds 
but  little  fertility,  while  the  outside  portion  of  the  grain,  which  goes 
into  the  bran,  contains  much  of  the  nitrogen  and  ash. 

The  value  of  farm  manures  depends  primarily  and  principally  on 
the  character  of  the  food  from  which  they  originate,  for  the  animal 
merely  works  over  the  food  given  to  it,  appropriating  for  the  forma- 


Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  243 

tion  of  flesh  or  milk  more  or  less  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  the 
food  furnishes,  and  voiding  the  rest  in  the  excrements.  The  fatten- 
ing animal  takes  little  or  no  fertility  from  the  feed  it  receives.  The 
farmer  should  know  that  the  animal  creates  nothing  in  the  way  of 
fertilizing  value,  so  that  if  it  is  fed  wheat  straw,  for  example,  it  will 
void  manure  low  in  fertilizing  elements,  while  if  fed  oil  meal,  wheat 
bran,  or  clover  hay  it  will  furnish  a  rich  manure. 

378.  Selling  fertility. — The  table  in  the  preceding  article  shows 
that  those  who  sell  such  crops  as  hay,  corn,  and  wheat  dispose  of  far 
more  fertility  for  the  money  returned  than  do  those  who  sell  ani- 
mals or  their  products,  produced  from  the  crops  they  raise.     The 
farmer  who  sells  1,000  Ibs.  of  clover  hay,  worth  perhaps  $5,  parts 
with  about  as  much  fertility  as  if  he  had  sold  1,000  Ibs.  of  fat  ox 
or  fat  pig,  worth  $50  or  more.    Based  on  the  selling  price  milk  car- 
ries off  much  fertility  from  the  farm,  and  butter  practically  none. 
Farm  crops  may  be  regarded  as  raw  products,  while  farm  animals, 
milk,  wool,  butter,  etc.,  represent  manufactured  products.     A  large 
amount  of  raw  material  in  the  form  of  grass,  hay,  corn,  etc.,  is  put 
into  animals,  and  the  heavy  waste  or  by-product  resulting,  in  the 
form  of  manure,  when  carried  back  to  the  fields  conserves  most  of 
the  fertility.     The  stock  farmer  who  feeds  his  crops  to  live  stock  is 
a  manufacturer  as  well  as  a  producer,  with  two  possible  profits  in- 
stead of  one,  while  his  farm  loses  but  little  of  its  fertility.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  farmer  who  grows  and  sells  grain,  hay,  and  straw 
is  selling  a  large  amount  of  fertility,  the  need  of  which  will  surely 
be  apparent  as  time  goes  on  and  his  fields  give  smaller  and  smaller 
returns.     Such  a  farmer  is  slowly  but  surely  mining  out  phosphorus 
and  potash  from  his  soil,  which  can  be  replaced  only  by  some  pur- 
chased material.     The  successful  cropping  of  land  rests  primarily 
on  its  fertility.     Crops  remove  this  fertility,  and  manure  restores  it. 
As  one  does  not  expect  returns  from  his  animals  without  giving 
them  feed,  so  he  should  not  crop  his  fields  without  feeding  them  also. 

379.  Fertilizing  value  of  feeds. — If  for  study  purposes  we  place 
the  same  money  values  on  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
in  feeding  stuffs  that  these  constituents  cost  in  commercial  fertil- 
izers, we  are  in  position  to  compare  the  several  feeding  stuffs  on  the 
basis  of  the  fertility  they  contain.     On  this  basis  wheat  bran  and 
corn  are  compared  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

We  there  learn  that  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  1,000  Ibs.  of 
bran,  which  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  are 
worth  $6.54,  and  those  in  the  same  weight  of  corn,  which  is  rela- 


244  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

tively  poor  in  mineral  matter,  only  $3.62,  or  about  one-half  as  much. 

Value  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  1,000  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  and  corn. 


T 

Vheat  brai 

i 

Corn 

Fertilizing1  constituents 

Lbs. 

Price 
per  Ib. 

Total 

Lbs. 

Price 
per  Ib. 

Total 

Nitrogen 

24.6 

Cents 
18 

Dollars 
4.43 

16.5 

Cents 
18 

Dollars 
2.97 

Phosphoric  acid 

26.9 

5 

1.35 

7.1 

5 

0.36 

Potash 

15.2 

5 

0.76 

5.7 

5 

0.29 

6.54 

3.62 

Doubling  the  figures  we  have  the  following: 

Value  of  the  fertilizing1  constituents  in  1  ton  of  wheat  bran_ .  _  $13. 08 
Value  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  1  ton  of  corn 7.24 

These  figures  mean  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  found  in  a  ton  of  bran  or  corn,  if  bought  in  commercial 
fertilizers,  will  cost  not  less  than  the  sums  named.  It  means  that 
the  farmer  who  harvests  a  ton  of  corn  and  seeks  to  return  to  the 
field  from  which  it  came  the  same  amount  of  fertility  that  was  taken 
out  of  the  soil  by  this  ton  of  corn  must  pay  not  less  than  $6.90  for 
the  requisite  fertilizers  if  bought  in  the  market. 

In  rare  cases  feeding  stuffs  are  directly  used  as  fertilizers  to  en- 
rich the  soil.  For  example,  the  tobacco  planters  of  Connecticut1  in 
1907  bought  and  spread  directly  upon  their  tobacco  fields  5,000  tons 
or  200  carloads  of  cotton-seed  meal,  one  of  the  richest  and  best  of 
feeds  for  dairy  cows  and  fattening  cattle,  costing  over  $30  per  ton. 
Millions  of  dollars  worth  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  annually  used  by 
the  planters  of  the  South  to  fertilize  their  cotton  fields  in  order  to 
make  another  crop  of  cotton. 

Virgin  soils  as  a  rule  contain  great  quantities  of  available  fertil- 
ity, and  the  pioneer  farmers  in  America,  drawing  upon  Nature's 
store,  have  given  little  consideration  to  the  subject  of  how  their 
crops  are  fed  and  have  rarely  realized  that  they  are  steadily  and 
often  wastefully  drawing  on  the  store  of  fertility  which  represents 
their  principal  capital.  The  western  farmer,  when  marketing  corn, 
considers  that  in  so  doing  he  is  selling  labor  and  rent  of  land. 
Rarely  does  he  realize  that  he  is  also  selling  fertility,  to  replace 
which  would  cost  a  considerable  part  of  all  the  crop  brings.  Eastern 
farmers  and  southern  planters  are  in  many  cases  cultivating  soils  so 

1  Ept.  Conn.  Expt.  Sta.,  1907. 


Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  245 

depleted  of  available  food  that  the  matter  of  fertilizers  is  of  deepest 
concern. 

380.  British  practice. — In  Great  Britain,  where  many  of  the  farm- 
ers are  long-period  tenants,  the  manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs  is 
recognized  by  law  in  a  manner  that  tends  greatly  to  the  betterment 
and  permanence  of  her  agriculture.  The  Agricultural  Holdings  Act, 
which  is  the  law  governing  the  relations  between  landlord  and  ten- 
ant, directs  that  when  a  tenant  is  vacating  his  leasehold  he  shall  be 
reasonably  compensated  for  the  improvements  he  has  made.  Among 
these,  credit  must  be  given  for  the  fertilizing  value  of  feeding  stuffs 
which  the  tenant  may  have  purchased  and  fed  out,  and  also,  under 
certain  conditions,  for  the  fertilizing  value  of  grains  produced  on 
the  farm  and  fed  to  stock.  In  order  to  furnish  data  to  guide  the 
valuers,  who  serve  in  settlement  between  landlord  and  tenant,  Dr. 
Voelcker,  chemist  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
and  Dr.  Hall,  director  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station, 
working  jointly,  recommended,1  after  full  and  extended  study,  that 
in  such  cases  the  outgoing  tenant  should  be  credited,  and  the  in- 
coming tenant  charged,  substantially  as  follows: 

For  all  unused  manure  resulting  from  feeding  purchased  feeds  to 
stock  on  the  leasehold,  the  tenant  shall  be  credited  with  the  value  of 
one-half  the  nitrogen,  three-fourths  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  and  all 
of  the  potash  the  feeds  originally  contained.  The  money  value  of 
such  manure  shall  be  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  pounds  of  the 
three  fertilizing  elements,  as  calculated,  by  the  current  value  of  each 
per  pound  in  commercial  fertilizers.  Where  the  manure  has  been  on 
the  land  one  year  and  thereby  fed  a  crop,  only  one-half  of  its  orig- 
inal value  shall  be  credited.  If  two  crops  have  been  grown  on  the 
manure,  one-fourth  of  its  value  shall  be  allowed,  and  so  on  for  four 
years,  after  which  the  manure  is  considered  exhausted. 

A  committee  appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Central  and  Asso- 
ciated Chambers  of  Agriculture2  recommend  in  substance  that  the 
Voelcker-Hall  table  of  valuations  be  adopted  practically  without 
change,  but  that  compensation  be  allowed  for  but  three  years  instead 
of  four. 

The  principles  of  the  English  law  should  be  drafted  into  every 
lease  drawn  between  landlord  and  tenant  in  this  country. 

381.  Fertilizers  retained  and  voided. — In  the  case  of  mature  ani- 
mals neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  substantially  as  much 

1  Jour.  Royal  Agr.  Soc.  Eng.,  1902. 

2  Central  Chamber  of  Agriculture,  Rpt.  Com.  Scale  of  Compensation  for  Unex- 
hausted Improvements,  2d  ed.,  July,   1908. 


246 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


nitrogen  and  ash,  the  latter  containing  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  will  be  found  in  the  excrements  as  is  supplied  in  the  food. 
With  fattening  animals  whose  bodies  are  nearly  or  quite  mature,  but 
little  nitrogen  and  ash  are  retained  by  the  body,  wiiile  young,  grow- 
ing animals  and  those  giving  milk  take  large  quantities  of  nitrogen 
and  ash  from  their  food.  These  points  are  helpfully  brought  out  in 
the  following  table  by  Warington:1 

Nitrogen  and  ash  voided  or  secured  as  animal  produce  from  food  consumed. 


Nitrogen 

Ash,  containing  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash 

Kind  of  animal 

Obtained  in 
carcass  or 
milk 

Voided  in 
solid  ex- 
crement 

Voided 
in 
urine 

In  total 
excre- 
ment 

Obtained  in 
carcass  or 
milk 

Voided  in 
excrement 
and  perspired 

Horse  at  work  _  _  _ 
Fattening  ox  
Fattening  sheep  _ 
Fattening  pig  ___ 
Milch  cow 

Per  cent 

None 
3.9 
4.3 
14.7 
24.5 
69.3 

Per  cent 
29.4 
22.6 
16.7 
21.0 
18.1 
5.1 

Per  cent 
70.6 
73.5 
79.0 
64.3 
57.4 
25.6 

Per  cent 
100.0 
96.1 
95.7 
85.3 
75.5 
30.7 

Per  cent 

None 
2.3 

3.8 
4.0 
10.3 
54.3 

Per  cent 
100.0 
97.7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 
45.7 

Calf,  fed  milk  „__ 

The  horse  at  work  renews  its  tissues  as  fast  as  they  are  worn  out, 
and  so  the  intake  and  outgo  of  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter  are 
equal.  Having  already  built  up  its  lean-meat  tissues,  the  fattening 
ox  retains  but  3.9  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen  supplied  in  the  food,  while 
the  dairy  cow  takes  out  of  her  feed  24.5  per  ct.,  or  about  one-quar- 
ter of  the  nitrogen  it  contains,  using  it  in  the  production  of  the 
casein  and  albumin  of  the  milk.  The  young  calf,  which  is  growing 
rapidly  in  bone,  muscle,  and  body  organs,  puts  into  its  body  over 
two-thirds  of  all  the  nitrogen  and  over  one-half  of  the  mineral  mat- 
ter supplied  in  the  food.  Columns  3  and  4  of  the  table  show  that 
about  three-fourths  of  the  nitrogen  which  is  voided  by  farm  animals 
passes  out  in  the  urine. 

382.  Amount  of  excrement  voided. — Information  on  this  subject 
is  limited  and  incomplete,  but  the  following  table  arranged  from  all 
available  data  may  be  held  as  representing  averages: 

Voiding  of  farm  animals  per  day  of  2!f-  hours. 


Animal 

Solid  excrement 

Urine 

Total 

Horse   ._  .__  

Lbs. 

3:; 

Lbs. 

8 

Lbs. 
41 

Cow__. 

49 

19 

68 

Sheep 

2 

2 

4 

Pig 

4 

3 

7 

1  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,  p.  214. 


Manunal  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 


247 


The  great  variation  in  quantity  and  composition  of  animal  excre- 
ments, owing  to  difference  in  the  feeds  consumed,  is  shown  by  War- 
ington.1  In  one  feeding  trial  each  cow  of  one  lot  was  fed  154  Ibs. 
of  mangels  daily,  while  each  cow  of  another  lot  received  26  Ibs.  of 
alfalfa  hay  and  68  Ibs.  of  water  daily.  The  results  are  shown  be- 
low: 

Amount  and  composition  of  excrement  voided  daily  by  cows  fed  mangels 

or  alfalfa  hay. 


Cow  fed  mangels 

Cow  fed  alfalfa  hay 

Solid 
excrement 

Urine 

Solid 
excrement 

Urine 

Voidings  per  day            -  

Lbs. 
42 

Lbs. 

88 

Lbs. 

48 

Lbs. 
14 

Content  of  voidings 
Water  . 

Per  cent 

83.00 
0.33 
0.24 
0.14 

Per  cent 

95.94 
0.12 
0.01 
0.60 

Per  cent 

79.70 
0.34 
0.16 
0.23 

Per  cent 

88.23 
1.54 
0.01 
1.69 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

The  cows  fed  watery  mangels  voided  6  times  as  much  urine  as 
those  fed  alfalfa,  but  the  urine  of  the  latter  was  13  times  richer 
in  nitrogen  and  3  times  richer  in  potash  than  the  urine  from  those 
eating  mangels.  This  plainly  illustrates  that  the  quality  of  manure 
depends  primarily  upon  the  nature  of  the  feed. 

383.  Composition  of  fresh  excrements. — The  quantity  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in  the  voidings  of  farm  animals  de- 
pends primarily  upon  the  amount  of  each  supplied  in  the  feed,  and 
secondarily  upon  the  animal  to  which  the  feed  is  given.  While  it 
is  impossible  to  formulate  anything  like  an  exact  table  showing  the 
composition  of  the  excrements  of  the  different  classes  of  farm  ani- 
mals, the  following,  originally  from  Wolff,2  is  helpful: 

Fertilizing  constituents  in  1,000  Ibs.  of  fresh  excrements  of  farm  animals. 


In  solid  voidings 


In  urine 


Animal 

Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Alkalies* 

Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Alkalies* 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Horse.  _ 

760 

5.0 

3.5 

3.0 

890 

12.0 

0.0 

15.0 

Cow  ... 

840 

3.0 

2.5 

1.0 

920 

8.0 

0.0 

14.0 

Swine  _ 

800 

6.0 

4.5 

5.0 

975 

3.0 

1.25 

2.0 

Sheep  .. 

580 

7.5 

6.0 

3.0 

865 

14.0 

0.5 

20.0 

'The  alkalies  include  potash,  lime,  etc. 


1  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,  p.  218. 


-  Bailey,  Cyc.  Amer.  Agr.,  Vol.  I,  p.  491. 


248 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  source  of  the  fertility  in  manures  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  table  from  Hebert:1 

Location  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in  excrement. 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Horse  urine                                       

Per  cent 
1.52 

Per  cent 
Trace 

Per  cent 
0.92 

Horse,  solid  excrement     

0.55 

0.35 

0.10 

Ccw,  urine                     

1.05 

Trace 

0.36 

Cow,  solid  excrement  _    

0.43 

0.12 

0.04 

We  learn  that  the  urine  of  the  horse  contains  1.52  per  ct.  of  ni- 
trogen and  the  solid  excrement  0.55  per  ct.,  or  only  one-third  as 
much.  The  reverse  holds  true  for  the  phosphoric  acid,  for  only  a 
trace  of  this  appears  in  the  urine  and  nearly  all  in  the  solid  excre- 
ment. Of  the  potash,  0.9  per  ct.  is  found  in  the  urine  and  only  0.1 
per  ct.  in  the  solid  excrement. 

The  fertilizing  constituents  which  pass  off  with  the  solid  excre- 
ment are  largely  insoluble  and  to  this  extent  not  directly  available 
to  plants  when  applied  in  manures.  On  the  other  hand,  the  con- 
stituents in  urine  are  in  soluble  form  and  directly  available  to  the 
plant. 

384.  Fertilizing  matter  produced  yearly. — According  to  Roberts,2 
the  quantity  and  value  of  manure  from  farm  animals  maintained 
under  good  conditions  is  substantially  as  follows: 

Amount  and  value  of  fertilizing  constituents  voided  yearly  by  farm 

animals. 


Animal 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Value  per  year 

Horse  (Hebert)  

Lbs. 
125 

Lbs. 

48 

Lbs. 
43 

Dollars 
27.05 

Cow         

171 

26 

108 

37.48 

Sheep  (Muntz  and  Girard)  
Pig  (Boussingault) 

8 
12 

6 
11 

14 
12 

2.44 
3.31 

The  last  column  of  the  table,  showing  the  commercial  value  of  the 
manure  of  farm  animals,  is  obtained  by  giving  to  the  several  fer- 
tilizing constituents  the  price  per  pound  they  at  present  command 
in  commercial  fertilizers,  viz.  nitrogen  18  cents,  phosphoric  acid  5 
cents,  and  potash  5  cents  per  Ib. 

1  Expt.  Sta.  Eecord,  Vol.  5 ;  also  Fertility  of  the  Land,  Koberts,  p.  180. 

2  The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 


Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 


249 


385.  Formula  for  manure  production. — Heiden1  worked  out  a  for- 
mula for  calculating  the  amount  of  manure,  both  solid  and  liquid 
excrements,  produced  by  farm  animals  from  a  given  quantity  of 
feed.  He  found  that  on  the  average  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter 
supplied  in  the  feed  of  the  horse,  47.33  Ibs.  reappears  in  the  manure. 
As  fresh  horse  manure  contains  about  22.5  per  ct.  of  dry  matter, 
1 00  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in  horse  manure  would  yield : 


47. 33  Ibs.  X   100 
22.5 


210  Ibs.  fresh  manure. 


By  similar  calculations  it  is  found  that  exclusive  of  bedding: 

For  each  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in  the  feed: 

The  horse  voids  210  Ibs.  of  fresh  manure. 
The  cow  voids  384  Ibs.  of  fresh  manure. 
The  sheep  voids  183  Ibs.  of  fresh  manure. 

386.  Value  of  manure. — The  figures  given  below2  show  the  quan- 
tity of  the  several  fertilizing  constituents  in  a  ton  of  manure  from 
farm  animals,  and  the  value  of  the  same  based  on  the  commercial 
prices  for  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  contained: 

Value  of  manure  per  ton. 


Amount  in  1  ton 

Source  of  manure 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Value 

Horse       ..    __  .-. 

Lbs. 
9.8 

Lbs. 
5.2 

Lbs. 
9.6 

Dollars 
2.50 

Cow  .     

8.5 

5.8 

8.8 

2.26 

Sheep_. 

15.4 

7.8 

11.8 

3.75 

Hoff 

16.8 

7.8 

6.4 

3.73 

Calf 

10.0 

3.4 

10.6 

2.50 

1  Storer,  Agriculture,  1899,  Vol.  II,  p.  289. 

2  Adapted  from  Bui.  56,  New  York  (Cornell)  Expt.  Sta. 


PART  III. 
FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

INVESTIGATIONS  CONCEENING  THE  HORSE. 
I.  MARE  AND  FOAL. 

387.  Period    of   gestation.— According   to    Youatt,1    the    average 
period  of  gestation  for  the  mare  is  11  months,  but  it  may  be  dimin- 
ished by  5  weeks  or  extended  6  weeks.     Of  582  mares  reported  by 
M.  Tessier,2  the  shortest  period  was  287,  the  longest  419,  and  the 
average  330  days.    William  Russell  Allen  of  Allen  Farm,3  Pittsfield, 
Massachusetts,   from   records   of   1,071   foals  produced   by  trotting 
mares  during  15  years,  found  the  maximum  gestation  period  373, 
the  minimum  319,  and  the  average  340  days. 

388.  Weight  and  growth  of  foals. — Boussingault4    found  that: 
"1.  Foals,  the  issue  of  mares  weighing  from  960  to  1,100  Ibs., 

weigh  at  birth  about  112  Ibs. 

"2.  During  suckling,  for  3  months  the  weight  increases  in  the 
relation  of  278 : 100,  and  the  increase  corresponds  very  nearly  1x) 
2.2  Ibs.  per  head  per  day. 

"3.  The  increase  in  weight  per  day  of  foals  from  the  end  of  the 
first  to  the  end  of  the  second  year  is  about  1.3  Ibs.,  and  towards 
the  third  year  the  increase  per  day  falls  to  something  under  1  Ib. 

"4.  After  3  full  years,  the  period  at  which  the  horse  has  very 
nearly  attained  his  growth  and  development,  any  increase  becomes 
less  and  less  perceptible." 

Allen  found5  the  birth-weight  of  1,071  trotting-bred  foals  to  be: 

Maximum      Minimum      Average 
Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Weight  of  colts  at  birth 152  66  111 

Weight  of  fillies  at  birth 144  74  109 

1  The  Horse,  p.  222.  *  Kural  Economy,  Am.  ed. 

2  Farmers '  Cyc.,  Johnson,  p.  562.  c  Allen  Farm  Catalog,  1905. 

3  Catalog,  1905. 

250 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse. 


251 


The  average  yearly  gain  in  weight  of  these  foals  was: 

Lbs. 

Average  weight  at  birth 110 

Average  gain  during  first  year 534 

Average  gain  during  second  year 264 

Average  gain  during  third  year 118 

Average  gain  during  fourth  year 76 

Average  weight  at  end  of  the  fourth  full  year 1,102 

389.  Mare's  milk. — Below  is   given  the  average  composition  of 
mare's  milk  with  cow's  milk  for  comparison:1 

Mare's  milk  compared  with  cow's  milk. 


Number 
of 
analyses 

Water 

Casein 
and 
albumen 

Fat 

Sugrar 

Ash 

Specific 
gravity 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Mare's  milk  _. 
Cow's  milk  ._. 

72 
705 

90.58 

87.27 

2.05 
3.39 

1.14 

3.68 

5.87 
4.94 

0.36 
0.72 

1.0347 
1.0313 

It  is  shown  that  mare's  milk  contains  more  water  and  only  about 
one-half  as  much  casein,  albumen,  and  ash  as  cow's  milk,  while  the 
sugar  is  nearly  1  per  ct.  higher.  (595)  It  is  white  or  bluish  in 
color  and  has  an  aromatic,  sweetish,  slightly  bitter  taste.  Accord- 
ing to  Fleishmann,2  Tartarian  mares  sometimes  remain  in  milk  for 
2  years,  producing  440  to  490  Ibs.  of  milk  annually  in  addition  to 
that  required  by  their  foals.  Vieth3  reports  that  good  Russian  milk- 
ing mares,  when  milked  5  times  a  day  as  is  the  practice,  yield  4  to  5 
quarts  of  milk  daily. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  rear  foals  on  cow's  milk,  it  should 
be  diluted  with  water,  and  sugar  added,  tho  Peterson  and  Hofker4 
question  the  advisability  of  adding  sugar. 

II.  THE  RELATION  OF  FEED  TO  THE  WORK  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  most  complete  and  extensive  investigations  with  the  horse 
bearing  on  the  relations  of  feed  to  work  are  those  of  Wolff,  Gran- 
deau,  and  Leclerc,  and  the  more  recent  studies  of  Zuntz  and  his 
associates.  Wolff's  experiments  were  with  a  sweep-power  con- 
structed to  act  as  a  dynamometer  so  that  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed could  be  measured.  Zuntz,  in  conjunction  with  Lehmann 

1  Konig,  Chem.  d.  mensch.  Nahr.  u.  Genuss-mittel,  1904,  Vol.  II,  pp.  602,  663. 
-  Lehrb.  d.  Milchwirtschaft,  1901,  p.  65. 

3  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  31, 1885,  p.  354. 

4  Milch.  Ztg.,  26, 1897,  p.  647. 


252  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  Hagemann,  conducted  hundreds  of  tests  with  horses  working  on 
a  tread-pcwer  so  constructed  that  the  distance  traveled  and  the  work 
performed  were  accurately  measured.  The  animals  breather  thru 
a  tube  inserted  in  the  windpipe,  by  which  means  the  oxygen  in- 
haled and  the  carbon  dioxid  exhaled  were  accurately  determined. 
(107)  To  such  gaseous  intake  and  outgo  was  added  that  which 
passed  thru  the  skin  and  vent,  as  determined  by  placing  the  animal 
in  a  Pettenkofer  respiration  apparatus.  (61) 

390.  Work. — The  "foot-pound"  and  "foot-ton"  are  terms  which 
denote  the  work  done  in  lifting  a  weight  of  1  Ib.  or  1  ton  1  ft. 
against  the  force  of  gravity.  When  the  rate  at  which  the  work  is 
done  is  taken  into  consideration  the  unit  used  is  the  horse  power. 
A  horse  power  (H.  P.)  is  a  power  which  can  lift  a  weight  of  1  Ib. 
at  the  rate  of  33,000  ft.  per  minute.  If  by  means  of  rope  and  pul- 
leys a  horse  raises  a  bucket  of  water  weighing  100  Ibs.  from  a  well 
330  ft.  deep  in  1  minute,  it  exerts  a  force  equal  to  1  H.  P.  The 
pull  or  draft  exerted  by  the  horse  may  be  measured  by  a  dynamom- 
eter, a  crude  form  of  which  is  a  spring  balance  placed  between  the 
singletree  or  evener  and  the  vehicle  or  object  on  which  the  pull  is 
exerted.  According  to  King,1  the  maximum  pulling  power  of  a 
horse  when  walking  on  a  good  road  is  about  one-half  its  weight,  but 
for  steady  and  continuous  work  for  10  hours  per  day  and  at  the 
rate  of  2.5  miles  per  hour  the  pull  should  not  be  more  than  one- 
eighth  or  one-tenth  the  weight  of  the  animal.  The  work  performed 
by  horses  of  different  weights  would  accordingly  be  as  follows: 

Work  performed  per  day  ~by  horses  of  various  weights. 


Power  produced 

Work  done  per  day 

800-lb.  horse  ._  

Horse-power 
0.53-0.67 

Foot-tons 
5,  247-  6.  633 

1000-lb.  horse  

0.67-0.83 

6,633-  8,217 

1200-lb.  horse  

0.80-1.00 

7,920-  9,900 

L400-lb.  horse 

0.  93-1.  17 

9,207-11,583 

1600-lb.  horse 

1.06-1.33 

10,  494-13,  167 

The  table  shows  that  a  1000-lb.  horse  will  develop  0.67-0.83  H.  P., 
and  will  do  from  6,633  to  8,217  ft.-tons  of  work  when  working  10 
hours  per  day,  heavier  horses  performing  proportionately  more 
work. 

1  Physics  of  Agriculture,  p.  490.  -  Loc.  cit.,  p.  436. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse. 


253 


According  to  King,2  the  draft  required  to  haul  a  4-wheel  wagon 
on  various  types  of  road  is  approximately  as  follows : 

Character  of  road  Lbs.  draft  required  per  ton 

Common  earth 75  to  224 

Gravel 75  to  140 

Macadam 55  to    67 

Woodblock 28  to    44 

Plank . 25  to    44 

This  shows  that  it  requires  a  draft  of  75  to  224  Ibs.,  or  a  pull  of 
this  amount  as  measured  on  a  spring  balance  placed  between  horse 
and  load,  to  draw  a  load  of  a  ton,  including  wagon,  on  a  country 
earth  road,  while  on  a  plank  road  the  draft  is  but  25  to  44  Ibs. 

The  ox  draws  a  load  equal  to  the  horse,  but  ordinarily  at  only 
two-thirds  the  speed.  A  man's  work  is  usually  from  one-sixth  to 
one-tenth  of  a  horse  power,  or  about  one-fifth  that  of  an  average 
horse.  For  a  minute  or  two  he  can  do  a  full  horse  power  or  more. 

391.  Digestion  trials. — Since  there  have  been  relatively  few  diges- 
tion trials  with  the  horse,  we  are  often  obliged  to  use  for  this  ani- 
mal the  coefficients  of  digestibility  obtained  with  the  ox  or  sheep. 
(58)  While  the  horse  digests  the  easily  digestible  feeds  about  as 
completely  as  do  the  ruminants,  it  falls  below  them  in  ability  to 
digest  the  more  difficultly  digestible  feeding  stuffs,  as  is  shown  in 
the  following  table  from  Wolff:1 

Digestion  coefficients  of  common  feeds  for  the  horse  and  sheep  compared. 


Dry 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Corn 
Horse 

Per  cent 

89 
89 

67 
71 

58 
59 

51 
56 

51 
64 

23 

48 

Per  cent 

77 
79 

79 
80 

73 
71 

56 

56 

62 
65 

19 

Per  cent 

70 
62 

20 
30 

40 
45 

37 
50 

42 

63 

27 
59 

Per  cent 

94 
91 

74 
76 

70 
66 

64 
61 

57 

65 

18 
37 

Per  cent 

61 

85 

70 

83 

14 
41 

29 
56 

20 
54 

Sheep 

Oats 
Horse 

Sheep 

Alfalfa  hay  (excellent  quality) 
Horse    _.  __  __  ___ 

Sheep 

Clover  hay 
Horse 

Sheep 

Meadow  hay  (good  quality) 
Horse 

Sheep  

Whent  straw 
Horse  -     

Sheep 

44 

1Land.  Vers.  Stat.,  20,  1877;   21,  1878;  Landw.  Jahrb.,  8,  Sup.  I    1879;   10, 
1881;  12,  1884. 


254 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


It  is  shown  that  the  horse  digests  corn,  which  is  low  in  fiber, 
equally  well  as  does  the  sheep.  On  the  other  hand,  it  digests  oats 
and  hay,  which  contain  considerable  fiber,  less  completely.  Of 
the  dry  matter  of  wheat  straw  the  horse  digests  only  23  per  ct., 
while  the  sheep  digests  48  per  ct.  Both  animals  digest  crude  pro- 
tein about  equally  well,  but  the  digestive  powers  of  the  horse  are 
markedly  lower  for  fiber  and  fat.  (60) 

392.  Influence  of  work  on  digestibility. — Grandeau  and  Leclerc,1 
on  feeding  three  950-  to  1000-lb.  horses  of  the  Paris  Cab  Company 
rations  composed  of  about  three-fourths  grain  and  one-fourth  hay 
and  straw,  obtained  the  following  digestion  coefficients: 

Digestion  coefficients  for  the  horse  at  rest  and  at  work. 


State  of  the  horse 

No.  of 
trials 

Organic 
matter 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

At  rest  -     

21 
3 
3 
3 

6 

Per  cent 
72 
72 
70 
69 
67 

Per  cent 
74 
74 
72 
69 
67 

Per  cent 
46 
44 
39 
40 
33 

Per  cent 
77 
77 
75 
76 
73 

Per  cent 
58 
59 
62 
53 
55 

Walking,  no  work  .  .  _ 

Work  at  a  walk 

Trot,  no  work 

Work  at  a  trot 

The  table  shows  that  the  horse  digests  his  ration  as  well  when 
walking  12  miles  per  day  as  when  at  rest.  When  the  horse  worked 
at  a  walking  pace,  there  was  a  slight  depression  in  the  digestibility 
of  the  ration,  and  when  it  worked  hard  at  a  trot  the  depression 
amounted  to  as  much  as  5  per  ct.  of  the  organic  matter,  7  per  ct. 
of  the  protein,  and  13  per  ct.  of  the  fiber.  Exercise  and  work 
affect  the  digestion  of  the  fiber  of  feeding  stuffs  more  than  that  of 
the  other  constituents,  doubtless  because  the  fiber,  which  is  di- 
gested principally  in  the  colon  or  large  intestine,  is  hurried  thru 
this  organ  by  the  motion  of  the  horse  in  action.  (60,  609) 

393.  True  maintenance  requirement. — It  cannot  be  assumed  that 
the  true  maintenance  ration  of  the  horse  has  been  found  when  the 
intake  of  the  body  equals  the  outgo,  as  with  the  ox  and  sheep. 
(96)  Kellner2  points  out  that  any  excess  of  nutrients  supplied  the 
idle  horse  above  maintenance  will  not  usually  be  wholly  stored  as 
flesh  or  fat,  for  confined  horses,  even  of  quiet  temperament,  dissi- 
pate more  or  less  energy  thru  restlessness  and  activities,  so  that  a 
ration  which  may  barely  maintain  them  is  really  somewhat  in  ex- 
cess of  the  theoretical  requirement. 

1  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.,  1884,  Vol.  II,  p.  235.        2  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  447. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse.  255 

Either  of  two  methods  may  be  employed  in  determining  the  true 
maintenance  ration  for  the  horse : 

(1)  Gradually  increasing  amounts  of  a  given  feed  are  supplied 
during  successive  periods,  in  each  of  which  the  maximum  amount 
of  work  the  horse  can  perform  on  the  allowance  and  still  maintain 
his  weight  is  ascertained.     Thereby  the  nutrients  required  for  the 
performance  of  a  given  amount  of  wrork  are  found.    By  substraet- 
ing  the  nutrients  expended  in  the  work  done  during  any  period 
from  the  total  nutrients  supplied  in  that  period,  the  net  mainte- 
nance requirement  is  determined. 

(2)  The  horse  at  rest  is  first  insufficiently  fed  as  shown  by  a  de- 
creasing body  weight.     Then  after  a  time  the  supply  of  nutrients 
is  gradually  increased  until  bare  body  equilibrium  is  established. 

Using  the  latter  method,  Grandeau  and  Leclerc1  were  able  to 
maintain  the  weight  of  3  horses  getting  walking  exercise  for  half 
an  hour  daily  on  a  ration  of  17.6  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay,  which  supplied 
6.1  Ibs.  of  digestible  nutrients,  or  7  Ibs.  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 

Using  the  first  method,  Zuntz2  and  his  colleagues  found  the  aver- 
age maintenance  requirements  of  the  1100-lb.  horse  to  be  as  fol-^ 
lows : 

Lbs.  Therms* 

Digestible  nutrients  required  to  warm  the  body 7. 06  12. 7 

Nutrients  required  for  the  upkeep  of  the  body,  finally 
changed  into  heat 2.43  4.4 

Digestible  nutrients  needed  to  furnish  the  remainder 
of  heat  necessary  to  warm  the  body,  by  difference  .4.63  8. 3 

*  In  this  table  1  Ib.  digestible  nutrients,  including  fat  multiplied  by  2.4, 
equals  1.8  therms.  Scientists  have  disagreed  as  to  the  relative  fuel  value  of 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  Zuntz  in  his  work  assigns  to  fat  2.4  times  the  fuel 
value  of  the  carbohydrates.  It  is  now  generally  held  that  the  factor  should 
be  2.25,  which  factor  is  used  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

By  this  method  it  is  shown  that  to  maintain  the  weight  of  the 
1100-lb.  horse  when  doing  no  work  required  a  ration  containing  7.06 
Ibs.  of  digestible  nutrients.  This  is  the  amount  of  food  fuel  re- 
quired to  properly  warm  the  body.  Of  this  amount  2.43  Ibs.  was 
used  in  the  internal  work  of  the  body  and  in  repairing  the  body 
tissues,  exclusive  of  the  energy  expended  in  masticating  and  di- 
gesting the  ration,  and  hence  was  required  in  the  form  of  net 
nutrients.  (70)  Nutrients  so  consumed  are  ultimately  converted 
into  heat  and  thus  help  to  warm  the  body.  Subtracting  2.43  Ibs. 

1  Warington,  London  Live  Stock  Journal,  1894,  p.  9. 

2  Land.  Jahrb.,  27, 1898,  Sup.  Ill,  pp.  422-426. 


256  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

from  7.06  Ibs.,  there  remains  4.63  Ibs.,  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  which  were  required  to  furnish  the  remainder  of  the  heat 
needed  to  warm  the  body.  Since  the  energy  used  in  masticating 
and  digesting  the  ration  is  also  finally  changed  into  heat  in  the 
body,  the  nutrients  used  for  this  purpose  are  not  wasted  but  help 
in  warming  the  body.  Hence  the  heat  generated  in  the  body  as  a 
result  of  the  internal  work  and  the  work  of  masticating  and  di- 
gesting the  ration  may  be  enough  to  properly  warm  the  body,  and 
no  nutrients  need  then  be  burned  up  in  the  body  simply  as  fuel. 

Feeds  such  as  poor  hay,  corn  stover,  and  straw,  which  contain 
relatively  little  net  energy,  are  lower  in  price  than  concentrates 
which  supply  much  net  energy.  It  is  therefore  usually  most  eco- 
nomical to  formulate  a  ration  for  maintenance  made  up  so  far  as 
possible  of  such  roughages.  So  long  as  2.43  Ibs.  of  net  nutrients 
are  furnished  for  the  upkeep  of  the  body,  the  other  digestible 
nutrients  in  the  maintenance  ration  for  the  1000-lb.  horse  may  be 
used  up  in  the  work  of  digesting,  masticating,  and  assimilating  the 
feed.  The  net  nutrients  expended  in  external  work  and  the  nutri- 
ents used  up  in  the  work  of  digestion,  mastication,  and  assimila- 
tion will  then  furnish  sufficient  heat  to  warm  the  body. 

394.  Minimum  protein  requirement. — In   experiments   by  Gran- 
deau  and  Leclerc,1  3  horses  maintained  their  weight  for  4  or  5 
months  on  a  ration  of  meadow  hay  furnishing  an  average  of  0.54 
Ib.  of  digestible  protein  daily  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight,  the  hay  of 
course  containing  some  amids  beside  the  true  protein.     One  of  the 
horses  gained  5  Ibs.  in  2  months  on  a  daily  allowance  of  only  0.45 
Ib.   of   digestible   protein   per   1000   Ibs.    live   weight.     In   another 
case  an  allowance  of  0.37  Ib.  of  digestible  protein  daily  per  1000 
Ibs.   of  live  weight  proved  insufficient   to   maintain  the   nitrogen 
equilibrium.     Evidently  the  minimum  protein  requirement  for  the 
horse  ranges  from  0.4  to  0.6  Ib.  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight,  which 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  resting  ox  as  determined  by  Armsby. 
"We  may  therefore  hold  that  about  0.45  Ib.  of  digestible  protein 
constitutes    the    minimum    daily   maintenance    allowance    of    that 
nutrient  for  the  1000-lb.  resting  horse.    (97) 

395.  The  nutritive  ratio. — We  have  seen  that  under  normal  condi- 
tions the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients — carbohydrates  and  fats — fur- 
nish the  energy  necessary  for  the  production  of  muscular  work, 
and  that  no   more  protein  tissue  is  usually  broken   down   during 

1  Warington,  London  Live  Stock  Journal,  1884.  p.  9. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse.  257 

work  than  during  rest.  (109)  Hence,  as  Kellner1  points  out,  there 
is  a  great  similarity  between  the  nutrient  requirement  of  mature 
working  and  mature  fattening  animals.  After  growth  is  completed 
and  the  protein  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body  have  reached  full 
size,  both  working  and  fattening  animals  need  only  so  much  crude 
protein  in  their  food  in  excess  of  maintenance  requirements  as  is 
necessary  to  insure  complete  digestion  of  the  ration.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  nutrient  requirements,  whether  for  producing  fat 
with  the  ox  or  performing  work  with  the  horse,  may  be  met  thru  a 
sufficient  supply  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  (97)  Accordingly  a  nar- 
row nutritive  ratio  is  not  essential  with  the  work  horse.  (131)  Gran- 
deau  and  Alekan2  found  that  when  horses  working  at  a  trot  were  fed 
rations  of  corn,  sugar,  and  oat  straw,  furnishing  but  little  crude 
protein  and  having  extremely  wide  ratios,  varying  from  1 : 21  to 
1 : 28,  the  ration  still  contained  sufficient  digestible  crude  protein  to 
keep  them  in  excellent  condition.  Kellner3  found  that  horses  were 
able  to  perform  hard  labor  without  deterioration  on  a  ration  having  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  1:9.  Grandeau  fed  3  horses  during  a  whole  year, 
sometimes  on  a  ration  of  horse  beans  and  straw  having  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1:3,  and  again  on  one  of  Indian  corn  and  straw  having  a 
ratio  of  1 : 10.  While  on  these  rations  the  horses  were  either  resting 
in  the  stall,  exercising  at  a  walk  or  trot,  working  on  a  sweep  at  a 
walk  or  trot,  or  finally  working  before  the  carriage.  The  effect  of 
the  rations  was  about  the  same  in  all  cases,  and  any  difference  was 
in  favor  of  the  corn-and-straw  ration  having  the  wider  ratio.  These 
and  other  experiments,  as  well  as  practical  experience,  show  that  the 
nutritive  ratio  for  work  horses  may  vary  widely  without  injury  so 
long  as  the  minimum  requirement  of  crude  protein  is  satisfied. 
Kellner*  states  that  the  only  exception  ,to  this  rule  are  animals  which 
have  not  finished  their  growth  and  those  undergoing  severe  exertion 
at  a  rapid  pace.  Such  exertion  necessitates  an  unusually  abundant 
supply  of  oxygen  to  the  muscles.  Hence  the  blood,  which  is  the  car- 
rier of  oxygen,  should  be  increased  in  quantity  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  this  can  be  brought  about  only  thru  a  liberal  supply  of  crude 
protein.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  nutritive  ratio  as  narrow  as 
1 : 7  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  Horses  which  are  in  low  condi- 
tion and  must  gain  in  weight  and  muscle  before  they  are  fit  for 
hard  work  must  of  course  receive  a  liberal  supply  of  crude  protein. 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  443.    3  Landw.  Jahrb.,  9,  p.  665. 
'  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.,  1901,  II,  p.  38.  *  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1007,  p.  430. 

18 


258  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

396.  The  work  of  the  horse. — That  work  which  the  horse  per- 
forms may  be  resolved  into: 

(1)  Locomotion,  or  advancing  the  body  along  a  level  course. 

(2)  Lifting  the  body,  with  or  without  a  load,  against  the  force 
of  gravity  in  ascending  a  grade. 

(3)  Carrying  a  load. 

(4)  Draft,  or  hauling  a  load. 

Zuntz1  determined  the  amount  of  energy  expended  in  these  vari- 
ous forms  of  work  at  different  speeds  and  under  varying  conditions. 
His  more  important  findings  are  presented  in  articles  which  follow. 

397.  Locomotion. — The  horse  weighing  1100  Ibs.  including  har- 
ness expends  the  following  amounts  of  energy  in  moving  his  body 
1  mile  along  a  level  road  at  various  speeds: 

Walking"  at  a  speed  of  2. 9  miles  per  hour 0. 26  therm 

Walking  at  a  speed  of  3. 4  miles  per  hour 0. 29  therm 

Walking  at  a  speed  of  3. 7  miles  per  hour 0. 32  therm 

Trotting  at  a  speed  of  7. 3  miles  per  hour 0. 44  therm 

It  is  shown  that  increasing  the  walking  speed  causes  a  consider- 
able increase  in  the  amount  of  energy  expended  in  moving  a  mile. 
Trotting  at  a  speed  of  7.3  miles  per  hour  causes  the  expenditure  of 
69  per  ct.  more  energy  than  walking  at  a  speed  of  2.9  miles  per  hour. 

Since  in  locomotion  the  body  of  the  horse  is  alternately  raised  and 
lowered,  it  is  difficult  to  measure  the  actual  amount  of  mechanical 
work  performed  in  order  to  compare  it  with  the  energy  expended. 
Computations  by  Zuntz  indicate  that  about  35  per  ct.  of  the  total 
energy  expended  by  the  horse  moving  on  the  level  is  actually  trans- 
formed into  the  external  work  of  advancing  his  body,  the  remainder 
of  the  energy  producing  no  external  work,  but  taking  the  form  of 
heat.  (112) 

398.  Influence  of  grade. — When  the  tread  power  was  set  so  that 
the  walking  horse  ascended  a  grade  of  10.7  ft.  in  100  at  a  speed  of 
3.1  miles  per  hour,  Zuntz  found  that  more  than  3  times  as  much  en- 
ergy was  expended  as  when  walking  the  same  distance  on  the  level 
at  a  slightly  faster  pace.    When  the  still  steeper  grade  of  18.1  ft.  in 
100  was  ascended  on  the  tread  power  at  a  speed  of  only  2.8  miles 
per  hour,  nearly  5  times  as  much  energy  was  expended  as  when  mov- 
ing on  a  level  course. 

In  going  down  a  gentle  incline,  owing  to  the  pull  of  gravity,  less 
energy  was  expended  than  in  moving:  on  a  level  road,  resulting  in  a 

1  Landw.  Jahrb.,  27,  Sup.  Ill ;  Kellner,  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse.  259 

saving  of  nutrients,  such  saving  being  greatest  when  the  down  grade 
was  about  5  ft.  in  100.  If  the  grade  was  steeper  than  this,  the  horse 
expended  energy  in  bracing  himself  to  check  too  rapid  progress. 
When  the  downward  grade  reached  10  ft.  in  100,  as  much  energy  was 
expended  as  when  traveling  on  a  level,  and  on  a  still  steeper  down 
^rade  the  amount  of  energy  expended  was  greater  than  that  expended 
on  the  level. 

399.  Lifting  the  body. — Zuntz  found  that  a  horse  walking  at  a 
speed  of  3.1  miles  per  hour  on  a  tread  power  having  a  grade  of  10.7 
feet  in  100  expended  1.89  Cal.,  or  0.00189  therm,  of  energy  per  ft.- 
ton  in  raising  the  body  against  the  force  of  gravity     This  sum  is  in 
excess  of  the  energy  which  would  have  been  expended  if  the  horse 
had  been  moving  on  a  level  course.   It  means  that  in  ascending  a  hill 
having  a  grade  of  10.7  ft.  per  100,  the  1000-lb.  horse  does  1  ft.-ton  of 
work  in  raising  his  body  2  ft.,  expending  1.89  Cal.  in  performing 
such  work.     On  this  grade  34  per  ct.  of  the  energy  expended  ap- 
peared in  the  external  work  done  in  raising  the  body.     The  rest  of 
the  energy  used  up  produced  no  external  work  but  was  changed  into 
heat.    When  moving  at  a  speed  of  2.8  miles  per  hour  on  the  steeper 
grade  of  18.1  ft.  in  100,  2  per  ct.  more  energy  was  expended  per 
ft.-ton  than  upon  the  gentler  grade. 

400.  Carrying  a  load. — When  carrying  a  load  the  horse  expends 
energy  in  addition  to  that  required  for  merely  moving  his  body,  as 
the  following  by  Zuntz  shows.     Upon  loading  the  saddle  with  about 
275  Ibs.  of  lead  plates,  8  per  ct.  more  energy  was  expended  when 
walking  at  a  speed  of  3.4  miles  an  hour  than  when  no  load  was  car- 
ried.   Trotting  at  a  speed  of  6.9  miles  per  hour  with  the  load  caused 
an  expenditure  of  about  10  per  ct.  more  energy  than  trotting  at  the 
same  speed  with  no  load. 

401.  Draft. — Zuntz  found  that  after  deducting  the  energy  neces- 
sary for  moving  the  body  along  a  level  course,  2.1  Cal.,  or  0.0021 
therm,  was  required  per  ft.-ton  of  draft  performed  by  the  horse. 
Of  the  total  energy  used  up  in  the  body  for  performing  a  given 
amount  of  draft,  only  31  per  ct.  resulted  in  draft,  as  shown  by  the 
dynamometer,  the  remainder  taking  the  form  of  heat.    We  thus  see 
that  in  performing  draft  the  horse  is  not  able  to  turn  as  large  a  part 
of  the  energy  used  up  in  his  body  into  mechanical  work  as  he  does  in 
moving  his  body  along  a  level  course  or  in  raising  it  against  the 
force  of  gravity.    In  other  words,  he  is  able  to  perform  mechanical 
work  less  economically  in  hauling  a  load  than  in  moving  his  own 
body.     In  drawing  a  load  up  a  grade  of  8.5  ft.  in  100  but  23  per  ct. 


260  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

of  the  energy  expended  for  draft  was  utilized  in  the  work  performed. 
When  performing  draft  up  that  grade  more  work  was  done  per 
minute,  and  this  led  to  an  increase  in  the  rapidity  of  breathing  and 
the  over-exertion  of  certain  groups  of  muscles,  with  the  result  that 
more  energy  was  wasted  as  heat  and  less  was  utilized  in  moving  the 
load. 

402.  Net  nutrients  needed  in  work.— Zuntz,  studying  the  1100-lb. 
horse  carrying  a  44-lb.  harness,   found  the  net  nutrients  (70)    re- 
quired for  the  performance  of  various  kinds  of  work,  in  addition  to 
those  required  for  maintenance,  to  be  as  follows: 

Net  nutrients 
required 

Traveling  1  mile  on  the  level  Lbs. 

At  a  walking  speed  of  2. 5  miles  per  hour 0. 134 

At  a  walking-  speed  of  3. 5  miles  per  hour 0. 169 

At  a  trotting  speed  of  6. 6  to  7. 6  miles  per  hour 0. 254 

Traveling  1  mile  when  carrying  a  load  of  220  Ibs.  at 

Walking- speed  of  3. 4  miles  per  hour 0.210 

Trotting  speed  of  6. 9  miles  per  hour 0. 323 

Raising  his  body  100  feet 

In  climbing  incline  of  10. 7  percent 0.060 

In  climbing  incline  of  18.1  per  cent 0.062 

Lowering  body  100  ft.  on  a  road  with  a  5  per  cent  dip,   compared   with 

traveling  on  the  levelt  saves 0.025 

Work  of  ascent  per  1000  ft.-tons 

On  an  incline  of  10. 7  per  cent 1.050 

On  an  incline  of  18. 1  per  cent 1.072 

Draft  on  level  per  1000  ft.-tons,  not  including  locomotion  of  body 1.157 

By  means  of  the  above  table  a  given  amount  of  work  done  by  the 
horse  may  be  resolved  into  its  factors,  so  tKat  the  nutrients  required 
for  its  production  may  be  estimated  and  a  suitable  ration  formed. 
The  table  is  of  theoretical  rather  than  practical  interest,  however, 
because  the  work  of  most  horses  varies  greatly  from  day  to  day;  con- 
sequently it  is  impossible  to  more  than  roughly  set  forth  the  nutri- 
ents required. 

Kellner1  expresses  in  starch  values  the  net  nutrient  requirement  of 
the  1100-lb.  working  horse  as  follows: 

Starch  values 

Light  work 10.1  pounds 

Medium  work 12.8  pounds 

Hard  work _ 16.5  pounds 

403.  True  value  of  feeds.— The  true  value  of  different  feeds  for 
the  horse  is  not  based  merely  on  their  content  of  digestible  nutrients, 
since,  as  we  have  seen,  a  varying  percentage  of  their  total  energy  is 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  453. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse. 


261 


used  up  in  the  work  of  mastication  and  digestion.  By  subtracting 
the  energy  thus  expended  from  the  total  energy  furnished  by  the 
digestible  portion  of  any  feed  its  net  nutritive  value  may  be  found. 
With  the  resting  animal  the  energy  of  the  food  expended  in  mastica- 
tion and  digestion  serves,  within  certain  limits,  to  maintain  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  after  its  conversion  into  heat;  but  for  pro- 
ducing external  work,  only  that  net  portion  of  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents which  remain  after  the  work  of  mastication  and  digestion  has 
been  performed  is  of  value.  (71) 

According  to  Zuntz,1  the  1100-lb.  horse  when  moving  on  a  prac-» 
tically  level  road  will  produce  about  864.4  ft.-tons  of  work  in  draft 
for  each  pound  of  net  nutrients  consumed  in  addition  to  the  main- 
tenance requirement.  In  accordance  with  such  conclusion  the  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  possible  work  various  feeding  stuffs  will  yield 
when  fed  to  the  horse  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  for  its  main- 
tenance : 

Possible  work  from  1  Ib.  of  various  feeds  when  fed  to  the  horse. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Contained  in  the  feed 

Nutrients 
required  for 
mastication 
and  digestion 

Net 
nutrients 
remaining 

Possible 
work  from 
1  Ib.  of  feed 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible 
nutrients 

Fiber 

Corn    

Per  cent 
87 
86 
86 
88 
87 
84 
25 
85 
84 
15 
86 

Per  cent 
78.5 
72.0 
68.7 
69.0 
61.5 
45.3 
22.6 
39.1 
40.7 
11.3 
18.1 

Per  cent 
1.7 
6.9 
5.9 
9.4 
10.3 
26.6 
1.0 
26.0 
30.2 
1.6 
42.0 

Lbs. 
0.082 
0.111 
0.102 
0.125 
0.124 
0.219 
0.027 
0.209 
0.239 
0.021 
0.297 

Lbs. 
0.703 
0.609 
0.586 
0.565 
0.491 
0.234 
0.199 
0.182 
0.168 
0.092 
—0.116 

Ft.-tons 
607.7 
526.4 
506.5 
488.4 
424.4 
202.3 
1172.0 
157.3 
145.2 
79.5 
—100.3 

Horse  bean  

Peas 

Linseed  cake___ 
Oats 

Alfalfa  hay  
Potatoes 

Meadow  hay  _  .  . 
Clover  hay  . 

Carrots  

Wheat  straw.  __ 

The  table  shows  that  after  supplying  the  horse  with  sufficient  feed 
to  maintain  the  body  when  at  rest,  each  additional  pound  of  corn 
supplied,  up  to  the  capacity  of  the  animal,  will  furnish  energy  suf- 
ficient to  produce  607.7  ft.-tons  of  external  work,  or  enough  to  lift 
a  weight  of  one  ton  607.7  ft.  against  the  pull  of  gravity.  Because 
of  its  high  per  cent  of  digestible  nutrients  and  its  low  content  of 
fiber,  Jndian  corn  is  the  most  potential  of  all  the  given  feeds  for  the 
production  of  work. 

1  Landw.  Jahrb.  27, 1898,  Sup.  Ill,  p.  431. 


262  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Feeds  containing  much  fiber,  such  as  hay  and  straw,  furnish  cor- 
respondingly less  net  food  for  the  production  of  external  work.  The 
table  shows  that  masticating  and  digesting  wheat  straw  requires 
more  energy  than  the  straw  supplies.  Hence  the  table  shows  a  neg- 
ative value  of  — 100.3  ft.-tons  for  1  Ib.  of  wheat  straw.  However,  so 
long  as  the  work  of  masticating  and  digesting  a  ration  containing 
straw  does  not  altogether  consume  more  energy  than  is  necessary  to 
furnish  sufficient  heat  to  warm  the  body,  the  straw  in  such  a  ration 
has  a  positive  value  corresponding  to  its  content  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents. On  the  other  hand,  when  the  energy  used  in  masticating  and 
digesting  a  ration  containing  straw  furnishes  more  heat  than  the 
body  needs,  then  the  energy  of  the  straw  is  wasted  and  its  pres- 
ence in  the  ration  may  be  deleterious.  This  helps  to  explain  why 
straw  is  useful  in  the  ration  of  horses  doing  light  or  slow  work  and  is 
of  no  value  or  even  detrimental  in  the  ration  of  horses  at  rapid  or 
hard  work. 

404.  Computing  rations. — Two  examples  are  here  presented 
showing  the  manner  in  which  rations  may  be  computed  from  the 
preceding  data: 

(1)  A  maintenance  ration. — The  amount  of  meadow  hay  required 
to  maintain  the  1100-lb.  horse  when  at  rest  is  thus  calculated: 

7.06  Ibs.  diges.  nutr.  required  for  maintenance  (303)     1Q  .,  ,,  - 

— ^ — Ti • — ^ — TT j 1 / * nn\ ==  -Lo.j_  IDS..  arnounL  01 

0.391  Ib.  diges.  nutr.  in  1  Ib.  meadow  hay  (4O3)  jiay  required. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  maintenance  ration  must  contain  at 
least  2.43  Ibs.  of  net  nutrients.  (393)  Since  1  Ib.  of  the  hay  fur- 
nishes 0.182  Ib.  of  net  nutrients,  (403)  18.1  Ibs.  of  hay  will  furnish 
0.182  times  18.1  Ibs.,  or  3.3  Ibs.  The  ration  of  18.1  Ibs.  of  hay  will 
thus  furnish  net  nutrients  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  minimum  re- 
quirement. As  shown  before,  this  amount  of  hay  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  warm  the  body. 

(2)  A  work  ration. — If  an  1100-lb.  farm  horse  is  required  to  haul 
a  load  of  1  ton  20  miles  per  day  on  a  level  road  at  a  speed  of  2.9 
miles  per  hour,  the  average  draft  being  100  Ibs.,  the  work  performed 
will  be: 

100  (Ibs.  draft)  x  5,280  (ft.  per  mile)  x  10  (miles)  =  10,560,000  ft. -Ibs.  =  5, 2 80 
ft.-tons. 

During  each  day  the  horse  will  thus  perform  5,280  ft.-tons  of  draft 
in  hauling  1  ton  20  miles.  Accordingly,  for  locomotion,  draft,  and 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse.  263 

maintenance  the  following  net  nutrients  must  be  supplied  in  the 
daily  ration : 

Net  nutrients 

For  20  miles  locomotion  (0.134x20)  (4O2) 2.68  Ibs. 

For  5,280  f t.-tons  draft  (1. 157  x  5,280)  (4O2) 6. 11  Ibs. 

For  maintenance  (exclusive  of  work  of  mastication  and 
digestion)  (393) 2. 43  Ibs. 


Total -  11. 22  Ibs. 

If  10  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay  and  10  Ibs.  of  oats  be  chosen  for  the  basal 
ration,  the  computations  would  be  as  follows:  (403) 

Net  nutrients 

Total  requirement 11 . 22  Ibs. 

In  10  Ibs.  meado w  hay  (0.182  Ib.x  10)  ..     1.82  Ibs. 

In  10  Ibs.  oats  (0.491  Ib.x  10) 4.91  Ibs. 


Total  basal  ration  _  _  6 . 73  Ibs. 


Remainder  to  be  supplied 4.49  Ibs. 

We  may  supply  the  lacking  4.49  Ibs.  of  net  nutrients  by  adding 
6.4  Ibs.  corn  (4.49  Ibs. -^-0.703  lb.,  net  nutrients  in  1  lb.,  =-6.4  Ibs.). 
Hence  10  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay,  10  Ibs.  of  oats,  and  6.4  Ibs.  of  corn  will 
furnish  a  satisfactory  ration  for  an  1100-lb.  horse  when  drawing  a 
load  of  a  ton  20  miles  on  a  level  road  at  the  rate  of  2.9  miles  per 
hour. 

405.  Relation  of  speed  to  work. — According  to  Fourier,1  a  good 
horse,  with  the  best  load  for  each  speed,  will  perform  the  maximum 
amount  of  work  at  the  speed  of  about  2  miles  per  hour.  Taking  this 
maximum  as  unity,  he  gives  the  following  as  the  probable  value  of 
work  performed  at  other  speeds : 

Miles  per  hr.  Daily  work  Miles  per  hr.  Daily  work 

1.25                   0.69  6.25                   0.68 

2.00                  1.00  7.50                  0.51 

2.50                  0.99  8.75                  0.33 

3.75                   0.94  10.00                   0.18 

5.00                  0.83  11.25                  0.07 

The  data  show  that  the  horse  is  at  its  best  for  drawing  loads  when 
moving  at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  2.5  miles  per  hour.  As  the  rate  of 
speed  increases  beyond  this,  the  amount  of  energy  which  the  horse 
can  devote  to  drawing  the  load  grows  rapidly  less,  until  when  11.25 
miles  per  hour  is  reached  less  than  0.1  of  the  maximum  work  can 
be  performed. 

1  Thurston,  The  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  a  Prime  Motor,  p.  52. 


264  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Where  the  horse  must  develop  the  maximum  power  continuously 
at  any  considerable  speed,  the  number  of  horses  required  for  a  specific 
work  will  always  be  greatly  increased.  Thus  the  proprietors  of  mail- 
coaches,  even  on  the  admirable  highways  of  Great  Britain,  maintain 
1  horse  per  mile  of  route  for  each  coach,  each  horse  traveling  only  8 
miles  and  working  only  an  hour  or  less  per  day  on  the  average,  4 
horses  drawing  the  loaded  coach  which  weighs  2  tons.  Draft  horses 
moving  2.5  miles  an  hour  are  expected  to  do  7  times  the  work  of 
coach  horses  moving  10  miles  per  hour. 

In  racing,  the  requirement  of  speed  reduces  the  work  performed 
(carrying  the  rider)  to  the  smallest  amount  possible.  Low  writes:1 
"When  it  is  considered  that  an  ounce  of  additional  loading  to  the 
same  horse  may  make  the  difference  of  a  yard  or  more  in  half  a  mile 
of  running,  it  will  be  seen  how  greatly  the  weight  borne  may  affect 
the  issue  in  the  case  of  horses  of  equal  powers."  (Ill) 

406.  Relation  of  speed  to  feed. — Grandeau2  found  that  a  horse 
walking  12.5  miles  per  day  was  kept  in  condition  on  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  19.4  Ibs.  of  hay,  while  a  ration  of  24  Ibs.  was  insufficient 
when  the  same  distance  was  covered  at  a  trot.     A  horse  hauling  a 
load  12.5  miles  daily,  the  draft  performed  being  equivalent  to  1,943 
ft. -tons,  was  sufficiently  nourished  by  a  ration  of  24.6  Ibs.  of  hay, 
while  one  of  36.2  Ibs. — all  the  horse  would  eat — was  not  enough  to 
maintain  its  weight  when  the  same  amount  of  work  was  done  at  a 
trot. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  rapid  labor  is  less  economically  per- 
formed than  slow  labor.  When  a  horse  is  walking  at  a  rapid  speed 
the  work  of  the  heart  is  greatly  increased.  In  trotting  or  galloping 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  body  is  much  greater  than  in  walking,  and 
therefore  a  smaller  part  of  the  energy  expended  is  available  for  pro- 
pelling the  body.  The  temperature  of  the  body  also  rises,  and  much 
heat  is  lost  by  the  evaporation  of  water  thru  the  skin  and  lungs.  The 
proportion  of  food  producing  heat  is  thus  increased,  while  that  ap- 
pearing as  work  is  diminished.  There  are  still  other  reasons  why 
rapid  mechanical  motion  generally  consumes  more  power  than  slow 
motion,  even  when  the  distance  traveled  and  the  weight  moved  are 
the  same. 

407.  Severe  work. — The  horse  at  severe  labor  must  receive  a  large 
supply  of  net  nutrients,  and,  since  its  digestive  organs  are  of  rela- 
tively small  capacity,  the  ration  must  not  have  undue  bulk.     This 

1  The  Breeds  of  the  Domestic  Animals  of  the  British  Isles. 

2  After  Warington,  London  Live  Stock  Journal,  1894,  p.  49. 


Investigations  Concerning  the  Horse.  265 

necessitates  a  ration  composed  largely  of  rich  concentrates,  furnish- 
ing a  high  percentage  of  net  nutrients.  Roughages,  furnishing  rela- 
tively little  net  energy,  are  of  low  value  for  producing  work,  place 
an  increased  burden  on  the  already  hard-worked  animal,  and  hinder 
breathing.  The  more  severe  the  labor,  the  smaller  must  be  the  al- 
lowance of  coarse  feeds.  On  the  other  hand,  some  roughage  must  be 
supplied  even  during  severe  labor.  Kellner1  states  that  roughage 
cannot  be  long  withheld  without  injury.  Horses  fed  no  roughage, 
but  given  an  abundance  of  oats,  which  are  rather  high  in  fiber,  soon 
show  loss  of  appetite  and  impairment  of  digestive  organs.  (428) 

Wolff  cites  the  intense  work  of  the  mail-coach  horses  on  the  route 
from  Plieningen  to  Stuttgart,  Germany.  Two  strongly-built,  spirited 
horses,  in  good  flesh,  draw  a  heavy  mail  coach,  often  carrying  8  pas- 
sengers, up  and  down  the  mountain  road  35  miles  daily,  trotting  at 
the  speed  of  5.4  miles  per  hour.  They  are  fed  daily  22  to  24  Ibs. 
of  oats  mixed  with  cut  straw,  and  hay  without  limit,  of  which  they 
eat  very  little — often  none  at  all.  Under  these  severe  conditions 
these  horses  receive  sufficient  fiber  in  the  oats  and  cut  straw,  and 
hence  instinctively  refuse  hay. 

The  German  army  horse  often  travels  over  40  miles  in  a  day,  one- 
third  of  the  distance  being  at  a  walk,  trot,  and  gallop  respectively. 
This  means  the  performance  of  about  11,900  ft.-tons  of  work.  They 
are  fed  only  5.5  Ibs.  of  hay,  11  Ibs.  of  oats,  and  some  cut  straw,  the 
ration  containing  only  about  8.8  Ibs.  of  digestible  nutrients,  an 
amount  far  below  the  nutritive  requirement.  It  is  therefore  not  hard 
to  understand  why  these  horses  lose  heavily  in  weight  during  the 
maneuvers,  and  that  when  these  are  over  large  numbers  have  to  be 
disposed  of  as  not  suitable  for  military  service. 

408.  Variations  in  body  weight. — Grande au  and  Leclerc2  found 
that  during  exercise  and  work  2  horses  lost  in  weight  as  follows : 

Average  length  Loss  in 

of  period  weight 
Min.  Lbs. 

Walking,  no  work 148  2.3 

Work  at  a  walk 148  4.3 

Trotting,  no  work 79  4.0 

Work  at  a  trot 79  9.3 

The  loss  in  body  weight  by  the  horse  during  exercise  and  work 
is  due  to  the  slight  wear  of  the  muscles,  the  heavier  oxidation  of  the 
nutritive  fluids  of  the  body  during  work,  and  the  largely  increased 
evaporation  of  water. 


1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  455. 

2  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.,  1888,  II,  p.  276. 


266  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  water  evaporated  daily  by  the  horse  with  varying  exercise 
and  diet  was  found  to  be  as  follows : 

Condition  of  horse  Water  evaporated  per  day 

At  rest 6.4  pounds 

Walking  exercise 8.6  pounds 

Work  at  a  walk 12.7  pounds 

Trotting 13.4  pounds 

Work  at  a  trot 20.6  pounds 

In  this  study  the  distance  traveled  and  the  work  done  was  the  same 
in  each  case.  It  is  shown  that  the  horse  when  trotting  gave  off  three 
times  as  much  water  vapor  as  when  at  rest.  Such  losses  diminish 
the  amount  of  energy  available  for  the  production  of  work. 

Rueff,1  studying  the  losses  in  weight,  after  making  corrections  for 
food  and  voidings,  found  that  farm  horses  doing  medium  work  lost 
7.7  Ibs.  each  on  the  average  during  11  hours.  Army  horses  ridden 
for  25  minutes  at  walk,  trot,  and  gallop  lost  4  Ibs.  each  on  the  average. 
An  8-yr.-old  gelding  carrying  a  176-lb.  load  lost  11  Ibs.  in  25  minutes. 
Another  horse  lost  the  same  amount  and  after  24  hours  had  regained 
only  1  Ib.  A  14-yr.-old  blind  stallion  ridden  90  minutes  by  a  rider 
weighing  166  Ibs.  lost  33  Ibs.,  regaining  22  Ibs.  during  the  following 
24  hours.  A  23-yr.-old,  770-lb.  mare  ridden  6  miles  at  a  walk  or  trot 
lost  22  Ibs. 

Boussingault2  found  the  maximum  variation  in  the  weight  of  2 
horses  on  the  same  keep  and  care  during  15  days  to  be  25  and  28  Ibs. 
respectively.  A  horse  put  in  the  scales  each  morning  at  4  o'clock 
after  fasting  weighed  1,051  Ibs.  one  morning,  1,060  Ibs.  the  next  morn- 
ing, and  1,038  Ibs.  the  third  morning.  Boussingault  calls  attention 
to  the  necessity  of  carrying  on  feeding  experiments  for  consider- 
able periods  and  with  several  animals  in  order  to  escape,  or  rather 
lessen,  the  errors  which  are  introduced  into  the  calculations  thru  ac- 
cidental variations  in  the  weights  of  the  animals  studied. 

*Landw.  Wchenbl.  d.  k.  k.  Ackerbaum.,  1870,  109;   v.  Gohren,  Fiittemnges- 
lehre,  1872,  p.  370. 
2  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.,  1884,  II,  p.  330 ;  Eural  Economy,  p.  397. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

FEEDS  FOE  THE  HOUSE. 
I.  CONCENTRATED  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

409.  Oats. — No   other   grain   is  so   keenly  relished   by   the   horse 
and  so  prized  by  horsemen  as  the  oat,  which  serves  as  the  standard 
of  excellence  for  nourishing  this  animal.    Not  only  are  oats  palatable, 
but  the  nutrients  they  contain  are  in  such  proportion  that  this  grain 
alone  forms  almost  a  balanced  ration.     Tho  the  oat  hull  has  little 
nutritive  value,  it  lightens  up  the  feed,  giving  bulk  and  lessening  pos- 
sible errors  in  administering  the  ration  too  liberally.     The  digestive 
tract  cannot  hold  such  a  quantity  of  oats  as  will  ordinarily  produce 
serious  troubles  from  gorging.    Because  of  their  universal  favor  and 
the  wide  demand  for  them,  oats  are  rarely  an  economical  grain,  but 
where  expense  is  not  a  prime  factor  they  easily  hold  first  place.    Only 
hard-worked  horses  and  those  with  poor  teeth  need  have  their  oats 
ground.     New  and  musty  oats  should  be  avoided.     A  safe  rule  is  1 
quart  or  pound  of  oats  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  horse — more  for  the  hard- 
worked  and  less  for  the  idle.  (168) 

410.  Substitutes  for  oats.— While  oats  are  easily  the  best  single 
concentrate,  there  are  many  other  grains  and  by-products  from  the 
grains  which  can  be  successfully  and  economically  employed  in  nur- 
turing the  horse.    On  this  point  Lavalard,1  the  great  French  author- 
ity on  the  alimentation  of  the  horse,  writes:     "Not  only  may  single 
grains  and  other  single  foods  be  substituted  for  oats,  but  more  or 
less  complex  mixtures  may  be  used  as  well.     We  believe  that  both 
from  a  hygienic  and  an  economical  standpoint  our  experiments  have 
settled  this  matter  which  has  provoked  so  much  discussion.     An  ex- 
amination of  the  statistics  we  have  gathered  in  the  last  35  years 
shows  that  altho  a  great  saving  has  been  effected,  it  has  not  been  at 
the  expense  of  the  productive  power  of  the  horses."    With  this  view 
in  mind,  the  several  articles  which  follow  will  present  many  grains 
and  by-products  that  may  be  successfully  fed  to  the  horse. 

411.  Indian  corn. — Next  to  oats,  Indian  corn  (maize)  is  the  com- 
mon grain  for  horses  in  America,  being  most  largely  used  in  the 
middle  and  southern  portions  of  the  corn  belt  and  southward  in  the 

1  Expt.  Sta.  Eec.,  12,  p.  4. 

267 


268 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


cotton  states.  Millions  of  horses  and  mules  on  American  farms  and 
plantations  get  their  strength  from  corn,  not  even  knowing  the  taste 
of  oats.  While  corn  does  not  have  all  of  the  superlative  qualities  of 
oats,  nevertheless  because  of  lower  cost  and  higher  feeding  value  it 
will  always  be  extensively  used  in  this  country  wherever  large  num- 
bers of  horses  must  be  economically  maintained. 

In  all  cases  changes  from  oats  or  other  feeds  to  corn  should  be 
brought  about  very  gradually.  New  corn  may  produce  indigestion. 
The  dent  varieties,  having  more  floury  starch,  are  softer  and  more 
easily  masticated,  tho  no  more  nutritious  than  the  flint  varieties. 
Ear  corn  is  safer  to  feed  than  shelled  corn,  as  the  grain  keeps  best 
on  the  cob,  and  the  horse  eats  corn  on  the  cob  more  slowly  and  chews 
the  grain  more  completely.  The  Paris  Omnibus  Company1  found  it 
advantageous  to  feed  corn-and-cob  meal,  holding  that  the  fiber  of  the 
cobs  made  the  ground  material  more  like  ground  oats  in  fiber  content 
Burkett  of  the  North  Carolina  Station2  found  no  gain  in  corn-and- 
cob  meal  over  ear  corn.  When  there  is  ample  hay  or  other  roughage 
in  the  ration,  it  is  probably  best  to  omit  the  cob,  especially  with  hard- 
worked  horses.  (157) 

412.  Corn  v.  oats. — At  the  Ohio  Station3  Carmichael  fed  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  hay  for  roughage  to  3  farm  teams.  One  horse  in 
each  team  was  given  oats  and  the  other  shelled  corn  in  a  trial  begin- 
ning May  16th  and  lasting  48  weeks,  with  the  results  shown  below : 

Feed  consumed  and  work  done  ~by  corn-fed  and  oat-fed  horses. 


Av. 
initial 
weight 

Av. 

gain 
or 
loss 

Average  ration 

Cost 
of 
feed 

Av. 

daily 
grain 

Cost 
of  feed 
per  hour 
of  work 

Corn 

Oats 

Mixed 
hay 

3  corn-fed  horses 

Lbs. 
1.525 
1,424 

Lbs. 
—3 

f9 

Lbs. 
14.9 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
16.0 
17.3 

Dols. 
50.89 
69.82 

Hrs. 
5.4 
5.3 

Cents 
3.3 
4.5 

3  oat-fed  horses  

14.8 

It  is  shown  that  the  corn-fed  horses  ate  slightly  more  grain  and 
less  hay  than  those  getting  oats.  At  40  cents  per  bu.  for  corn,  30 
cents  for  oats,  and  $8  per  ton  for  hay,  the  corn-fed  horses  cost  $50.89 
for  48  weeks  keep,  while  the  oat-fed  horses  cost  $69.82.  The  feed 
cost  3.3  cents  per  hour  of  work  done  by  the  corn-fed  horses  and  4.5 
cents,  or  about  33  per  ct.  more,  for  the  oat-fed  horses.  Carmichael 
reports  that  during  hot  weather  the  corn-fed  horses  endured  hard 

1  Rec.  Med.  Vet.,  Feb.  1880;  Centbl.  Agr.  Chem.y  1881,  p.  767. 

2  Bui.  189. 
11  Bui.  195. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse.  269 

work  as  well  as  those  fed  oats,  and  that  corn  was  not  detrimental  to 
health  nor  did  it  induce  laziness  or  lack  of  endurance.  He  holds  that 
for  mature  horses  at  general  farm  work  ear  corn  is  as  efficient  as 
the  same  weight  of  oats.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  horses 
used  were  mature  geldings  employed  at  farm  work,  and  that  the 
roughage  fed  was  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay. 

At  the  North  Dakota  Station1  Shepperd  found  that  mules  fed  7.7 
Ibs.  of  mixed  corn  and  oats  gained  0.7  Ib.  daily,  while  on  8.8  Ibs.  of 
oats  they  lost  0.6  Ib.,  the  work  being  the  same  for  all.  Shepperd 
concluded  that  100  Ibs.  of  corn  mixed  with  125  Ibs.  of  oats  had  a 
greater  feeding  value  than  225  Ibs.  of  clear  oats. 

Beginning  in  1874  the  Paris  Omnibus  Company,  employing  nearly 
10,000  horses  averaging  about  1200  Ibs.  each,  conducted  extensive 
feeding  trials  with  Indian  corn.  Feeding  corn  exclusively  was  found 
to  depress  the  spirits  of  the  horses,  and  accordingly  a  mixture  of 
6.6  Ibs.  of  corn  and  12.1  Ibs.  of  oats  was  adopted,  varying  somewhat 
with  different  horses.  Lavalard2  states  that  thru  this  combination 
the  company  effects  a  saving  of  from  $200,000  to  $300,000  yearly. 
The  Paris  Cab  Company,  also  beginning  at  about  the  same  time  to 
feed  corn  in  place  of  oats,  had  such  satisfactory  results  that  it  has 
almost  entirely  ceased  feeding  oats.  Concerning  his  studies  with 
military  horses  Lavalard  writes:  "The  horses  fed  the  corn  ration 
were  used  the  same  number  of  hours  in  military  drill,  and  in  the 
maneuvers  were  ridden  at  the  same  gait  as  those  fed  oats,  and  it  was 
practically  impossible  to  perceive  the  least  difference  in  the  two 
classes.  The  army  officers,  prejudiced  as  they  naturally  were,  were 
forced  to  admit  that  all  the  horses  showed  the  same  energy  and  vigor. 
Careful  records  kept  show  that  sickness  and  mortality  were  the  same 
for  the  horses  on  the  two  rations. " 

After  years  of  study,  covering  the  feeding  of  some  16,000  horses 
in  Paris  and  some  17,000  French  army  horses,  Lavalard3  writes: 
"Experiments  have  demonstrated  that  corn  can  replace  oats  in  the 
ration  of  both  army  and  cavalry  horses,  and  if  substituted  weight 
for  weight,  it  increases  the  nutritive  value  of  the  ration.  This  is  the 
same  deduction  which  .  .  .  was  made  for  the  two  great  cab  com- 
panies of  Paris." 

Many  persons  object  to  corn,  affirming  that  horses  fed  thereon  lack 
nerve  and  action,  sweat  easily,  and  wear  out  earlier,  all  of  which 
may  be  true  in  certain  rather  rare  cases.  The  high  position  of  corn 
1  Bui.  45.  2  Expt.  Sta.  Eec.,  12.  3  Loc.  cit. 


270  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

as  a  horse  feed  is  now  so  well  established  that  instead  of  ignoring  it 
we  should  know  its  place  and  possibilities  and  use  it  accordingly. 

413.  Barley. — This  grain  is  extensively  employed  for  horse  feed- 
ing in  Europe,  especially  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Algiers.     In  this  coun- 
try it  is  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  especially  in  California,  where  it 
is  in  general  use.   At  the  North  Dakota  Station1  Shepperd  fed  about 
12  Ibs.  of  oats  or  whole  barley  to  each  farm  horse  daily  with  timothy 
hay.    The  oat-fed  horses  gained  somewhat  in  weight,  while  those  get- 
ting barley  lost.     The  conclusion  was  that  hard-worked  horses  can- 
not be  quite  so  well  supported  on  barley  as  on  oats.    Lavalard2  con- 
cludes after  20  years'  experience    that    to    replace  oats  a    slightly 
greater  quantity  of  barley  must  be  fed,  and  this  is  especially  true 
when  rations  are  calculated  as  closely  as  they  are  with  army  horses. 
Where  the  horses'  teeth  are  good  and  their  labor  not  severe,  barley 
may  be  fed  whole,  but  it  is  usually  best  to  grind  or,  better,  roll  it. 
Barley  meal  forms  a  pasty,  unpleasant  mass  when  mixed  with  the 
saliva  in  the  mouth.     This  can  be  largely  avoided  by  crushing  the 
grain  to   flattened   discs   between   iron   rollers,    instead   of  grinding 
it.  (171) 

414.  Wheat.— Shepperd  of  the  North  Dakota  Station3  found  that 
whole  wheat  fed  alone  proved  unsatisfactory,   while   two  parts  of 
ground  wheat  mixed  with  one  part  of  wheat  bran,  by  weight,  gave 
good  results.     Lavalard4  states  that  wheat  may  cause  irritation  of 
the  skin  so  that  horses  suffer  greatly.     He  also  speaks  of  accidents 
following  the  feeding  of  wheat.  (161) 

415.  Bye. — Lavalard5  reports  that  the  Paris  Cab  Companies  feed 
rye,  especially  when  cheap,  using  one  part  of  rye  to  four  parts  of 
oats.    Like  wheat  this  grain  should  be  ground  or,  better,  rolled.  (177) 

416.  Kafir,  milo. — In  the  regions  where  they  flourish,  the  seeds 
of  the  various  sorghums  are  extensively  employed  for  horse  feeding, 
tho  somewhat  less  valuable  than  corn.     Being  small  and  hard,  they 
should  be  ground  or  " chopped/'  and  if  possible  mixed  with  bran  or 
middlings,  as  they  tend  somewhat  to  constipation.    These  grains  may 
also  be  fed  unthreshed  in  the  heads  along  with  the  forage.     Morrow 
of  the  Oklahoma  Station6  reports  the  successful  feeding  of  kafir  to 
farm  mules.  (183-4) 

417.  Northern  field  pea.— In  the  northern  portion  of  the   corn 
belt  and  farther  north  the  field  pea  flourishes  and  furnishes  a  val- 
uable concentrate  for  the  nourishment  of  the  horse.    It  should  always 

1  Bnl.  45.  3  Bui.  45.  B  Loc.  cit. 

2  Expt.  Sta.  Kec.,  12.  4  Expt.  Sta.  Kec.,  12.  6  Ept.  1898. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse. 


271 


be  ground  and  mixed  with  corn  meal,  ground  oats,  middlings,  etc. 
At  the  Maine  Station1  Jordan  found  that  draft-type  colts  fed  on 
ground  field  peas  and  wheat  middlings  made  slightly  better  gains 
than  those  fed  oats.  (205) 

418.  Cowpea. — At   the    North   Carolina    Station2    Burkett    found 
cowpea  meal  an  economical  and  satisfactory  substitute  for  one-half 
the  usual  grain  allowance  given  farm  horses  and  mules.  (206) 

419.  Wheat  bran,  middlings,  shorts. — Bran  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  feeds  for  the  horse.     Because  of  its  phosphorus-holding 
phytin  it  is  a  mild  laxative.     If  not  more  freely  used,  it  should  be 
given  at  least  once  weekly,  dry,  wet,  or  steamed,  for  its  beneficial 
effect  on  the  alimentary  tract.     Middlings  and  shorts  are  hardly  so 
desirable  as  bran,  tho  probably  furnishing  as  much  nutriment.   It  is 
not  always  safe  to  feed  them  alone,  as  they  tend  to  produce  colic 
with  some  horses.     All  these  valuable  milling  by-products  are  best 
fed  in  combination  with  other  concentrates — corn,  oats,  barley,  dried 
brewers'  grains,  etc.  (165-6) 

420.  Wheat  bran  v.  oats. — At  the  New  Hampshire  Station3  Bur- 
kett fed  4  farm  wrork  horses  12  Ibs.  each  of  timothy  hay  daily  during 
the  summer  season.     All  were  fed  7  Ibs.  of  corn  each  daily,  and 
either  7  Ibs.  of  oats  or  7  Ibs.  of  bran  additional,  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  table. 

Wheat  bran  and  corn  compared  with  oats  and  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  weight 
at  beginning1 

Average 
gain 

Average 
work  done 

Lot  I 
Timothy  hay,  12  Ibs. 
Corn,  7  Ibs. 
Oats,  7  Ibs.                                      _  _ 

Lbs. 
1,270 

Lbs. 

28 

Hours 
1404 

Lot  II 

Timothy  hay,  12  Ibs. 
Corn,  7  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  7  Ibs. 

1,220 

113 

1266 

It  is  shown  that  the  horses  getting  wheat  bran  in  place  of  oats  did 
somewhat  less  work  but  gained  more  in  weight.  Burkett  repeated 
the  trial  during  the  winter  with  substantially  the  same  results.  The 
conclusion  was  that  for  work  horses  bran  could  replace  an  equal 
weight  of  oats  when  combined  with  corn  and  timothy  hay. 

From  years  of  practical  experience  Shepperd  of  the  North  Dakota 
Station4  concludes  that  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  bran 


1  Ept.  1891. 


Bui.  189. 


Bui.  82. 


Bui.  45. 


272 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  shorts  is  equal  to  the  same  weight  of  oats  for  feeding  farm  work 
horses,  tho  not  quite  so  palatable.  Merrill  of  the  Utah  Station1 
found  bran  and  shorts  satisfactory  with  horses  getting  alfalfa  hay. 
421.  Dried  brewers'  grains. — At  the  New  Jersey  Station2  dried 
brewers'  grains  were  substituted  for  oats  with  street-car  horses  aver- 
aging 1000  Ibs.  in  weight  and  traveling  not  less  than  24  miles  per 
day.  The  rations  were  : 


Dried-brewers'  -grains  ration 

Lbs. 

Hay 6 

Wheat  bran 2 

Shelled  corn 4 

Dried  brewers'  grains 8 


Oats  ration 

Lbs. 

Hay 6 

Wheat  bran 2 

Shelled  corn 4 

Oats_.  8 


The  veterinarian  in  charge  of  the  horses  wrote:  "I  have  watched 
the  horses  closely  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  experiment 
and  have  failed  to  discover  any  ill  effects  from  dried  brewers'  grains. 
The  horses  fed  the  grains  have  been  as  healthy  as  I  have  ever  known 
them  to  be."  The  station  authorities  reported  that  on  the  whole  a 
pound  of  dried  brewers'  grains  was  as  useful  as  a  pound  of  oats 
when  forming  part  of  the  concentrates  in  the  ration  of  work  horses. 
Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station3  found  dried  brewers'  grains 
of  good  quality  fully  equal  to  oats  for  horses  and  more  economical. 
Not  being  particularly  palatable  they  should  be  mixed  with  other 
concentrates  such  as  bran  and  corn.  (175) 

422.  Linseed  oil  meal. — At  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College4  Ken- 
nedy, Bobbins,  and  Kildee,  during  a  100-day  trial  beginning  in  June, 
fed  1  horse  in  each  of  3  teams  on  corn,  oats,  and  an  allowance  of  0.1 
Ib.  linseed  oil  meal  daily.  With  the  others  the  corn  allowance  was 
materially  increased,  the  oats  reduced,  and  the  oil  meal  increased  by 
1  Ib.  The  results  are  shown  in  the  table. 

Feeding  linseed  oil  meal  and  corn  in  place  of  oats. 


Average  ration 

Av.  weight  at 
beginning1 

Av.  loss  in 
weight 

Av.  daily  work 
done 

Cost  of  feed  per 
day  per  horse 

Lot  I 
Corn,  7.  3  Ibs. 
Oats,  10.  0  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  0.1  Ib. 
Hay,  13.7  Ibs.  . 

Lbs. 
1,522 

Lbs. 
12 

Hours 
6.4 

Cents 
24.6 

Lot  II 
Corn,  14.1  Ibs. 
Oats,  2.6  Ibs. 
Oirmeal,  l.ilb. 
Hay,  13.5  Ibs. 

1,385 

1 

6.4 

23.0 

Bui. 


Ept.  1892. 


Bui.  99. 


Bui.  109. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse.  273 

It  is  shown  that  the  horses  getting  corn  and  linseed  meal  in  place 
of  most  of  the  oats  in  the  ration  did  as  much  work  and  lost  slightly 
less  in  weight  than  those  getting  more  oats  and  less  corn  and  oil  meal. 
The  change  saved  1.6  cents  daily  in  cost  of  feed.  It  was  found  that 
the  oil  meal  has  a  laxative  tendency  which  prevents  its  too  free  use 
with  horses,  especially  in  summer.  Otherwise  it  was  entirely  satis- 
factory in  maintaining  their  weight,  spirits,  and  willingness  for 
work.  (200) 

423.  Cotton-seed  meal. — In  a  test  lasting  154  days  with  3  work 
teams  at  the  Iowa  Station1  it  was  found  that  in  combination  with 
corn  and  oats  1.1  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  was  as  effective  in  main- 
taining the  weight  of  the  horses  and  in  enabling  them  to  do  work  as 
1.4  Ibs.  of  linseed  oil  meal.     The  cotton-seed  meal  was  less  laxative 
than  the  oil  meal,  and  for  that  reason  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
hard- worked  horses  in  summer. 

At  the  North  Carolina  Station2  Burkett  found  that  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  2  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  could  be  safely  fed  to  farm  horses 
and  mules.  Corn  stover,  corn,  and  cotton-seed  meal  made  a  satis- 
factory winter  ration  for  horses  and  mules  doing  moderate  work. 
Judge  Henry  C.  Hammond  of  Augusta,  Georgia,3  reports  that  for  5 
years  he  fed  1  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  daily  to  each  of  10  pleasure 
and  work  horses,  and  during  that  time  there  was  not  a  sick  horse  or 
one  not  ready  for  work.  Since  horses  do  not  relish  cotton-seed  meal, 
Hammond  advises  that  it  be  thoroly  incorporated  with  ground  feed 
rather  than  fed  with  whole  grain.  (189) 

424.  Mixed  concentrates. — At  the  New  Jersey  Station*  Voorhees 
fed  2  lots,  each  of  2  horses  averaging  about  1,160  Ibs.  in  weight, 
the  following  rations  during  a  6  months'  trial: 

Lot  I  Lot  II 

Timothy  hay,  8  Ibs.  Timothy  hay,  8  Ibs. 

Corn  meal,  6  Ibs.  Corn  meal,  6  Ibs. 

Dried  brewers'  grains,  6  Ibs.  Wheat  bran,  6  Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  n.  p.,  1.5  Ibs. 

The  horses  in  both  lots  maintained  their  weight  and  were  in  sat- 
isfactory condition  thruout  the  whole  period.  At  the  ton-prices  al- 
lowed— timothy  hay,  $18;  wheat  bran,  $17.50;  corn  meal,  $22;  dried 
brewers'  grains,  $17;  and  linseed  meal,  $29 — the  dried-brewers '-grains 

1  Bui.  109. 

2  Bui.  189. 

3  Pamphlet ' '  Cotton-seed  Meal  for  Horses  and  Mules ' ' ;    private  correspondence. 

4  Ept.  1893. 
19 


274  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

ration  cost  19.4  cents  and  the  wheat-bran  and  oil-meal  ration  21.6 
cents.  A  gardener  living  near  the  station,  guided  by  its  teachings, 
successfully  fed  a  ration  similar  to  No.  1  to  8  animals  with  a  saving 
in  his  yearly  feed  bills  of  about  $150  over  previous  cost. 

425.  Cane  molasses. — Walton1  reports  the  successful  feeding  of 
over  1,000  horses  on  a  sugar  plantation  in  the  Fiji  Islands  on  a 
ration  of  15  Ibs.  cane  molasses,  3  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  and  4  Ibs.  corn 
(maize),   with   green   cane  tops  for  roughage.     The  health  of  the 
horses  was  greatly  improved  by  the  molasses.     Constipation  caused 
by  the  molasses  was  counteracted  by  the  bran.     There  was  no  undue 
fatness  or  softness  of  flesh  and  no  injury  to  the  wind.     Dalrymple 
of  the  Louisiana  Station,2  collecting  data  from  47  Louisiana  sugar 
plantations,  found  that  an  average  of  10  Ibs.  of  cane  molasses  was 
fed  daily  to  each  horse,  effecting  a  saving  of  from  10  to  50  per  ct. 
in  the  cost  of  the  ration  and  reducing  the  number  of  digestive  ail- 
ments.   Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station3  considers  cane  molasses 
at  14  cents  per  gallon  of  12  Ibs.  a  cheap  carbohydrate  for  horses.    In 
reasonable  amount,  cane  molasses  should  prove  particularly  helpful 
with  horses  at  hard  work,  such  as  draft  teams  in  cities.  (314) 

426.  Beet  molasses. — Because  of  its  alkaline  purging  properties 
beet  molasses  must  be  fed  with  caution  and  in  limited   quantity. 
Many  of  the  molasses  feeds  now  on  the  market  are  of  low  quality. 
Only  those  known  to  be  of  good  quality  should  be  fed.     Goldsmith* 
reports  that  in  Denmark  2.2  Ibs.  of  a  mixture  of  beet  molasses  and 
dried  swamp  peat  could  advantageously  replace  an  equal  weight  of 
corn  for  street-car  horses.  (312) 

Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station5  holds  that  dried  molasses 
beet  pulp  should  prove  a  valuable  feed  for  horses.  (311)  Goldsmith6 
found  that  blood-molasses  feed  can  economically  replace  one-fourth 
of  the  grain  in  rations  for  horses.  (312) 

427.  Miscellaneous. — At  the  Indiana  Station7  Plumb  found  dried 
distillers'  grains,  when  forming  about  one- third  of  the  grain  allow- 
ance, fairly  satisfactory  with  some  horses,  while  unpalatable  to  others. 
Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station8  reports  that  dried  distillers' 
grains  gave  excellent  results  with  horses  when  forming  one-fourth 
of  the  concentrates  in  the  ration.  (317) 

1  Agr.  Gaz.  New  South  Wales,  9, 1898,  p.  169.  5  Bui.  99. 

2  Bui.  86.  6  Landmandsblade,  32, 1899,  p.  349 ; 

3  Bui.  99.  Exp.  Sta.  Kec.  XI,  p.  880. 

4  Expt.  Sta.  Rec.,  10,  p.  778 ;  Ugeskr.  Landm.,  7  Bui.  97. 

43, 1898,  pp.  306-309.  8  Bui.  99. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse.  275 

At  the  North  Carolina  Station1  Burkett  found  tankage  and  dried 
blood  useful  for  run-down  and  thin  horses.  Lindsey2  states  that 
from  0.5  to  1  Ib.  of  blood  meal  daily  will  prove  a  helpful  addition  to 
the  ration  of  hard- worked  horses.  (306) 

Clark  of  the  Utah  Station3  found  that  farm  horses  will  eat  as 
much  as  20  Ibs.  of  wet  beet  pulp  daily  without  injury,  and  that  when 
combined  with  oats  and  alfalfa  9  Ibs.  of  well-fermented  wet  beet 
pulp  is  equal  to  1.5  Ibs.  of  oats.  (309) 

Rusche*  states  that  peanut  meal  and  malt  sprouts  may  be  used  in 
place  of  oats  for  feeding  foals.  (176,  202) 

The  French  War  Department5  found  that  cocoanut  meal  was  equal 
to  the  same  weight  of  oats  for  maintaining  army  horses.  (204) 

Nordendahl6  reports  the  successful  feeding  of  Swedish  army 
horses  on  bread  made  of  ground  oats  and  skim  milk,  1  Ib.  of  bread 
equaling  2  Ibs.  of  oats. 

II.  ROUGHAGES  FOR  THE  HORSE. 

428.  Necessity  for  roughage.— Patterson  of  the  Maryland  Sta- 
tion7 attempted  to  feed  2  horses  on  oats  alone,  offering  from  13  to  15 
Ibs.  to  each  daily.    By  the  end  of  the  fourth  day  one  of  the  horses 
refused  the  oats  entirely  and  drank  but  little  water.    On  the  seventh 
day  the  other  horse  would  eat  only  a  part  of  the  grain,  and  by  the 
tenth  day  none  whatever.     Evidently  the  horse  cannot  live  upon 
concentrates  alone,  even  oats  with  their  straw-like  hulls.   (118) 

429.  Timothy  hay. — Altho  not  particularly  rich  in  digestible  nu- 
trients, timothy  hay  is  the  standard  roughage  for  the  horse  thruout 
almost  the  whole  of  the  northeastern  United  States.     The  freedom 
from  dust  of  good  timothy  hay  commends  it  as  a  horse  feed,  and  it 
is  an  excellent  roughage  for  those  horses  whose  sustenance   comes 
mostly  from  concentrates.     A  reasonable  allowance  of  this  hay  is  1 
Ib.  daily  per  100  Ibs.  of  animal,  given  mostly  at  night.     So  far  as 
possible  the  other  roughages  here  considered  will  be  compared  with 
timothy  hay  as  the  standard.  (224) 

430.  Cereal  hay.— On  the  Pacific  Coast,  especially  in  California, 
the  cereal  hays — barley,  the  wild  oat,  wheat,   etc. — are  extensively 
employed  as  roughages  for  horses.    The  excellence  of  the  speed  horse 
and  the  endurance  of  the  work  horse  of  the  Coast  resrion  attest  the 

1  Bui.  189.  5  Milch.  Zeit.,  1883,  p.  517. 

2  Mass.  Bui.  99.  6  Expt.  Sta.  Kec.,  8,  p.  152. 

3  Bui.  101.  7  Bui.  51. 
*  Jahrsb.  Agr.  Chem.,  1889,  p.  621. 


276 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


merits  of  these  feeds.  In  some  cases  where  speed  horses  were  sent 
to  the  East  for  racing,  cereal  hay  was  forwarded  with  them  for  their 
nourishment.  Cereal  hay  may  often  be  advantageously  employed 
for  horse  feeding  in  the  eastern  United  States.  At  the  North  Car- 
olina Station1  Burkett  found  tHat  hay  from  oats  cut  in  the  milk 
stage  compared  favorably  with  clover  and  cowpea  hay  for 
horses.  (231) 

431.  Brome  hay. — At  the  North  Dakota  Station2  Shepperd  gave 
oats  and  brome  hay  to  one  horse  in  each  of  two  work  teams  during 
spring  plowing,  while  the  other  received  oats  and  timothy  hay,  with 
the  results  shown  in  the  table : 

Brome  hay  compared  with  timothy  for  farm  horses. 


Hay  fed 

Ration 

Average  daily 
gain  in  weight 

Average 
daily  work 

Oats 

Hay 

Brome  hay  

Lbs. 
14.5 
14.5 

Lbs. 
22.2 
21.9 

Lbs. 
0.77 
0.42 

Hours 
5.2 
5.2 

Timothy  hay  _  _      

The  horses  getting  brome  hay  gained  more  in  weight  than  those 
getting  timothy,  showing  that  for  Dakota  conditions  brome  hay  is 
fully  equal  to  timothy  hay  for  farm  work  horses  when  oats  are  fed  as 
the  concentrates.  (228) 

432.  Bermuda  hay. — At  the  Mississippi  Station3  in  a  trial  with 
mules   getting   corn   for   concentrates,    Lloyd    found   Bermuda   hay 
equal  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value.  (232) 

433.  Millet  hay. — Hay  from  Hungarian  grass,   Japanese  millet, 
etc.,  may  often  be  advantageously  fed  to  horses,  provided  the  allow- 
ance is  limited.    Hinebauch   of   the  North   Dakota   Station4   found 
that,  fed  exclusively  to  horses  for  long  periods,  millet  hay  caused  in- 
creased action  of  the  kidneys,  lameness  and  swelling  of  the  joints, 
infusion  of  the  blood  into  the  joints  and  finally  destruction  of  the 
texture  of  the  bones,  which  were  rendered  soft  and  less  tenacious 
so  that  movements  of  the  animal  would  sometimes  cause  the  liga- 
ments and  muscles  to  be  torn  from  them.     Since  the  millets  are 
among  the  oldest  and  most  widely  grown  of  all  agricultural  plants, 
it  is  but  fair  to  hold  that  good  millet  hay,  fed  in  moderation,  or 
with  some  other  roughage  and  always  with  some  concentrate,  should 
prove  satisfactory  and  produce  no  unfavorable  effects.  (229) 


Bui.  189. 


2  Bui.  45. 


Bui.  15. 


Bui.  26. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse. 


277 


434.  Sorghum   hay. — Forage    from    the    sweet    sorghums,    when 
properly  cured,  is  superior  to  corn  forage  for  horses.     It  usually  de- 
teriorates rapidly  in  value  after  midwinter  unless  well  cured  and 
kept  in  a  dry  place.     Moldy,  decaying  sorghum  forage  is  especially 
dangerous  to  horses.     Kafir,  tho  not  quite  so  palatable  as  the  sweet 
sorghums,  is  extensively  and  profitably  used  for  horse  feeding  over 
a  large  region  in  the  southwestern  United  States.     The  Oklahoma 
Station1  found  kafir  stover  equal  in  feeding  value  to  corn  stover.  (222) 

435.  Corn  forage. — Thickly  grown  fodder  corn  and  corn  stover, 
when  properly  cured  and  cared  for,  are  among  the  best  of  roughages 
for  the  horse.     Corn  leaves  are  usually  quite  free  from  dust,  pal- 
atable, and  full  of  nutriment.    For  stallions,  brood  mares,  idle  horses, 
and  growing  colts  good  corn  forage  is  usually  a  most  economical  and 
helpful  substitute  for  timothy  hay.    When  the  yield  of  fodder  corn 
and  its  feeding  value  are  compared  with  that  of  the  timothy  hay 
from  a  like  area,  the  usefulness  and  economy  of  this  much  neglected 
forage  is  apparent.     The  cured  corn  plant  should  be  much  more 
generally  used  in  America  for  horse  feeding  than  it  now  is.  (217) 

436.  Corn  stover  v.  timothy  hay. — At  the  New  Hampshire  Sta- 
tion2 Burkett  fed  4  farm  horses  in  winter  on  oats,  bran,  and  corn 
for  concentrates,  giving  2  horses  12  Ibs.  each  of  timothy  hay  daily 
for  roughage,  while  2  others  received  the  same  weight  of  fine-cut 
corn  stover.    The  table  shows  the  average  results  for  the  period  cov- 
ering January  to  April: 

Cut  corn  stover  compared  with  timothy  hay. 


Average  ration, 

Average 
weight 

Average 
gain 

Average 
work  done 

Lot  I 
*Oorn  stover,  12  Ibs. 
Oats  or  bran,  7  Ibs. 
Corn,  1  Ibs.      _    .             ... 

Lbs. 
1,215 

Lbs. 
3 

Hours 
247 

Lot  II 
Timothy  hay,  12  Ibs. 
Oats  or  bran,  7  Ibs. 
Corn,  7  Ibs. 

1,235 

18 

241 

Since  the  stover-fed  horses  did  a  little  more  work  than  the  others 
and  gained  but  slightly  less,  cut  corn  stover  may  be  regarded  as  equal 
to  timothy  hay  in  this  trial.  Since  timothy  hay  sells  for  from  2  to  4 
times  as  much  as  stover,  the  great  economy  in  using  stover  is  ap- 
parent. 


1  Ept.  1899. 


2  Bui.  82. 


278 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


437.  Straw. — Straw  contains  much  fiber,  and  its  mastication  and 
digestion  by  the  horse  calls  for  a  large  amount  of  energy,  which  ap- 
pears as  heat,  thereby  warming  the  body,  tho  not  producing  useful 
work.     Because  of  this,  horses  doing  little  or  no  work  in  winter  and 
having  ample  time  for  chewing  and  digesting  their  feed  can  often 
be  profitably  wintered  largely  on  good  bright  straw.     Many  horses 
are  fed  costly  hay  in  winter  when  straw,  corn  fodder,  or  corn  stover 
would   prove   equally   satisfactory   and   much   cheaper.      In   Europe 
nearly  all  rations  for  horses  contain  some  straw,  those  hardest  worked 
receiving  the  least.     In  feeding  value  the  straws  rank  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  oat,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  the  last  named  having  but  slight 
value.  (242) 

438.  Corn  stover  and  straw. — At  the  Michigan  Station1  Norton 
fed  2  lots,  each  of  6  farm  work  horses  doing  moderate  work,  for  10 
weeks  during  winter  on  feeding  stuffs  costing  as  follows  per  ton : 

Dollars 

Shredded  corn  stover  (husked  shock-corn  forage) 4 . 00 

Oat  straw 5.00 

Carrots 3.00 

Timothy  hay 12.00 

Ear  corn  ... 20.00 

Oats  31.00 

Wheat  bran 24.00 

Dried  beet  pulp 18.00 

Old  process  linseed-oil  cake 30. 00 

Dried  beet  pulp 4  Ibs. ) 

Bran lib.  [  Feed  mixture 21.00 

Linseed-oilcake lib.  ) 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  amount  of  feed  consumed 
daily  per  horse  and  the  cost  of  the  same : 

Feed  consumed  and  daily  cost  per  horse. 


Lot 

Av.  wt. 

at  be- 
ginning 

Timothy 
hay 

Corn 
stover 

Oat 

straw 

Car- 
rots 

Oats 

Ear 
corn 

Peed 
mixture 

Cost  of 
feed 
per  day 

T 

Lbs. 
1,254 

Lbs. 
20  4 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
11.0 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cents 
29.6 

II 

1,291 

4.2 

8.6 

4.3 

5.4 

3.1 

4.2 

2.6 

17.7 

In  addition  to  hay  and  oats  the  horses  of  Lot  I  were  given  a  light 
feed  of  bran  once  a  week.  During  the  trial  the  horses  in  Lot  I  lost 
11  Ibs.,  and  those  in  Lot  II  gained  14  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  when  fed  timothy  hay  and  oats,  farm  horses  do- 
ing ordinary  work  in  winter  cost  about  30  cents  per  head  daily  for 


Bui.  254. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse.  279 

keep,  while  the  keep  of  those  fed  corn  stover,  oat  straw,  and  car- 
rots in  place  of  most  of  the  hay,  and  ear  corn  and  mixed  feed  in 
place  of  most  of  the  oats,  cost  about  18  cents  per  head  daily — a  saving 
of  40  per  ct.  In  this  trial  corn  stover  and  oat  straw  proved  both  an 
economical  and  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  timothy  hay  as  a  winter 
feed  for  horses  at  moderate  work. 

439.  Clover   hay. — Because    clover   hay   is   ordinarily    carelessly 
made  and  loaded  with   dust,   it  is   almost  universally   disliked  by 
horsemen,  yet  it  is  successfully  used  by  some  liverymen.    Roberts1 
writes:     "The  chief  reasons  for  not  feeding  clover  hay  to  driving 
horses  are  two:     It  is  always  more  or  less  dusty,  and  it  is  too  pro- 
teinaceous,  and  hence  tends  to  loosen  the  bowels  when  the  animal  is 
put  at  hard,  fast  work.    However,  if  clover  hay  be  mixed  with  bright 
straw,  and  the  mass  dampened,  a  satisfactory  roughage  ration  will  be 
secured  for  all  but  fast  drivers."     Terry,2  the  conservative,  reliable 
farmer-writer,  kept  a  medium-weight  farm  work  team  for  a  number 
of  years  in  prime  condition  solely  on  well-made  clover  hay.  In  clover 
hay  and  bran,  which  when  combined  furnish  much  crude  protein, 
phosphorus,  and  lime  for  muscle  and  bone  building,  the  horseman 
has  a  most  valuable  combination,  especially  for  brood  mares,  foals, 
and  growing  horses.  Johnstone3  writes:    li Bright  clover  hay  that  is 
gotten  into  the  barn  without  rain  and  is  entirely  free  from  dust  and 
mold  is,  used  in  moderation,  the  best  possible  ration  for  brood  mares 
and  young  horses.''  (254,  446) 

440.  Alfalfa  hay. — As  with  clover,  there  is  a  prejudice  among 
liverymen  against  alfalfa  hay ;  yet  some  use  it,  and  it  furnishes  the 
sole  roughage  for  horses  upon  tens  of  thousands  of  farms  and  ranches 
in  the  West.    At  the  Utah  Station4  alfalfa  formed  the  sole  roughage 
for  all  the  work  and  driving  horses  at  the  station  for  12  years,  ex- 
cept during  brief  periods  while  they  were  on  other  experimental 
fodders.    During  all  that  time  not  a  horse  was  lost  either  directly  or 
indirectly  from  alfalfa  feeding.     It  was  found  that  horses  fed  tim- 
othy hay  voided  an  average  of  16  Ibs.  each  of  urine  daily,  and  those 
on  alfalfa  27  Ibs.,  early-cut  alfalfa  hay  causing  a  greater  excretion 
than  late-cut.    Emery  of  the  Wyoming  Station5  found  that  13.8  Ibs. 
of  alfalfa  hay  and  2.25  Ibs.  of  oat  straw  would  maintain  the  weight 
of  a  1000-lb.  idle  horse.  (245) 

441.  Alfalfa  v.  timothy  hay.— At  the  Utah  Station,6  during  ex- 
periments covering  310  days,  Merrill  fed  25  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  daily 

1  The  Horse,  p.  282.  3  The  Horse  Book,  p.  74.  5  Twelfth  Ept. 

3  Our  Farming,  p.  137.  4  Bui.  77.  •  Bui.  77. 


280  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

to  each  of  2  horses,  while  2  others  received  25  Ibs.  each  of  timothy 
hay,  all  doing  farm  work.  For  concentrates  each  horse  received  10 
Ibs.  of  mixed  bran  and  shorts  daily,  except  during  unusually  hard 
work  when  15  Ibs.  was  given.  The  alfalfa-fed  horses  held  their 
weight  or  gained,  while  those  fed  timothy  hay  sometimes  lost.  In 
all  cases  the  alfalfa-fed  horses  appeared  in  better  condition  than 
those  getting  timothy  hay.  Merrill  writes:  "The  teamsters  did  not 
notice  any  particular  effect  of  the  feed  on  the  willingness  of  the 
horses  to  do  work,  tho  they  were  agreed  that  if  they  could  have  their 
choice  they  would  much  prefer  those  fed  alfalfa." 

442.  Cowpea  hay. — In  a  feeding  trial  at  the  North  Carolina  Sta- 
tion1 Burkett  found  that  cowpea  hay  combined  with  corn-and-cob 
meal  made  a  satisfactory  work  ration,  and  that  cowpea  hay  with  a 
reasonable    quantity   of   corn    could   be    substituted   for   bran   and 
oats.  (261) 

443.  Corn  silage. — This  feed  has  been  successfully  used  in  a  lim- 
ited way  by  a  few  individuals.    Nourse  of  the  Virginia  Station2  fed 
6  mules  and  2  horses  during  winter  on  hay,  corn,  and  from  50  to  200 
Ibs.  of  corn  silage  per  head  weekly.     The  conclusion  was  that  corn 
silage  is  a  good  roughage  for  horses  when  combined  with  hay,  corn 
stover,  and  grain.    Nourse  holds  that  most  of  the  troubles  caused  by 
feeding  silage  to  horses  come  from  not  gradually  accustoming  the 
animals  to  this  feed,  from  feeding  too  heavily,  and  from  not  realizing 
that  silage  often  contains  much  corn.    Pearson3  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,   investigating   an  outbreak   where   5   horses   suddenly 
died,   found  that  moldy  silage  had  been  fed.     On  feeding  half  a 
bushel  of  the  moldy  silage  paralysis  of  the  throat  occurred,  followed 
by  death.    When  water  which  had  percolated  thru  this  moldy  silage 
was  given  to  a  horse  it  likewise  proved  fatal.     Wing4  reports  the 
death  of  8  horses  from  eating  waste  silage  thrown  into  yards  from 
racks  where  lambs  were  being  fed.  In  view  of  such  remotely  possible 
troubles,  silage  should  be  fed  to  horses  only  where  intelligent  super- 
vision insures  the  use  of  good  material  given  in  moderation  to  ani- 
mals gradually  accustomed  thereto.  (363) 

444.  Roots. — The  use  of  roots  and  tubers  for  nourishing  horses 
will  hardly  assume  importance  in  this  country  because  Indian  corn, 
kafir,  etc.,  furnish  nutriment  at  lower  cost.    Roots,  especially  carrots, 
are  greatly  relished  by  horses,  and  because  of  their  succulence  may 
serve  a  most  useful  purpose  in  the  stable,  where  they  are  great  favor- 

1  Bui.  189.  3  Expt.  Sta.  Rec.,  12,  p.  886. 

2  Bui.  80.  *  Breeder 's  Gaz.,  45, 1904,  p.  568. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse. 


281 


ites  when  cost  of  keep  is  not  a  prime  requisite.  In  1844  the  great 
French  chemist  and  farmer,  Boussingault,  conducted  the  most  ex- 
tensive studies  of  roots  for  horse  feeding  ever  carried  on.  His  find- 
ings1 may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

That  280  Ibs.  of  cooked  potatoes  mixed  with  cut  straw  are  equal  to  100 
jbs.  of  meadow  hay. 

That  350  Ibs.  of  carrots  cannot  quite  replace  100  Ibs.  of  good  meadow  hay. 

That  artichokes  were  greedily  eaten  by  horses,  which  thrived  on  them, 
30  Ibs.  of  sliced  tubers  taking  the  place  of  11  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay. 

That  400  Ibs.  of  rutabaga  turnips  (swedes)  are  about  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of 
meadow  hay. 

445.  Stock  food.— Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms2 
gave  1  horse  in  each  of  5  work  teams  the  amount  of  International 
Stock  Food  indicated  in  the  directions  accompanying  the  package, 
the  other  horse  in  each  team  receiving  no  condimental  food.     All 
received  14  Ibs.  a  day  of  an  oats-and-bran  mixture  for  concentrates. 
The  horses  getting  the  stock  food  made  an  average  total  gain  of 
12  Ibs.  each  in  42  days,  while  those  getting  no  stock  food  made  an 
average  gain  of  13  Ibs.  each.     Grisdale  reports  that  in  appearance 
and  spirit  the  horses  getting  no  stock  food  were  the  equal  of  their 
mates  fed  stock  food.  (343) 

446.  Fleshing  horses  for  market. — With  three  expert  horse  deal- 
ers for  counsel,  Obrecht  of  the  Illinois  Station3  studied  the  cost  of 
fleshing  horses  for  the  market.   Thirteen  Eastern  chunks  were  divided 
into  3  groups  and  fed  the  rations  given  below  for  84  days : 

Fleshing  horses  for  market. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Av.  cost 
of  1  Ib. 
gain 

Av.  value 
of  1  Ib. 
gain 

Av.  total 
increased 
value 

Lot      I,  5  horses 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cents 

Cents 

Dollars 

Corn,  17.  7  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran,  2.  4  Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  0.  4  Ib. 

Clover  hay,  13.9  lbs.__. 

2.3 

192 

13.9 

26.6 

51.00 

Lot    II,  4  horses 

Corn,  8.  6  Ibs. 

Oats,  8.  6  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran,  2.  4  Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  0.41b. 

Clover  hay,  13.7  lbs..._ 

3.0 

250 

12.4 

19.5 

48.75 

Lot  III,  4  horses 

Corn,  8.  4  Ibs. 

Oats,  8.  3  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran,  2.  6  Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  0.41b. 

Timothy  hay,  14.  7  Ibs. 

1.9 

158 

20.0 

22.2 

35.00 

Rural  Economy,  p.  400. 


2Rpt.  1906. 


3  Bui.  141. 


282  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

In  this  trial  clover  hay  proved  far  superior  to  timothy  hay,  putting 
on  1.1  more  Ibs.  of  gain  daily  for  84  days,  a  difference  of  58  per  ct. 
in  favor  of  clover  hay.  A  ration  of  half  corn  and  half  oats  fed  in 
conjunction  with  clover  hay  put  on  0.5  lb.  more  gain  daily  than  one 
containing  corn  and  no  oats.  In  a  second  trial  with  clover  hay  for 
roughage,  3  parts  corn  and  1  part  oats  proved  more  economical  than 
half  corn  and  half  oats,  and  a  ration  of  4  parts  corn  and  1  part  wheat 
bran  proved  superior  to  a  corn  ration.  When  much  bran  was  fed 
with  clover  hay  the  combination  proved  too  laxative.  It  was  found 
that  horses  getting  no  exercise  gained  24  per  ct.  more  than  those 
walking  2.8  miles  daily.  Those  in  single  stalls  gained  8  per  ct.  more 
than  others  in  box  stalls,  because  in  the  latter  the  horses  took  some 
exercise  by  moving  about  the  stalls. 

Valuing  corn  at  65  cents  and  oats  at  55  cents  per  bu.,  and  bran 
at  $26,  oil  meal  at  $32,  clover  hay  at  $11,  and  timothy  hay  at  $12 
per  ton,  the  gain  of  Lot  I,  receiving  corn  and  clover  hay,  cost  13.9 
cents  per  lb.,  and  of  Lot  II,  on  corn,  oats,  and  clover  hay,  12.4  cents, 
while  the  gain  of  Lot  III,  fed  timothy  hay  and  the  same  concen- 
trates, cost  20  cents  per  lb.  The  great  superiority  of  clover  over 
timothy  hay  for  fleshing  horses  is  plainly  shown.  It  is  evident  that 
fattening  horses  require  about  the  same  amount  of  feed  as  fattening 
cattle  for  a  given  gain  in  weight. 

III.  PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  FOR  THE  HORSE. 

447.  Chaffed  hay. — In  large  establishments  chaffing  or  cutting 
the  hay  given  to  horses  is  usually  advisable,  because  the  cut  rough- 
age can  then  be  accurately  administered  according  to  the  needs  of 
each  animal,  dust  can  be  allayed,  and  the  feeding  operations  more 
systemized  and  expedited.  Horses  that  have  been  on  the  street  all 
day  and  have  worked  to  the  limit  may  be  given  meal  mixed  with  a 
small  portion  of  the  moistened  chaffed  hay,  some  of  the  nourishment 
thus  being  passed  to  the  stomach  more  quickly  than  is  possible  when 
feeding  long  hay.  On  this  point  Lavalard,1  summarizing  extensive 
experience  with  omnibus  and  cab  horses  in  Paris,  writes :  * '  For  the 
past  4  or  5  years  we  have  chopped  coarse  fodder,  using  a  ration  of 
equal  parts  of  hay  and  straw,  and  have  found  this  practice  the  most 
economical  for  several  reasons :  Straw  may  thus  be  made  to  form  an 
integral  part  of  the  ration,  and  the  proportion  of  hay  and  straw  may 
be  accurately  regulated.  Furthermore,  horses  waste  much  less  of 

1  Expt.  Sta.  Eec.,  12,  p.  12. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse.  283 

such  fodder.  .  .  .  The  feeding  of  chopped  fodder  has  brought  about 
a  considerable  saving  and  permitted  greater  uniformity  than  was 
previously  the  case  in  our  experiments."  On  the  other  hand,  having 
in  mind  farm  horses,  Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station1  holds 
that  there  is  no  particular  advantage  in  cutting  hay.  (340) 

448.  Cooked  feed. — The  custom  of  cooking  even  a  small  portion 
of  the  feed  given  to  horses  is  gradually  falling  into  disuse.     John- 
stone,2  who  had  the  practice  thoroly  ingrained  into  his  nature  by  his 
early  Scotch  experience,  out  of  his  later  studies  and  observations 
writes:     "Time  was  when  I  considered  the  feeding  of  sloppy  stuff 
a  necessity  in  properly  wintering  brood  mares,  but  experience  has 
shown    me    that    dry    food    is    best.     Therefore    I    prefer    uncooked 
food.  .  .  .     Time  was  when  I  believed  that  for  stallions  during  the 
season  it  was  an  excellent  plan  to  give  a  mash  of  boiled  barley  every 
Wednesday  and  Saturday  night.   .    .    .   The  experiments  have,  how- 
ever, shown  that  the  addition  of  this  material  to  a  horse's  grain 
ration  makes  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
grain  is  digested."  (334-8) 

449.  Soaked  grain. — Wolff3  found  that  healthy  horses  with  good 
teeth  utilized  beans  and  corn  equally  well  whether  fed  whole  and 
dry  or  after  having  been  soaked  in  water  for  24  hours,  care  being 
taken  in  the  latter  case  to  guard  against  loss  of  nutrients.     Ear  corn 
that  is  so  dry  and  flinty  as  to  injure  the  horse's  mouth  should  be 
soaked  or   ground.     Whole   wheat   and   barley   should   always  be 
soaked  if  they  cannot  be  ground  or,  better,  rolled.  (339) 

450.  Ground  grain. — From  his  extensive  studies  with  thousands 
of  cab,  omnibus,  and  army  horses  in  France,  Lavalard4  gives  the  fol- 
lowing helpful  counsel:     "Contrary  to  the  opinion  of  some  experts, 
the  writer  believes  it  is  not  necessary  to  grind  grain  for  horses.   This 
is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  oats.    It  does  not  appear  that  the  ad- 
vantages gained  by  grinding  are  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  the 
operation.     In  some  of  our  earlier  experiments,  where  ground  grain 
was  fed,  it  was  noticed  after  a  few  months  that  the  horses  preferred 
to  crush  it  themselves.     Of  course  this  does  not  refer  to  old  horses. 
They  can  be  fed  ground  grain  to  advantage." 

At  the  North  Carolina  Station5  when  ear  corn  was  compared  with 
corn-and-cob  meal  the  difference  was  in  favor  of  the  corn-and-cob 
meal  when  corn  stover  A\ras  used  as  a  roughage.  When  clover  hay 
was  fed  the  difference  was  inconsiderable. 

1  Bui.  99.  4  Expt.  Sta.  Bee.,  12,  p.  12. 

2  The  Horse,  p.  77.  6  Bui.  189. 

3  Landw.  Jahrb.,  16, 1887,  Sup.  Ill,  p.  21. 


284  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1  concludes  that  where 
a  mixture  of  cut  hay  and  bran  is  fed  to  horses  having  good  teeth, 
there  is  no  advantage  in  grinding  oats.  When  horses  are  hard 
worked  and  have  but  little  time  in  the  stable,  or  when  their  teeth 
are  poor,  it  is  well  to  grind  their  grain.  All  small,  hard  grains,  such 
as  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  kafir,  should  always  be  ground  or,  better, 
rolled.  (331-3) 

IV.  WATER  DRANK;  COST  OF  KEEP. 

451.  Water  drank. — Wolff2  found  that  as  much  as  47  per  ct.  of 
the  water  consumed  by  the  horse  reappeared  in  the  feces  or  solid 
excrement,  and  39  per  ct.  in  the  urine,  the  remainder  being  exhaled 
from  the  lungs  and  skin.  Grandeau  and  Leclerc,3  experimenting  with 
Paris  cab  horses,  found  the  daily  consumption  of  water  to  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

Water  drank  daily  ~by  cab  horses. 


Work  done 

Horse  No.  1 

Horse  No.  2 

Walking1,  with  no  load 

Lbs. 
24.9 

Lbs. 
30.7 

Walking,  drawing  load 

28.9 

35.4 

Trotting,  with  no  load                _    _      ___    ___ 

31.3 

27.6 

Trotting,  drawing  load.        ...              __ 

52.0 

50.7 

The  table  shows  that  the  horse  drinks  much  more  water  during 
labor  than  when  idle. 

Merrill  of  the  Utah  Station*  found  that  horses  fed  timothy  hay 
drank  79  Ibs.  of  water  each  daily,  while  on  alfalfa  hay  they  drank  10 
Ibs.  more.  One  of  2  horses  getting  alfalfa  hay  drank  21  Ibs.  of  water- 
more  per  day  than  the  other.  Morrow  of  the  Oklahoma  Station5 
reports  that  during  hot  weather  in  August  a  pair  of  farm  mules 
drank  350  Ibs.  of  water  in  1  day  —  an  extremely  large  amount.  It  is 
evident  that  the  amount  of  water  which  horses  will  drink  depends 
upon  many  factors,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  individ- 
uality of  the  animals,  the  temperature  of  their  surroundings,  the 
nature  of  their  food,  and  the  amount  of  work  performed.  (87) 

452.  Time  of  watering.  —  The  following  conclusions  were  reached 
by  Tangl6  of  Budapest,  whose  investigations  concerning  the  time  of 
watering  horses  are  the  most  complete  of  any  recorded  : 


1  Ept.  1905.  4  Bui.  77. 

2  Landw.  Jahrb.,  16,  1887,  Sup.  Ill,  p.  109.   5  Rpt.  1898. 

3  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.,  1888,  2,  p.  276.         6  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  57,  1902,  p.  329. 


Feeds  for  the  Horse. 


285 


may  be  watered  before,  after,  or  during  meals  without  interfering 
with  the  digestion  or  the  absorption  of  the  food  they  eat.  All 
methods  are  equally  good,  tho  circumstances  may  favor  one  over  the 
other.  A  horse  long  deprived  of  water,  or  having  undergone  severe 
exertion,  should  be  watered  before  getting  his  feed.  An  animal  ac- 
customed to  a  certain  order  of  watering  should  not  be  changed  to 
another  order,  for  such  change  diminishes  the  appetite.  Horses 
drink  the  greatest  amount  of  water  when  it  is  given  after  they  have 
been  fed,  and  the  least  when  it  is  supplied  before  they  are  fed.  The 
excretion  of  urine  is  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  water 
consumed,  while  the  composition  of  the  feces  is  not  so  affected.  The 
weight  of  the  horse  varies  with  the  amount  of  water  drank.  Tangl 
shows  that  the  only  important  point  in  this  whole  matter,  about 
which  there  has  been  so  much  discussion  and  dogmatic  assertion, 
is  to  adopt  a  reasonable,  convenient  system  of  watering  and  then 
rigidly  adhere  to  it. 

In  making  provisions  for  water  from  10  to  12  gallons,  or  about  100 
Ibs.,  should  be  allowed  for  each  horse. 

453.  Feed  consumed  yearly. — Only  a  limited  amount  of  data  are 
available  relating  to  the  total  annual  feed  consumption  of  horses. 
At  the  New  Hampshire  Station1  Burkett  recorded  all  feed  eaten, 
water  drank,  and  hours  of  work  performed  by  five  farm  horses  dur- 
ing two  years,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Feed  and  water  consumed  and  work  done  T)y  five  farm  horses  during  two 

years. 


Feed  and  price  of  feed 

Feed  eaten 

Value 
of 
feed 

Water 
drank 

Work 
done 

Concen- 
trates 

Rough- 
age 

Oats,  36  cts  per  bu 

Lbs. 
10,044 
25,  570 

Lbs. 

Dollars 
113.00 

Lbs. 

Hours 

Corn,  $16  per  ton 

204.  56 

Gluten  feed  $18  per  tori 

1,530 
1,440 
225 
10,  711 

13.77 

Linseed  meal  $28  per  ton 

20.16 

Cotton-seed  meal  $26  per  ton 

9.93 

Wheat  bran  $17  per  ton 

91.04 

Timothy  hay  $16  per  ton 

36,540 
2,190 

292.32 

5.48 

Corn  stover,  $5  per  ton 

279,918 

21,460 

Average  for  1  horse  1  year 

4,952 

3,873 

74.33 

27,992 

2,146 

It  is  shown  that  each  horse  consumed  about  13.6  Ibs.  of  grain 
daily,  while  the  average  daily  consumption  of  roughage  was  10  Ibs. — 


Bui.  82. 


286  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

a  small  amount.  Each  horse  drank  nearly  80  Ibs.  of  water  daily.  At 
the  prices  named  for  feed,  the  keep  of  each  horse  cost  $74.33  per 
year.  During  the  year  each  horse  performed  an  average  of  2,146 
hours  of  work,  or  about  7  hours  for  each  working  day — a  large  ag- 
gregate for  farm  horses.  The  feed  cost  3.4  cents  for  each  hour  of 
work  done. 

Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1  reports  that  each  of 
the  19  station  horses  consumed  during  a  year  an  average  of  6,225 
Ibs.  of  meal  or  grain  and  5,500  Ibs.  of  hay.  The  average  cost  of  feed 
per  horse  was  $99.80  per  year,  or  27.3  cents  per  day.  It  may  there- 
fore be  held  that  a  1,200  to  1,400-lb.  work  horse  will  consume  from 
2.5  to  3  tons  of  concentrates — grain,  meal,  etc. — and  from  2  to  3  tons 
of  roughage — hay,  straw,  etc. — annually. 

1  Ept.  1902. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

FEED  AND  CAEE  OF  THE  HOKSE— EATIONS. 
I.  FEED  AND  CARE. 

At  any  point  of  observation  we  usually  find  the  ration  for  the 
horse  restricted  to  one  or  two  kinds  of  grain  and  the  same  limited 
number  of  roughages.  In  the  northern  Mississippi- Valley  states  the 
almost  universal  feeds  for  the  horse  are  timothy  hay  and  oats.  In 
the  South,  Indian  corn  serves  mainly  for  the  concentrates,  with  dried 
corn  leaves  for  roughage.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  crushed  barley  is  the 
common  grain,  while  the  hay  comes  from  the  wild  oat,  barley,  or 
wheat  plant.  Passing  to  other  countries  we  find  an  interesting  array 
of  articles  in  the  dietary  of  the  horse,  tho  still  no  large  number  in 
any  one  locality.  In  Loudon1  we  read:  "In  some  sterile  countries, 
horses  are  forced  to  subsist  on  dried  fish,  and  even  vegetable  mould; 
in  Arabia,  on  milk,  flesh  balls,  eggs,  broth,  etc.  In  Persia,  barley  is 
a  common  food  for  good  horses.  In  some  parts  of  India/ salt,  pepper, 
and  other  spices  are  made  up  into  balls,  as  big  as  billiard  balls,  with 
flour  and  butter,  and  thrust  down  the  animal's  throat.  .  .  .  Meat 
broth  (especially  sheep's  head)  is  also  given  to  horses.  ...  In 
Bengal,  a  vetch,  something  like  the  tare,  is  used.  On  the  western 
side  of  India,  a  sort  of  pigeon  pea,  called  gram,  is  the  usual  food; 
with  grass  in  the  season,  and  hay  all  the  year.  ...  In  the  West 
Indies  they  are  fed  on  maize,  Guinea  corn,  and  sugar-cane  tops;  and 
in  some  instances,  on  the  sugar  itself  in  the  form  of  molasses.  In 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  besides  the  grasses,  the  leaves  of  limes, 
vines,  the  tops  of  acacia,  the  seeds  of  the  carob  tree,  etc.,  are  used." 

454.  Successful  horse  feeding  a  skilled  art. — With  the  brief  bill 
of  fare  usually  adopted,  the  administration  of  feed  to  the  horse  would 
seem  a  simple  matter.  It  is,  however,  far  from  such.  Given  two 
grooms  with  similar  conditions  as  to  horses  to  be  cared  for,  work 
performed,  and  feed  bins  to  draw  from.  In  one  case  the  team 
emerges  from  the  stable  with  an  action  and  style  which  at  once  an- 
nounces it  in  the  best  of  condition.  In  the  other  case  the  lagging 
step,  dull  eye,  and  rough  coat  tell  better  than  words  the  lack  of 
judgment  in  feeding  and  management.  The  unsatisfactory  condition 

1  Encyclopedia  of  Agr.,  1866 :  Art.,  Feeding  of  Horses. 

287 


288  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

has  not  necessarily  been  brought  about  by  any  saving  at  the  feed  bin 
and  hay  mow.  Indeed,  the  poorer  groom  usually  makes  the  more 
frequent  requests  for  supplies.  The  indescribable  qualities  which, 
rightly  commingled,  mark  the  good  feeder  cannot  be  acquired  from 
lectures  or  books,  but  must,  in  a  large  measure,  be  born  in  the  horse- 
man. Study  and  observation  will  add  to  the  ability  of  the  alert 
feeder,  but  all  that  may  be  written  will  not  make  one  an  adept  if 
he  does  not  take  to  the  work  naturally. 

No  one  can  study  the  practices  of  successful  horsemen  without 
being  strongly  impressed  with  the  fact  that  there  are  several  ways 
of  reaching  the  desired  end  of  high  finish  and  fine  action  with  the 
horse.  With  the  pig  and  steer  we  can  estimate  about  how  much  in- 
crease is  returned  from  a  Ib.  of  corn.  The  horse  is  on  a  higher  plane, 
nerve  and  action  counting  for  more  than  mere  weight.  The  skill  of 
the  " artist"  horse  feeder  enters,  along  with  the  food  he  supplies,  into 
the  very  life  of  the  creature  he  manages.  If  the  reader  finds  the 
counsel  here  given  on  feed  and  management  not  entirely  to  his  satis- 
faction, let  him  remember  that  we  have  chosen  a  rational  and  gen- 
erally applicable  course,  conceding  that  good  results  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  following  other  systems. 

455.  The  foal. — It  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  horse  rearing 
that  the  foal  start  life  in  full  health  and  vigor,  and  to  this  end  it 
should,  immediately  after  birth,  take  a  good  draught  of  the  colostrum 
or  first  milk  of  the  dam,  which  possesses  alterative  properties  that 
tend  to  relieve  the  alimentary  tract  of  fecal  matters  collected  therein 
during  fetal  life.  If  this  result  is  not  accomplished  naturally,  a 
gentle  purgative  of  castor  oil  should  be  administered.  Some  dams, 
more  frequently  those  with  their  first  foal  and  those  too  hard- worked, 
fail  to  supply  the  proper  amount  of  nourishment,  and  the  young 
languish.  In  such  cases  the  mare  should  be  provided  with  food 
which  will  stimulate  the  milk  flow.  Good  pasture  grass  is  of  course 
the  best,  but  in  its  absence  concentrates  should  be  given  in  the  shape 
of  oats,  rolled  barley,  wheat  bran,  etc.,  with  an  equal  weight  of  corn. 
Sometimes  the  foal  suffers  from  an  over-supply  of  nourishment  or 
because  the  milk  is  too  rich,  and  the  indigestion  resulting  may  ter- 
minate in  diarrhea.  In  such  cases  the  dam's  ration  should  be  reduced 
and  some  of  her  milk  drawn,  remembering  always  that  the  last  por- 
tion carries  the  most  fat,  which  is  usually  the  disturbing  element. 

After  foaling  the  mare  should  be  confined  for  a  few  days,  her  feed 
being  simple  and  not  too  abundant.  With  favorable  conditions  at 
the  end  of  a  week  she  should  be  turned  to  pasture  where  the  dam 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations.  289 

and  foal  will  largely  shift  for  themselves.  Watchfulness  should 
always  detect  the  first  appearance  of  ailment.  Diarrhea  brought  on 
by  overfeeding  or  exposure  should  be  checked  by  giving  parched 
flour,  rice-meal  gruel,  or  boiled  milk ;  and  constipation,  the  other  com- 
mon evil,  may  be  relieved  by  the  use  of  castor  oil  and  by  injections 
of  soapy  warm  water.  In  all  cases  of  derangement  the  food  for  both 
dam  and  foal  should  at  once  be  lessened,  since  nothing  aids  nature 
more  at  such  times  than  reducing  the  work  of  the  digestive  tract. 

456.  Feeding  the  young  foal. — By  placing  the   feed  box  from 
which  the  dam  eats  her  grain  low,  the  foal,  at  about  two  months  of 
age,   will  begin  nibbling  from  the  mother's  supply  and  will  soon 
acquire  a  taste  for  such  food.     Splan1  writes:     ''With  the  colts  all 
out  to  grass  and  doing  well,  it  is  time  to  separate  the  oldest  of  them 
from  the  younger  and  commence  feeding  them  grain,  which  is  done 
in  this  way:     Build  a  pen  in  some  suitable  place  which  is  the  most 
convenient,  making  it  high  enough  so  that  the  mare  will  not  try 
to  jump  it,  and  have  the  space  from  the  ground  to  the  bottom  rail  or 
board  sufficient  to  allow  the  foal  to  pass  under.     Put  in  a  handy 
gate  or  bars,  then  an  ample  feed  trough.    Lead  your  mares  and  foals 
singly  into  this  enclosure  and  let  them  eat  together  2  or  3  times  and 
they  will  soon  learn  where  the  food  is.     Take  out  the  mares,  shut 
up  the  gate,  leave  the  colts  in.     Keep  a  good  supply  of  oats  there, 
and  you  will  find  the  foals  there  regularly  running  in  and  out  getting 
their  rations.     To  induce  the  dam  to  loiter  about  this  place,  keep  a 
large  lump  of  rock  salt  near  it  and  occasionally  a  mess  of  oats,  and 
there  is  no  further  trouble.     In  this  way,  at  weaning  time,  which  is 
at  the  age  of  5  months,  the  colts  have  learned  to  eat,  and  the  result  is 
that  when  they  are  taken  away  from  their  dams  they  do  not  miss 
them  so  much." 

457.  Raising  the  orphan. — Johnstone2  gives  the  following  on  feed- 
ing the  orphan  foal:     "Get  the  milk  of  as  fresh  a  cow  as  possible, 
and  the  poorer  the  butter  fat,  the  better.   .    .    .   Take  a  dessert-spoon- 
ful of  the  best  granulated  white  sugar  and  add  enough  warm  water 
to  dissolve  it.    Then  add  3  tablespoonfuls  of  lime  water  and  enough 
new  milk  to  make  a  pint.     Get  an  old  teapot  and  scald  it  thoroly. 
Over  the  spout  tie  securely  the  thumb  of  an  old  kid  glove,  and  with 
a  darning  needle  pierce  holes  in  the  kid.     Warm  the  milk  to  blood 
heat,  pour  a  part  of  it  into  the  teapot,  and  when  it  flows  thru  the 
spout  into  the  thumb,  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  maternal  teat 

1  Life  with  the  Trotters.  -  The  Horse  Book. 

20 


290  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

will  be  formed,  which  the  foal  will  suck  promptly.  Let  him  have 
half  a  teacup  full  every  hour  at  first.  It  is  a  bothersome  chore,  but 
it  must  be  done."  (389)  Lime  water  is  helpful  at  all  times,  and 
castor  oil  may  be  used  in  checking  the  scours  which  so  frequently 
trouble  hand-fed  foals.  The  quantity  of  diluted  milk  should  be  in- 
creased with  the  growing  needs  of  the  animal,  and  gradually  full 
milk  substituted.  Gruels  made  by  boiling  peas  and  beans  and  re- 
moving the  skins  by  passing  the  pulp  thru  a  sieve  are  helpful,  as  is 
the  jelly  made  by  boiling  linseed  oil  meal.  Cooked  wheat  middlings 
or  low-grade  flour  may  also  be  used.  As  Johnstone  says:  ''The 
rearing  of  a  motherless  foal  is  mostly  in  the  man  or  woman  who 
essays  the  job." 

458.  Feeding  cow's  milk. — Cow's  milk  may  be  used  with  advan- 
tage in  feeding  weak  foals  and  those  suffering  from  ailments.     The 
foal  may  be  taught  to  drink  milk  by  pouring  it  upon  meal.     The 
young  thing  readily  eats  the  moistened  feed,  and  by  tipping  the  pan 
it  soon  learns  to  drink  the  milk.     At  the  Iowa  Station1  Wilson  and 
Curtiss  successfully  fed  whole  milk  and  later  separator  skim  milk  to 
imported  Percheron,  Shire,  and  French-Coach  weanling  fillies  shortly 
after  their  arrival   from   abroad  and  while   out   of  condition.     In 
changing  from  whole  to  separator  skim  milk  the  amount  was  reduced 
for  a  day  or  two  to  prevent  scouring.     Ten  Ibs.  of  separator  skim 
milk  was  found  equal  to  1  Ib.  of  grain.     Gfrattan2  reports  favorably 
on  the  use  of  skim  milk  for  foals,  even  when  the  milk  is  sour  or  lob- 
bered.    MacNeilage3  objects  to  the  use  of  cow's  milk  for  foals,  claim- 
ing "no  better  means  of  manufacturing  wind-suckers  was  ever  de- 
vised, and  it  is  rare  that  yearlings  so  brought  out  count  for  much 
as  2-year-olds  and  3-year-olds" — a  timely  warning  against  the  too 
free  use  of  this  food.   (301-2) 

459.  Weaning  the  foal. — Weaning  foals  when  5  or  6  months  old 
is  not  difficult  if  the  preliminaries  have  been  properly  carried  out. 
We  follow  Splan4  again :    ' '  Now  we  put  on  the  halters  and  keep  them 
on,  leading  the  foals  more  or  less  while  weaning  them.    Leave  them 
in  their  boxes,  2  or  3  together,  several  days,  and  have  the  boxes  open 
into  a  nice  grass  paddock.    Let  them  run  out  and  in,  give  them  oats 
mixed  with  bran  and  sorghum  cut  up  fine,  and  in  a  few  days  more 
turn  them  out  in  the  fields  away  from  their  dams,  where  there  is 
plenty  of  grass  and  water,  and  a  large  trough  with  feed  in  it  con- 
stantly.    They  have  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  milk  a  great  many 

1  Bui.  18.  3  Trans.  Highl.  and  Agrl.  Soc.,  1890,  p.  152. 

2  Breeder 's  Gaz.,  6, 1884,  p.  796.  4  Life  with  the  Trotters. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations.  291 

times  a  day,  and  they  need  food  just  as  often.  The  best  way  is  to 
keep  plenty  of  mixed  food  for  them,  using  cracked  corn  and  oats,  also 
urithreshed  oats  run  thru  a  cutting-box,  then  mixed  with  bran  and 
water  enough  to  moisten  it  to  make  the  bran  adhere  to  the  oats." 

460.  After  weaning. — Foals  are  nondescripts,  for  the  rearing  of 
which  no  definite  directions  can  be  given,  but  success  will  come  if 
common  sense,  alertness,  and  patience  prevail.     A  fair  allowance  of 
grain  for  the  colt,  measured  in  oats,  is: 

Up  to  1  year  of  age,  from  2  to  3  Ibs. 
From  1  to  2  years  of  age,  4  to  5  Ibs. 
From  2  to  3  years  of  age,  7  to  8  Ibs. 

Good  bone  and  muscle  are  of  first  importance  with  the  horse,  and 
feeds  which  tend  to  produce  these  should  be  chosen.  Nothing  is 
superior  to  blue-grass  pasture  and  oats.  Among  the  concentrates, 
wheat  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  buckwheat  middlings, 
wheat  middlings,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  and  Canada  field  peas  are  rich 
in  nitrogenous  matter,  which  goes  to  build  muscle,  and  in  phosphorus, 
a  prime  requisite  of  the  skeleton.  All  the  leguminous  hays,  alfalfa, 
clover,  cowpea,  etc.,  are  rich  in  lime,  the  principal  mineral  compo- 
nent of  the  bones.  A  combination  of  such  concentrates  and  rough- 
ages as  these  should  furnish  abundant  bone-  and  muscle-building 
material. 

The  young  horse  which  is  not  developing  the  proper  skeleton  may 
be  fed  substances  especially  rich  in  phosphorus  and  lime,  such  as  2 
or  3  ounces  daily  of  high-grade  tankage  containing  ground  bone,  or  1 
ounce  daily  of  ground  bone,  ground  rock  phosphate  (floats),  or  pre- 
cipitated calcium  phosphate.  These  recommendations  are  based  on 
the  results  obtained  with  other  farm  animals.  Unfortunately  there 
are  no  definite  experiments  with  horses  to  guide  us  at  this 
time.  (89,  90,  95) 

461.  The  stallion. — The  following  from  Sanders1  is  replete  with 
good  counsel  in  relation  to  the  stallion : 

"The  food  should  mainly  be  good,  sound  oats — nothing  is  better; 
but  this  should  be  varied  by  an  occasional  ration  of  corn  or  barley; 
for  horses,  like  men,  are  fond  of  a  variety  in  their  food,  and  an  occa- 
sional change  of  diet  is  conducive  to  health.  Wheat  bran  is  an  in- 
valuable adjunct  to  the  grain  ration,  and  can  never  be  dispensed 
with.  It  is  the  cheapest,  safest,  and  best  of  all  regulators  for  the 
bowels,  and  is  especially  rich  in  some  of  the  most  important  ele-| 

1  Horse  Breeding,  pp.  144—46. 


292  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

ments  of  nutrition.  No  specific  directions  as  to  the  quantity  of  food 
can  be  given.  Some  horses  will  require  nearly  twice  as  much  as 
others;  and  the  quantity  that  may  be  safely  given  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  amount  of  exercise  in  any  given  case.  Some 
horsemen  recommend  feeding  3  and  others  4  times  a  day;  but  in 
either  case  no  more  should  be  given  than  will  be  promptly  eaten  up 
clean.  If  any  food  should  be  left  in  the  box,  it  should  be  at  once  re- 
moved and  the  quantity  at  the  next  time  of  feeding  should  be  reduced 
accordingly.  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  safe  to  feed  as  much  as  the  horse 
will  eat  with  apparent  relish;  and  then,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  he 
will  not  become  overloaded  with  fat.  The  hay,  as  well  as  the  grain 
feed,  should  be  sound  and  free  from  mould  and  dust,  and  the  stall 
should  be  kept  clean,  well  lighted  and  perfectly  ventilated. 

"The  amount  of  exercise  to  be  given  will  vary  somewhat  with  the 
condition  and  habit  of  the  horse.  If  he  be  in  thin  flesh,  and  it  is 
thought  best  to  fatten  him  up,  the  exercise  should  be  lighter  than 
it  otherwise  would  be;  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  a  tendency 
to  become  too  fat,  this  may  be  corrected  by  increasing  the  amount 
of  exercise  that  is  given.  ...  No  draft  horse,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, should  have  less  exercise  than  5  miles  a  day,  and  the 
roadster  and  running  horse  may  safely  have  6  miles,  which  in  some 
cases  should  be  increased  to  8  or  even  10. 

"The  point  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  stable  management  of  the  stallion 
is  so  to  feed,  groom,  and  exercise  as  to  keep  the  horse  to  the  very 
highest  possible  pitch  of  strength  and  vigor.  The  idea  which  pre- 
vails among  many  stable  grooms  that  feeding  this  or  that  nostrum 
will  increase  the  ability  of  a  horse  to  get  foals  is  sheer  nonsense. 
Anything  that  adds  to  the  health,  strength,  and  vigor  of  the  horse 
will  increase  his  virility  or  sexual  power,  simply  because  the  sexual 
organs  will  partake  of  the  general  tone  of  the  system;  and  on  the 
contrary,  whatever  tends  to  impair  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  gen- 
eral system  will  have  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  sexual  organs. 
A  healthy  horse  needs  nothing  but  good  food,  pure  air,  plenty  of 
exercise,  with  due  attention  to  cleanliness  and  regularity  in  feed- 
ing and  watering;  and  when  all  these  things  are  attended  to  prop- 
erly, the  drugs  and  nostrums  that  stable  lore  prescribes  as  'good  for 
a  horse'  would  be  better  thrown  to  the  dogs." 

462.  The  brood  mare. — Mares  used  only  for  breeding  purposes  do 
well  without  grain  when  on  nutritious  pasture.  With  insufficient 
pasture  some  grain  should  be  given.  The  feed  should  not  be  concen- 
trated in  character,  but  should  possess  considerable  bulk  or  volume. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations.  293 

That  the  mare  may  amply  provide  milk  for  her  young  there  should 
be  a  liberal  supply  of  foods  furnishing  crude  protein,  phosphorus, 
and  lime.  (Tables  III  and  V,  Appendix)  Thru  the  proper  combina- 
tion of  feeds  the  bowels  should  be  kept  natural — a  little  loose  rather 
than  otherwise  at  the  time  of  parturition,  when  bran  is  particularly 
helpful.  To  confine  a  brood  mare  to  a  box  stall  without  suitable  ex- 
ercise, while  supplying  an  abundance  of  food,  is  too  common  a  prac- 
tice, and  one  carrying  great  risk.  With  the  horse,  above  all  animals, 
an  abundance  of  exercise  should  go  with  liberal  feeding.  The  labor 
of  the  brood  mares  should  not  be  severe,  nor  of  such  nature  as  to 
keep  them  long  from  their  foals,  for  then  great  hunger  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  surfeiting.  Idleness,  the  bane  of  horse  breeding,  should  be 
avoided  whenever  possible.  Working  mares  are  more  certain  of 
bringing  good  foals  than  idle  ones. 

463.  Feeding  the  trotter. — The  single  requisite  of  speed  makes 
the  carrying  of  every  pound  of  useless  body  weight,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  feed,  a  serious  matter  in  the  management  of  the  trotting 
horse.  There  is  also  to  be  considered  the  effect  of  the  food  on  the 
character  of  the  muscles  formed  from  it,  and  especially  on  the  nerve 
and  mettle  of  the  horse.  For  help  in  this  line  we  can  draw  from  no 
better  source  than  Hiram  Woodruff,1  who  tells  how  the  trotter  should 
be  fed  and  managed. 

When  going  into  winter  quarters,  the  feed  of  the  trotter  should 
be  reduced  fully  one-half  in  order  to  prevent  fattening,  for  too 
much  fat  on  the  intestines  and  about  the  heart  makes  the  trainer 
no  end  of  trouble  in  working  it  off.  A  few  carrots  may  be  given 
and  a  bran  mash  occasionally,  with  good  clean,  sweet  hay.  Horses 
whose  legs  must  undergo  blistering  or  firing  should  have  feed  of 
a  cooling  nature,  mashes  and  carrots  being  in  more  abundance, 
with  less  oats,  in  order  to  reduce  the  tendency  to  feverish,  inflam- 
matory symptoms.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  permit  the  animal 
to  get  flabby  or  washy  by  too  much  soft  food  while  undergo- 
ing treatment.  Horses  turned  out  to  the  field  should  be  fed  oats 
twice  a  day,  for  the  exposure  to  the  severity  of  the  weather  in- 
creases the  need  of  heat-giving  food.  In  the  spring  when  shed- 
ding, bran  mashes  are  in  order  to  keep  the  bowels  open.  Flax 
seed  and  linseed  meal  should  not  be  given,  for  they  have  a  tend- 
ency to  relax  the  system  too  suddenly  and  to  cause  the  old  hair 
to  come  away  before  the  new  coat  is  well  started. 

1  The  Trotting  Horse  of  America,  pp.  90-105. 


294:  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

"With  the  beginning  of  the  season  (we  quote  directly  from 
the  author)1  while  the  jogging,  the  first  part  of  the  trotting 
horse's  preparation,  is  in  progress,  the  strength  of  the  feed  may 
be  increased,  though  not  up  to  the  extent  that  will  be  requisite 
when  the  work  is  made  longer  and  sharper.  He  may  have,  dur- 
ing this  first  part  of  the  preparation,  from  eight  to  ten  quarts  of 
oats  a  day,  according  to  his  capacity  as  a  feeder,  and  the  demands 
made  by  nature  for  supply  of  strong  food  under  work.  As  the 
oats  are  increased,  the  horse  will  want  less  hay,  but  may  still  have 
all  he  will  eat  up  clean.  After  taking  his  feed  of  oats,  he  will  not 
consume  as  much  hay  in  general;  but  some  horses  are  such  gluttons 
that  it  is  necessary  to  limit  them  as  to  hay  almost  from  the  first. 
There  are  even  some  who  will  eat  the  straw  of  their  bedding  when 
they  have  had  all  the  grain  and  hay  that  should  be  fed  to  them; 
and,  with  these,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  put  on  the  muzzle 
long  before  the  time  for  the  trial  or  the  race.  No  carrots  are  now 
to  be  given,  and  I  believe  corn  to  be  unnecessary  and  often  mis- 
chievous. It  is  heating,  and  does  not  contain  as  much  of  the  stuff 
that  goes  to  make  up  hard  flesh  and  elastic  muscle  as  oats.  There 
may  be  instances,  however,  in  which  a  light  feeder  can  be  got  to  eat 
up  his  oats,  and  a  handful  of  corn  as  well,  when  the  latter  is  mixed 
with  them.  In  such  a  case  it  is  well  to  give  it;  but  in  no  case  should 
corn  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  allowance  of  oats  the  horse  in 
training  ought  to  have. 

"While  the  jogging  and  after  preparation  are  going  on,  a  bran 
mash  now  and  then  will  be  proper.  Probably  about  once  a  week 
will  be  often  enough  and  not  too  often;  but  this  will  be  indicated 
by  the  condition  of  the  horse's  bowels  and  by  his  constitutional 
tendencies  and  requirements.  If  his  bowels  are  relaxed,  the  use 
of  the  bran  rnash  is  not  apparent;  and  if  he  is  of  the  light,  washy 
order,  never  having  much  substance,  and  easily  melting  away  when 
put  into  sharp  training  work,  mashes  are  to  be  given  more  sparingly 
than  with  one  of  the  opposite  character.  The  trainer  is  never  to 
relax  his  vigilance  of  observation,  or  let  his  judgment  go  to  sleep 
and  trust  to  arbitrary  rules.  .  .  .  During  the  fast  work,  prepara- 
tory to  the  coming  trial,  the  horse  will  have  been  put  upon  his 
largest  allowance  of  strong  food.  Some  will  not  eat  more  than  eight 
or  ten  quarts  of  oats  a  day;  and  it  is  necessary  to  be  very  vigilant 
and  careful  that  these  light  feeders  are  not  over-marked  in  work. 
Twelve  or  thirteen  quarts  is  about  what  a  good  feeder  ought  to  have. 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  99. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations.  295 

Some  will  eat  sixteen  quarts  of  oats  a  day,  but  my  belief  is  that  three 
quarts  of  it  does  more  harm  than  good." 

Splan  tells  us1  that  Rarus,  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer,  con- 
sumed 15  Ibs.  of  oats  per  day,  which  he  regarded  as  the  maximum 
for  a  strong,  energetic  horse. 

All  horsemen  agree  in  regarding  oats  as  the  one  grain  suitable  for 
animals  where  speed  is  sought  regardless  of  cost  of  food.  While  this 
opinion  prevails  in  this  country,  we  should  remember  that  the  Arab 
horse  usually  subsists  upon  barley. 

464.  Feeding  the  carriage  horse. — Style  and  action  are  prerequi- 
sites with  the  carriage  horse,  economy  of  feeding  standing  second. 
Oats  easily  lead  among  concentrates,  for  any  good  driver  will  tell 
us  that  the  oat-fed  horse  exhibits  mettle  as  from  no  other  feed.     For 
variety,  rolled  wheat  or  barley  with  bran  may  form  a  part  of  the 
ration.     From  8  to  10  quarts  of  oats  or  their  equivalent,  divided 
into  3  feeds,  should  suffice  for  concentrates,  the  evening  meal  being 
the  largest.     A  bran  mash  should  be  given  at  least  weekly  if  bran 
is  not  more  regularly  used.     The  hay  is  usually  fed  long,  for  the 
carriage  horse  has  plenty  of  time  for  his  meals.    From  10  to  12  Ibs. 
of  hay  is  a  liberal  allowance,  bringing  the  total  ration  within  20  or 
22  Ibs.     The  carriage  horse  must  be  trim  in  body,  and  so  cannot  con- 
sume much  bulky  food,  yet  we  should  not  forget  that  the  ration 
must  have  volume  in  order  that  the   digestive  functions  proceed 
normally.     Carriage  horses  are  usually  overfed  and  exercised  irreg- 
ularly or  too  little,  and  mainly  for  these  reasons  their  period  of  sat- 
isfactory service  is  often  brief.     On  days  when  they  are  not  driven, 
oats  should  be  fed  only  at  noon,  with  a  bran  mash  morning  and 
evening,  no  difference  being  made  in  the  quantity  of  roughage  fed. 

465.  The  work  horse. — Under  favorable  conditions,  the  regular- 
ity in  work,  feeding,  and  rest  brings  comfort  and  long  years  of  use- 
fulness to  the  work  horse.     In  what  has  preceded,  the  feeds  suit- 
able for  this  animal  have  been  quite  fully  considered.    From  10  to  18 
Ibs.  of  concentrates  should  be  fed  daily,  according  to  the  severity  of 
the  labor,  the  total  grain  and  hay  averaging  not  less  than  2  Ibs.  per 
100  Ibs.  of  horse.    From  half  to  two-thirds  of  the  concentrates  should 
be  fed  at  the  evening  meal,  mixed  with  a  peck  of  moistened  chaffed 
hay.     The  mid-day  meal  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  with  horses 
out  on  the  street  all  day,  tho  most  horsemen  hold  that  some  grain 
should  be  given  then. 

1  Life  with  the  Trotters. 


296  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Girard1  found  that  when  hard-worked  horses  getting  19  quarts  of 
oats  with  14  Ibs.  of  hay  and  straw  without  limit  were  stopped  from 
work  for  3  days  and  fed  the  same  ration,  paralysis,  resulting  in 
death,  would  often  occur.  By  reducing  the  ration  during  idle  days 
to  6  quarts  of  oats  at  noon  and  6  quarts  of  bran  mash  both  night 
and  morning,  with  roughage  as  before,  the  trouble  ceased. 

466.  Fattening  horses. — The  following  from  Craig  and  Brettell 
of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College2  describes  the  method  of  fattening 
horses  in  the  corn  belt  for  the  Chicago  markets: 

' '  The  horses  are  usually  purchased  in  the  fall,  after  the  farm  work 
is  over,  and  are  stabled  and  fed  an  abundant  ration,  care  being  taken 
to  accustom  them  gradually  to  full  feed  in  order  to  avoid  colic.  When 
on  full  feed  the  horses  studied  were  given,  per  head,  10  to  14  ears  of 
corn  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  again  at  night,  with  3  quarts  of 
oats  and  bran  1 : 2  and  hay  ad  libitum  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon 
and  also  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon.  Recognizing  the  importance 
of  a  long  period  of  rest,  no  feed  was  given  from  6  or  7  at  night 
until  5  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  horses  were  watered  twice  a  day 
and  were  given  all  they  would  drink.  On  account  of  the  large  num- 
ber fed,  the  horses  could  not  be  exercised,  but  as  a  rule  were  kept 
idle  in  the  stable  until  a  few  days  before  they  were  marketed.  To  in- 
sure good  condition  it  was  found  advantageous  to  give  0.5-0.75 
pint  Glauber  salts  per  head  twice  a  week.  Oil  meal,  it  is  stated,  may 
also  be  given  to  good  advantage,  as  it  aids  greatly  in  putting  on  flesh 
and  also  makes  the  skin  soft. 

"The  importance  of  keeping  mangers  and  feed  boxes  clean  is  in- 
sisted upon,  and  attention  is  especially  directed  to  the  need  of  ex- 
amining the  horses'  teeth  and  removing  with  a  float  any  sharp  points 
which  would  make  the  gums  sore  and  thus  prevent  the  horses  from 
masticating  their  feed  properly. 

"With  such  feeding  and  care  satisfactory  gains  were  generally 
realized.  In  one  instance,  it  is  stated,  a  horse  fed  in  this  manner 
made  a  gain  of  5.5  Ibs.  per  day  for  a  period  of  50  days,  or  550  Ibs. 
in  100  days.  In  several  instances,  with  as  many  as  a  dozen  horses,  a 
gain  of  3.75  Ibs.  per  head  per  day  was  obtained  throughout  a  period 
of  90  days."  (446) 

467.  Hints  on  feeding. — Hard-worked  horses  must  have  rich  food, 
for  the  richer  the  food  the  more  easily  is  it  digested,  and  the  greater 
the  proportion  available  for  work.     On  the  other  hand,  rich  feed,  if 
carelessly  administered,  brings  increased  danger.   Idle  horses  or  those 

1  Langworthy,  Office  of  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  125.  2  Breeder 's  Gaz.,  35, 1899,  p.  781. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse — Rations.  297 

at  light  work  do  best  on  light  rations,  and  these  should  be  less  concen- 
trated and  contain  more  roughage.  No  other  farm  animal  is  so 
strongly  the  creature  of  habit  as  is  the  horse,  and  in  no  way  is  he 
more  so  than  in  the  matters  relating  to  food  and  its  administration. 
Sudden  changes  in  quantity  and  variety  should  be  avoided.  A  quick 
change  from  oats  to  corn  may  bring  on  colic,  but  changing  from 
corn  to  oats  is  less  dangerous.  An  abrupt  change  from  old  to  new 
hay,  or  from  late-  to  early-cut  hay,  may  bring  trouble.  Wilted  grass 
is  more  dangerous  than  fresh  grass.  Any  unusual  feeding  stuff,  such 
as  silage,  roots,  apples,  etc.,  should  be  given  in  small  quantities  at 
first,  and  changes  in  kind  and  quantity  should  always  be  made  grad- 
ually. It  is  best  to  mix  and  feed  several  kinds  of  concentrates  to- 
gether rather  than  feed  them  separately.  Hay  should  be  fed  at  the 
same  time  the  concentrates  are  given,  in  order  to  properly  distend 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  Thru  carelessness  or  mistaken  kindness 
the  mangers  are  often  kept  filled  with  hay,  and  the  horse  gorges  him- 
self with  this  provender,  a  staring  coat,  labored  breathing,  and  quick 
tiring  being  the  least  serious,  tho  probably  the  most  noticeable  re- 
sults. There  should  be  a  definite,  limited  allowance  of  hay  for  the 
horse  at  each  feeding  time,  given  mostly  at  night.  More  horses 
are  injured  by  feeding  too  much  hay  than  too  little. 

With  increasing  age  and  continued  use,  the  teeth  of  the  horse 
elongate  and  often  wear  irregularly,  leaving  sharp  points  and  ragged 
edges  that  cause  pain  and  prevent  the  proper  mastication  of  the 
provender.  In  extreme  cases  horses  actually  die  of  starvation  be- 
cause thru  irregularly  worn  teeth  they  are  unable  to  chew  their 
food.  Many  horses  that  are  poor  in  flesh  and  wear  staring  coats, 
despite  a  reasonable  supply  of  food,  owe  their  condition  to  poor 
teeth.  The  teeth  of  all  horses  should  be  frequently  examined  and 
properly  cared  for  by  the  owner  or  by  a  veterinarian. 

468.  Supervision  of  feeding. — In  stables  where  many  horses  are 
maintained,  a  group  or  row  of  animals  should  remain  in  the  care  of 
the  same  attendant,  the  whole  establishment  being  under  the  watch- 
ful supervision  of  the  superintendent.  While  we  can  estimate  quite 
closely  the  amount  of  food  to  be  given  a  hundred  or  a  thousand 
horses,  there  should  always  be  modifications  and  concessions  to  in- 
dividual members  of  the  establishment  to  be  recognized  and  provided 
for  by  the  guiding  mind, — one  horse  should  have  a  little  more  than 
the  regulation  allowance,  and  the  next  possibly  a  little  less,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  keep  each  in  the  desired  condition.  Usually  it  is  not 


298  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

well  to  leave  the  feeding  of  horses  to  their  own  driver,  for  he  has  his 
likes  and  dislikes,  and  the  favorites  are  quite  certain  to  receive  more 
than  their  proper  allowance  of  grain,  while  the  others  suffer.  A 
watchful  superintendent  must  ever  be  on  the  alert  to  see  that  each 
animal  secures  the  needed  provender. 

469.  Exercise. — The  Arabs  have  a  saying,  "Kest  and  fat  are  the 
greatest  enemies  of  the  horse."    The  horse  is  par  excellence  the  crea- 
ture of  motion,  and  in  its  feeding  and  management  we  should  hold 
this  point  ever  in  view.     The  prudent  horseman  will  bear  in  mind 
that  correlative  with  liberal  feeding  there  must  be  hearty  exercise 
or  severe  labor,  and  that  these  conditions  may  be  happily  balanced. 
As  soon  as  hard  labor  ceases,  or  constant  and  vigorous  exercise  is 
over,  it  wrill  be  found  absolutely  necessary  to  reduce  the  allowance 
of  food  if  the  proper  balance  is  to  be  maintained.     The  idle  horse 
should  be  limited  to  less  than  half  the  grain  given  while  on  regular 
duty,  and  in  some  instances  it  were  better  to  give  none,  provided  the 
roughage  supplied  be  of  good  quality. 

A  colt  fed  heavily  on  suitable  nutrients  will  grow  rapidly  and 
develop  good  bone  and  strong  muscle,  provided  at  all  times  there  be  a 
proper  balance  between  exercise  and  feed.  The  highly-fed  colt  should 
be  out  of  doors  from  8  to  10  hours  a  day,  and  should  move  several 
miles  each  day  either  in  the  field,  on  the  track,  or  both.  A  mature 
horse  should  be  in  the  open  air  not  less  than  4  or  5  hours  a  day  and 
should  travel  from  10  to  15  miles  daily  to  maintain  health. 

II.  EATIONS. 

470.  Rations. — The  following  rations  by  various  authorities  should 
be  helpful  in  determining  the  amount  of  feed  required  by  the  horse 
under  varying  conditions : 

A.  Rations  from  various  sources. 
Trotting  bred  colts— Hiram  Woodruff1 

Weaning  time  2 -yr.- old  in  training 

Oats,  2  Ibs.  Oats,  8  Ibs. 

Hay,  unlimited  allowance  Hay,  limited  allowance 

l-yr.-old  3-yr.-old  in  training 

Oats,  4  Ibs.  Oats,  8-12  Ibs. 

Hay,  unlimited  allowance  Hay,  limited  allowance 

2-yr.-old 
Oats,  6  Ibs. 
Hay,  unlimited  allowance 

1  The  Trotting  Horse  of  America. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse  —  Rations.  299 

Trotting  horse  —  Splan1 

On  circuit  On  circuit,  exceptional  as  with  Rarus 

Oats,  10  lbs.  Oats,  15  Ibs. 

Hay,  fair  amount  Hay,  fair  amount 

Horses  variously  used  —  Stonehenge  2 

Race  horse  Hack 

Oats,  15  Ibs.  Oats,  8  Ibs. 

Hay,  6-8  Ibs.  Hay,  12  Ibs. 

Horses  variously  used  —  Fleming3 

Pony  Hunter,  large 
Oats,  4  Ibs.  Oats,  16  Ibs. 

Hay,  moderate  allowance  Hay,  10  Ibs. 

Hunter,  small  Carriage,  light  work 
Oats,  12  Ibs.  Oats,  10  Ibs. 

Hay,  12  Ibs.  Hay,  12  Ibs. 

The  draft  horse  —  Sidney  4 

Heavy,  hard  work 
Oats,  13  Ibs. 
Horse  beans,  6  Ibs. 
Corn,  3  Ibs. 
Chaffed  clover  hay,  15  Ibs. 

The  farm  horse  —  Settegast  5 

Light  work  Medium  work  Heavy  work 

Oats,  6-10  Ibs.  Oats,  10  Ibs.  Oats,  13  Ibs. 

Hay,  6-9  Ibs.  Hay,  10  Ibs.  Hay,  12  Ibs. 

Straw,  3  Ibs.  Straw,  3  Ibs.  Straw,  3  Ibs. 

B.  Rations  for  army  horses.  6 

United  States  Great  Britain,  con. 

In  camp,  wt.  1125  lbs. 
Cavalry,  wt.  1050  Ibs.  Oats,  12.  0  Ibs. 


™  Hav>  12-°  lbs- 

Hay,  14.  0  lbs. 

Cabs,  wt.  1125  lbs. 

Artillery,  wt.  1125  lbs.  Oats,  10.  0  lbs. 

Oats,  12.0  lbs.  Hay,  12.0  lbs. 

Hay,  14.  0  lbs.  Mules,  heavy  work,  wt.  1025  lbs. 

Oats,  10.0  lbs. 

Mules,  wt.  1025  lbs.  Hay,  12.  0  lbs. 

Oats,  9.  0  lbs.  Straw,  8.  0  lbs. 

Hay,  14  .  0  lbs.  Mules  in  camp,  wt.  1025  lbs. 

Oats,  12.0  lbs. 
Great  Britain  Hay,  12.  0  lbs. 

In  quarters,  wt.  1125  lbs.  France,  peace  footing 

Oats,  10.  0  lbs.  Reserve,  wt.  1050  lbs. 

Hay,  12.  0  lbs.  Oats,  13.  0  lbs. 

Straw,  8.0  lbs.  Hay,  8.  8  lbs. 

1  Life  with  the  Trotters.  *  Book  of  the  Horse. 

-  The  Horse.  *  Thierzucht,  2,  1888,  p.  109. 

3  The  Practical  Horse  Keeper. 

'Collected  by  Langworthy  and  preserved  in  "A  Digest  of  Recent  Experiments 
on  Horse  Feeding,"  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1903,  Office  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  125. 


300 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


France,  peace   footing,   con. 

Line,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 

Oats,  11. 5  Ibs. 

Hay,  7. 7  Ibs. 

Light  cavalry,  wt.  850  Ibs. 
Oats,  10. 4  Ibs. 
Hay,  6. 6  Ibs. 


Germany,  heavy  ration 


1. 1075  Us. 


Artillery  and  train, 
Oats,  12. 4  Ibs. 
Hay,  8. 5  Ibs. 

Mules,  wt.  950  Ibs. 
Oats,  10. 8  Ibs. 
Hay,  7. 5  Ibs. 


France,  war  footing 

Reserve,  wt.  1050  l~bs. 
Oats,  14. 7  Ibs. 
Hay,  8. 8  Ibs. 

Line,wt.  1050  Ibs. 

Oats,  13. 5  Ibs. 

Hay,  7. 7  Ibs. 

Light  cavalry,  wt.  850  Ibs. 
Oats,  11. 8  Ibs. 
Hay,  6. 6  Ibs. 

Artillery  and  train,  wt.  1075  Ibs. 
Oats,  14. 2  Ibs. 
Hay,  8. 5  Ibs. 


Garrison,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  11. 2  Ibs. 
Hay,  5. 6  Ibs. 
Straw,  7.8  Ibs. 

March,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  12. 3  Ibs. 
Hay,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Straw,  3. 9  Ibs. 

Field,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  12. 6  Ibs. 
Hay,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Straw,  3. 9  Ibs. 


Germany,  light  ration 


Garrison,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  9. 5  Ibs. 
Hay,  5. 6  Ibs. 
Straw,  7. 8  Ibs. 

March,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  10. 6  Ibs. 
Hay,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Straw,  3. 9  Ibs. 

Field,  wt.  1050  Ibs. 
Oats,  11. 2  Ibs. 
Hay,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Straw,  3. 9  Ibs. 


C.  Eations  for  various  classes  of  work  horses* 


Omnibus  horses 

Paris,  France,  wt.  1240  Ibs. 
Corn,  10. 8  Ibs. 
Oats,  8. 1  Ibs. 

Hay,  8. 7  Ibs. 

Straw,  8. 2  Ibs. 

Fire  company  horses 

Boston,  Mass.,  wt.  1400  Ibs. 
Ground  grain,  9. 4  Ibs. 
Hay,  18.0  Ibs. 

Chicago,  III.,  wt.  1350  Ibs. 
Oats,  4. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  15.0  Ibs. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  wt.  1350  Ibs. 
Oats,  10. 0  Ibs. 
Bran,  2. 5  Ibs. 
Hay,  7.0  Ibs. 

New  Yorlc,  N.  T.,  wt.  1350  Ibs. 
Oats,  12.0  Ibs. 
Hay,  9..0  Ibs. 


Express  horses 

Richmond,  Va.,  summer,  wt.  1400  Ibs. 

Corn,  4. 7  Ibs. 
Oats,  5. 3  Ibs. 
Bran,  0. 8  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  4. 2  Ibs. 
Hay,  15.0  Ibs. 

Richmond,  Va.,  winter,  wt.  1400  Ibs. 

Corn,  4. 4  Ibs. 
Oats,  7. 5  Ibs. 
Bran,  0. 8  Ib. 
Corn  meal,  0. 2  Ib. 
Hay,  16.0  Ibs. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  wt.  1325  Ibs. 

Corn,  2. 0  Ibs. 
Oats,  19. 0  Ibs. 
Bran,  1. 5  Ibs. 
Hay,  9. 5  Ibs. 


1  Loc.  cit. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Horse— Rations. 


301 


Express  horses,  con. 

Boston,  Mass.,  wt.  1325  Ibs. 
Corn,  12  Ibs. 
Oats,  5. 3  Ibs. 
Hay,  20.0  Ibs. 

Cab  horses 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  wt.  1200  Ibs. 
Oats,  14. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  10. 0  Ibs. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  wt.  1200  Ibs. 
Oats,  10. 0  Ibs. 
Com,  5. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  23.0  Ibs. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  wt.  1350  Ibs. 
Oats,  8. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  16.0  Ibs. 

Horses  at  severe  work 

Chicago,  III.,  daily,  wt.  1500  tbs. 
Oats,  7. 5  Ibs. 
Hay,  20.0  Ibs. 

Chicago,  III,  holiday,  wt.  1500  Ibs. 
Oats,  2. 0  Ibs. 
Bran,  2. 5  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  0. 2  Ib. 
Hay,  20.0  Ibs. 

South  Omaha,  Nebr.,  wt.  1500  Ibs. 
Oats,  15. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  12. 0  Ibs. 

New  Yorfc,  N.  Y.,  wt.  1600  Ibs. 
Oats,  23. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  12.0  Ibs. 


Horses  at  severe  work,  con. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  summer,  wt.  1600 

Ibs. 

Oats,  19. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  13.0  Ibs. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  winter,  wt.  1600 

Ibs. 

Oats,  12. 5  Ibs. 
Corn,  6. 8  Ibs. 
Ground  grain,  4.0  Ibs.* 
Hay,  10.0  Ibs. 

Farm  horses,  Stations 

New  Hampshire,  wt.  1235  Ibs. 
Bran,  2. 0  Ibs. 
Corn,  6. 0  Ibs. 
Gluten  meal,  6.0  Ibs. 
Hay,  10.0  Ibs. 

Massachusetts,  wt.  1100  Ibs. 
Oats,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Crushed  corn,  2. 7  Ibs. 
Provender,  6. 0  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  2. 0  Ibs. 
Hay,  18. 0  Ibs. 

New  Jersey,  wt.  1150  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  6. 3  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  6. 2  Ibs. 
Hay,  8. 0  Ibs. 

Utah,  wt.  1120  Ibs. 
Bran  and  shorts  (1:1),  12.6  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  16. 0  Ibs. 

Utah,  wt.  1230  Ibs. 
Oats,  12. 0  Ibs. 
Timothy  hay,  13. 0  Ibs. 


The  table  shows  that  oats,  hay,  and  straw  are  the  only  feeds  used 
for  army  horses  by  the  great  nations.  The  reasons  are  plain :  All 
forms  of  provender  for  such  purposes  must  not  only  be  palatable 
and  safe,  but  also  widely  known  articles  of  trade,  easily  collectible 
in  vast  quantities,  readily  inspected,  and  generally  uniform  in  qual- 
ity. They  must  not  be  easily  subject  to  waste  or  deterioration  dur- 
ing storage  and  transportation.  The  feeds  employed  best  fill  these 
rigid  requirements,  and  hence  they  are  tenaciously  adhered  to  by 
the  departments  of  war.  In  the  city  and  on  the  farm  a  far  wider 
range  of  feeding  stuffs  for  the  horse  is  not  only  possible  but  often 
advisable,  as  the  widely  collected  experience  in  these  chapters 
shows. 


Bran  2,  corn  meal  1.6,  cut  hay  4  parts. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

CALF  REARING. 
I.  FINDINGS  OF  THE  INVESTIGATORS. 

471.  Birth  weight. — According  to  Krafft,1   the  weight  of  calves 
at  birth  is  from  one-twelfth  to  one-fourteenth  the  weight  of  the  dam, 
or  as  follows : 

Light-weight  calves 48  to    66  pounds 

Average  calves 66  to   92  pounds 

Heavy  calves 97  to  110  pounds 

Very  heavy  calves 115  to  128  pounds 

472.  Calf,  lamb,  and  pig  compared.— Linfield  of  the  Utah  Sta- 
tion2 found  that  up  to  14  weeks  of  age  the  calf  takes  less  dry  matter 
than  the  pig  for  1  Ib.  of  gain,  and  after  that  more,  possibly  because 
of  the  greater  amount  of  roughage  then  used  in  the  ration.     Beach 
of   the   Connecticut    (Storrs)    Station3    found   that   calves   required 
1.03,  lambs  1.08,  and  pigs  1.36  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in  whole  milk  for 
each  Ib.  of  gain  made.  (102,  722,  816) 

473.  Whole  milk.— Mart iny4  found  that  from  3.5  to  6  Ibs.  of  new 
milk  was  sufficient  to  produce  a  Ib.  of  gain,  live  weight,  with  calves 
between  the  first  and  fifth  weeks,  while  older  ones  required  from  16 
to  20  Ibs. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  Station5  Hunt  fed  3  calves  full  milk  con- 
taining 4.6  per  ct.  of  fat  for  161  days.  They  gained  1.77  Ibs.  each 
daily,  requiring  8.8  Ibs.  of  whole  milk  and  1  Ib.  of  hay  and  1  Ib.  of 
grain  for  each  Ib.  of  growth.  (301) 

474.  Skim  milk. — In   experiments  at  the   Rastede  Dairy  School6 
with  30  calves  the  average  daily  gain  and  the  amount  of  skim  milk 
required  for  1  Ib.  of  gain  during  fattening  periods  of  different  lengths 
were  as  shown  on  the  next  page. 

It  is  shown  that  with  a  supply  of  milk  adapted  to  the  age  of  the 
calf  the  daily  gains  remained  nearly  the  same,  whether  the  fattening 
continued  20  or  90  days.  With  increase  in  age  and  weight,  however, 

1  Lehrb.  Landw.,  3, 1890,  p.  85.  *  Die  Milch,  2, 1871,  pp.  9-15. 

2  Bui.  57.  5  Rpt.  1891. 

3  Bpt.  1904,  p.  118.  (i  Mikhzeitung,  9, 1880,  p.  214. 

302 


Calf  Rearing. 


a  larger  quantity  of  skim  milk  was  required  to  produce  1  Ib.  of 
gain.  (302) 

Skim  milk  required  for  1  Ib.  gain  ~by  calves. 


Length  of  period 

Average  live  weight 
at  end  of  period 

Average  daily  gain 

Skim  milk  for 
1  Ib.  gain 

Days 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

20-30 

127 

2.0 

7.9 

3(MO 

146 

1.8 

9.5 

40-50 

175 

2.1 

11.5 

50-60 

190 

2.0 

12.0 

60-70 

220 

2.1 

13.6 

70-80 

220 

1.9 

14.6 

80-90 

243 

1.9 

20.1 

Over  90 

338 

2.3 

18.0 

475.  Whole  milk  v.  skim  milk.— At  the  Utah  Station1  Linfield 
fed  calves  averaging  about  70  Ibs.  whole  milk,  while  others  given 
whole  milk  at  first  were  gradually  changed  to  skim  milk.  The  feed 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  is  shown  in  the  table: 

Feeding  calves  whole  milk  and  skim  milk. 


\ 

Av. 
gain 

day 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Dressed  wt. 
to  live  wt. 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk 

Milk 

Fat 

2  calves  fed  whole  milk 

Lbs. 
2.1 

1.8 

Lbs. 
950 

360 

Lbs. 
37 

14 

Lbs. 

Per  cent. 
65.0 

58.3 

7  calves  fed  whole  milk  and  skim 
milk 

830 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  calves  getting  whole  milk  required  950 
Ibs.  of  milk,  containing  37  Ibs.  of  butter-fat,  for  100  Ibs.  of  increase, 
live  weight.  These  calves  yielded  65  per  ct.  of  dressed  carcass.  Those 
fed  at  first  whole  milk  and  later  skim  milk  required  360  Ibs.  of  whole 
milk  and  830  of  skim  milk  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  and  dressed  but  58  per 
ct.  Linfield  states  that  skim  milk  fed  to  calves  gave  fully  as  large 
financial  returns  as  when  fed  to  pigs. 

476.  Pasteurized  skim  milk. — In  two  trials  at  the  Ontario  Experi- 
mental Station2  Dean  found  that  calves  fed  pasteurized  skim  milk 
(heated  to  160°  F.)  made  somewhat  better  gains  than  others  fed  un- 
pasteurized  skim  milk.  At  the  Kansas  Station3  Otis  found  practically 
no  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  pasteurized  creamery  skim  milk 
and  that  fed  directly  from  the  hand  separator,  except  that  the  pas- 


1  Bui.  57. 


Ept.1899. 


3  Bui.  126. 


304  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

teurized  skim  milk  caused  less  trouble  from  scouring.  Patrons  of 
creameries  should  insist  that  all  skim  milk  returned  from  the  cream- 
ery be  first  pasteurized,  not  only  for  the  above  reason,  but  espe- 
cially to  prevent  the  possible  spread  of  tuberculosis. 

477.  Buttermilk. — At  the  Kansas  Station1  Otis  found  that  butter- 
milk gave  slightly  less  returns  with  calves  than  skim  milk.     Butter- 
milk caused  less  trouble  from  scours  than  skim  milk.    Porter  of  Eng- 
land2 recommends  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  buttermilk  to 
the  whole-milk  ration  of  the  veal  calf,  during  the  third  week  of  feed- 
ing gradually  increasing  the  allowance  until  one  part  of  buttermilk 
is  fed  with  each  10  parts  of  new  milk.  (303) 

478.  Whey. — Graef3  secured  a  daily  gain  of  2  Ibs.  with  calves  fed 
skim  milk,  while  those  getting  whey  gained  from  1  to  1.4  Ibs.    At  the 
Kansas  Station4  Otis  changed  calves  from  skim  milk  to  whey  when  3 
to  5  weeks  old,  feeding  10  to  14  Ibs.  of  whey  daily  with  alfalfa  hay, 
prairie  hay,  kafir  meal,  and  sieved  ground  oats.    The  whey-fed  calves 
were  thrifty  and  healthy,  tho  less  fat  than  those  getting  skim  milk. 
Few  can  successfully  rear  calves  on  whey,  which  contains  little  nutri- 
ment, is  more  or  less  acid,  and  is  usually  loaded  with  germs  that  de- 
range digestion.    Whey  should  be  fed  as  fresh  as  possible  and  under 
the  strictest  rules  as  to  quantity,  regularity,  and  cleanliness  of  the 
vessels   employed.  (304) 

479.  Substitutes  for  milk. — At  the   Kansas   Station5  Otis   boiled 
hay,  previously  soaked  in  a  tank,  for  1  or  2  hours.     It  was  then  re- 
moved and  the  liquid  which  remained  was  concentrated  by  boiling, 
12.5  Ibs.  of  the  hay  yielding  about  100  Ibs.  of  ''tea."     With  kafir 
meal,  wheat  middlings,  and  oil-meal  jelly  for  concentrates  the  calves 
fed  alfalfa-hay  tea  gained  but  0.4  Ib.  daily  and  those  fed  mixed  hay 
tea,  0.9  Ib. — poor  returns  in  both  cases. 

Stewart0  gives  the  following  satisfactory  experience  with  a  hay- 
tea  ration  for  calves :  "If  the  hay  is  cut  early,  when  it  has  most  sol- 
uble matter,  and  is  of  good  quality,  the  tea  will  grow  good  calves,  but 
this  extract  frequently  has  too  small  a  proportion  of  albuminous  and 
fatty  matter.  Yet,  if  the  hay  tea  is  boiled  down  so  as  not  to  contain 
too  much  water  for  the  dry  substance,  calves  will  usually  thrive  upon 
it.  We  tried  an  experiment  by  feeding  2  gallons  of  hay  tea,  in  which 
one-fourth  of  a  Ib.  of  flax  seed  and  one-fourth  of  a  Ib.  of  wheat  mid- 
dlings had  been  boiled,  to  each  of  five  calves  30  days  old.  This  ex- 
periment was  continued  60  days,  with  a  gradual  increase,  during  the 

1  Bui.  126.  4  Bui.  126. 

2  Jour.  Bd.  Agr.  (London) ,  1, 1907,  p.  730.        5  Bui.  126. 

3  Milchzeitung,  1880,  p.  143.  °  Feeding  Animals,  p.  246. 


Calf  Rearing. 


305 


last  30  days,  of  the  middlings  to  1  Ib.  per  day.  These  calves  did  re- 
in arkably  well,  gaining  on  an  average  a  little  over  2  Ibs.  per  head 
per  day. ' ' 

480.  Concentrates  compared. — During  trials  lasting  60  to  90  days 
at  the  Iowa  Station1  Curtiss  fed  milk  fresh  from  the  farm  separator, 
having  a  temperature  of  90°  F.,  to  Short-horn  and  Holstein  calves 
weighing  180  to  200  Ibs.  An  average  allowance  of  15.4  Ibs.  of  milk 
and  2.9  Ibs.  of  hay  was  given  to  each,  with  either  linseed  oil  meal, 
sieved  ground  oats,  or  cornmeal  with  a  little  flax  seed.  Eight  calves 
were  fed  each  ration  with  the  following  results: 

Fresh  separator  skim  milk  with  various  concentrates  for  calves. 


Average  grain  allowance 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Dry  matter 
per  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Cost  of 
gain 
per  Ib. 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Lot     I,  Oil  meal,  1.2  Ibs.  . 
Lot    II,  Oat  meal,  1.5  Ibs  
Lot  III,  Corn  meal,  1.  3  Ibs. 
Flax  seed,  0.1  Ib. 

Lbs. 
109 
116 

116 

Lbs. 
1.47 
1.57 

1.56 

Lbs. 
339 
337 

330 

Cts. 
2.8 
2.1 

2.2 

1:2.6 
1:3.6 

1:4.0 

Curtiss  writes:  "The  results  of  all  the  investigations  made  at  this 
station  strongly  indicate  that  it  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  poor 
economy  and  poor  practice  in  feeding  to  use  a  highly  nitrogenous 
product  like  oil  meal  in  combination  with  separator  skim  milk.  The 
practice  has  neither  logical  reason  nor  scientific  theory  for  its  sup- 
port ;  and  in  the  corn-belt  states,  with  their  surplus  of  corn  and  oats, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  the  purchase  of  a  high-priced  nitrogenous 
product  to  be  used  in  supplementing  the  skim-milk  ration/' 

Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station2  found  that  calves  fed  whole  corn  were 
less  subject  to  scours  and  did  better  than  when  given  ground  corn 
(corn  chop).  Ground  kafir,  however,  gave  better  results  than  whole 
kafir. 

At  the  Virginia  Station3  Fain  and  Jarnagin  secured  a  gain  of  1.4 
Ibs.  daily  when  feeding  calves  cornmeal  with  skim  milk,  and  1.6  Ibs., 
or  14  per  ct.  more,  when  whole  corn  was  used.  Barley  was  found  to 
be  an  excellent  grain  to  supplement  skim  milk.  (171)  Bran  was  used 
to  great  advantage  in  teaching  the  calves  to  eat  grain,  but  no  ad- 
vantage, either  in  the  rate  of  gain  or  the  appearance  of  the  calf,  was 
secured  from  adding  bran  to  a  ration  of  shelled  corn  and  skim 
milk.  (165) 


Bui.  35. 
21 


•  Bui.  126. 


Bui.  172. 


306  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Cottrell,  Otis,  and  Haney  of  the  Kansas  Station1  report  that  kafir 
meal,  given  dry,  is  particularly  suited  to  feed  with  skim  milk  because 
its  constipating  nature  overcomes  the  scouring  tendency  of  the 
milk.  (183) 

From  experiments  at  the  Louisiana  Station2  Woodward  and  Lee 
conclude  that  on  account  of  its  laxative  effect  "blackstrap"  or  cane 
molasses  cannot  be  used  as  a  supplement  to  skim  milk  for  calf  feeding 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  of  any  practical  value.  (314) 

Kellner3  states  that  buckwheat  meal  is  said  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults of  any  cereal  used  in  veal  making  and  to  injure  the  quality  of 
the  flesh  least.  (180) 

481.  Saccharified  starch. — Starch  converted  into  sugar  thru  the 
action  of  diastase  constitutes  "saccharified  starch,"  a  food  substance 
attracting  attention  in  Europe.    In  experiments  covering  3  years  with 
70  calves  Hansen4  found  saccharified  starch,  obtained  by  treating 
starch    with    proprietary    preparations    containing    malt    extract,  a 
cheap   substitute   for  milk  fat   when  fed  with   skim  milk.     Calves 
reared  on  skim  milk  and  saccharified  starch  produced  cheaper  gains 
than  from  whole  milk,  made  entirely  satisfactory  gains,  were  sleek 
and  thrifty,  and  developed  afterwards  in  a  thoroly  satisfactory  man- 
ner.   Feeding  more  than  0.8  Ib.  of  saccharified  starch  per  head  daily 
leads  to  scouring.     The  entire  withdrawal  of  whole  milk  from  very 
young  calves  is  not  recommended.     The  use  of  saccharified  starch  is 
held  to  render  skim  milk  of  greater  nutritive  value  and  makes  possi- 
ble a  somewhat  earlier  change  from  whole  to  skim  milk.     The  above 
suggests  the  use  of  ground  malt  in  calf  feeding,  since  in  malt  the 
starch  of  the  barley  grain  has  been  changed  to  sugar. 

482.  Miscellaneous. — At     the     Massachusetts    Station5     Lindsey 
found  that  cod-liver  oil  added  to  skim  milk  proved  unsatisfactory,  the 
calves  sometimes  refusing  the  combination.     A  cheap  grade  of  oleo- 
margarine was  heated  to  110°  F.  and  mixed  with  skim  milk  by  churn- 
ing.    It  was  found  that  1  ounce  of  oil  per  quart  of  skim  milk  was 
all  that  the  calf  could  take  without  indigestion  being  produced.   Cot- 
ton-seed oil  and  corn  oil  to  the  amount  of  one-half  ounce  per  quart 
of  milk  were  fed  without  bad  effect.    A  calf  fed  skim  milk  containing 
1  part  oleo  and  2  parts  brown  sugar  gained  over  2  Ibs.  daily,  with 
kidneys  well  covered  with  fat.     Calves  thus  fed  were  superior  to 
those  receiving  skim  milk  only,  but  not  equal  in  fatness  to  sucking 
calves. 

1  Bui.  93.  4  Landw.  Jahrb.,  37, 1908,  Sup.  Ill,  p.  235. 

2  Bui.  104.  5Rpts.  1893,1894. 

3  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  458. 


Calf  Rearing. 


307 


483.  Mineral  matter. — In  many  cases  calves  otherwise  well  nour- 
ished suffer  from  the  lack  of  lime  or  phosphorus,  or  both.    Kellner1 
recommends  the  feeding  of  one-half  ounce  of  chalk  (carbonate  of 
lime)  daily  to  calves  on  milk  or  getting  feeds  low  in  lime,  such  as 
straw,  roots,  and  the  grains.     Gouin  and  Andouard  of  France2  as  a 
result  of  long  continued  studies  recommend  feeding  ground  bone, 
such  as  is  used  in  commercial  fertilizers,  to  calves.     Based  on  the 
studies  with  pigs  by  Hart,  McCollum,  and  Fuller  of  the  Wisconsin 
Station,  it  is  reasonable  to  recommend  that  one-half  ounce  of  ground 
rock  phosphate  (floats)  be  given  daily  to  calves  in  place  of  chalk  or 
ground  bone.  (88-90) 

484.  Water  and  salt.— Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station3  found  that  un- 
weaned  calves  when  from  2  to  3  months  old,  drinking  several  times  a 
day,  consumed  daily  on  the  average  10  Ibs.  of  water  each.     The  im- 
portance of  water  for  milk-fed  calves  is  not  usually   appreciated. 
Generally  there  is  also  some  demand  for  salt  by  the  calf.  (87,  91) 

485.  Dried  blood. — Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station4  found  that  sickly 
calves,  given  at  first  a  teaspoonful  and  later  a  tablespoonful  of  dried 
blood   with   their   allowance   of   skim   milk,    rapidly    regained   their 
health.    Blood  meal  which  has  been  especially  prepared  for  calves  is 
best.     In  all  cases  it  should  be  carefully  incorporated  with  the  milk 
to  prevent  settling.  (306) 

486.  Gains  made  by  calves. — Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station5  gives  the 
following  table,  showing  the  weight,  by  months,  of  calves  reared  on 
skim  milk,  grain,  and  pasture  from  birth  until  one  year  of  age: 

Weight  of  calves  from  birth  until  one  year  old. 


No.  of 
calves 

Age 

Range  in 
weight 

Average 
weight 

No.  of 
calves 

Age 

Range  in 
weight 

Average 
weight 

Months 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Months 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

23 

Birth 

59-108 

77 

38 

7 

288-461 

403! 

45 

1 

70-154 

111 

28 

8 

332-507 

455 

56 

9 

88-199 

144 

21 

9 

370-575 

515 

60 

3 

111-248 

181 

20 

10 

427-645 

578 

60 

4 

148-290 

229 

20 

11 

444-730 

626 

54 

5 

183-362 

287 

19 

12 

476-770 

669 

43 

6 

228-425 

349 

It  is  shown  that  calves  averaging  77  Ibs.  each  at  birth  attained  an 
average  weight  of  669  Ibs.  at  the  end  of  12  months,  showing  an  aver- 
age daily  gain  of  1.6  Ibs.  for  the  entire  period.  Whoever  attains 
these  figures  in  rearing  calves  should  be  well  satisfied. 

1  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  458.  *  Loe.  eit. 

-  Expt.  Sta.  Eec.,  19,  p.  468.  B  Loc.  cit. 

s  Bui.  126. 


308 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


487.  Rate  of  gain. — Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station1  compared  the 
cost  of  calves  reared  on  skim  milk  or  whole  milk  with  that  of  others 
running  with  their  dams  at  pasture.  Those  fed  skim  milk  and  whole 
milk  were  given  in  addition  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  kafir  meal, 
with  alfalfa  hay  for  roughage.  After  weaning,  all  were  placed  in 
the  feed  lot  and  given  the  same  feeds. 

Rate  of  gain  of  calves  variously  fed  up  to  one  year  of  age. 


How  fed 

Before  weaning 

210  days  in  feed  lot, 
after  weaning 

No.  of 
calves 

Length 
of 
time 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Cost  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Concentrates 
per  100  Ibs.  gain 

Skim  milk 

10 
10 
22 

Days 
154 
154 
140 

Lbs. 

1.5 
1.9 

1.8 

Dollars 
2.26 
7.06 
4.41 

Lbs. 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 

Lbs. 
439 
470 
475 

Whole  milk 

Running  with  dam 

The  skim-milk  calves,  tho  not  gaining  so  rapidly  as  the  others  up 
to  weaning,  cost  less  for  a  given  gain  than  either  of  the  other  lots. 
During  the  7  months  in  the  feed  lot  the  skim-milk  calves  made  the 
most  rapid  gains  and  also  the  most  economical  gains,  measured  by 
the  feed  consumed.  Otis  reports  that  the  22  calves  running  with 
their  dams  lost  73  Ibs.  the  week  following  separation  at  weaning  time, 
requiring  several  weeks  to  recover  this  loss.  In  estimating  the  cost 
of  the  several  lots  before  weaning,  skim  milk  was  valued  at  15  cents 
per  100  Ibs.,  and  whole  milk  at  21.1  cents  for  each  Ib.  of  fat  it  con- 
tained. Hay  was  rated  at  $4  per  ton,  and  concentrates  at  $10.  The 
cost  of  a  calf  running  with  its  dam  until  weaned  was  placed  at  $12, 
and  of  one  raised  on  skim  milk  at  $5.27. 

488.  Cost  of  rearing  calves. — Norton  of  the  Michigan  Station,1 
on  keeping  account  of  all  the  feed  consumed  for  1  year  by  57  calves 
of  various  dairy  and  beef  breeds,  secured  the  following  results: 

Average  birth  weight 81  pounds 

Average  weight  at  end  of  year 648  pounds 

Average  gain  during  the  year 567  pounds 

Average  daily  gain..                                1.6  pounds 

The  average  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  each  calf  during  the  year 
was: 


Whole  milk 405  pounds 

Skim  milk 3,968  pounds 

Dried  beet  pulp  _      111  pounds 
Grain 1,033  pounds 


Corn  silage 1,057  pounds 

Hay 1,007  pounds 

Roots 149  pounds 

Soilage 148  pounds 


1  Bui.  126. 


Bui.  257. 


Calf  Rearing.  309 

Norton  estimates  that  the  feed  consumed  by  these  calves  cost 
$27.59  per  head,  or  $4.87  per  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 

II.  REARING  THE   CALF. 

489.  Feeding  for  beef. — Where  prime  beef  is  the  sole  object  the 
calf  should  draw  its  milk  direct  from  the  dam,  or  be  fed  full  milk. 
Where  the  calf  remains  with  the  dam  her  udder  should,  for  a  time, 
be  stripped  night  and  morning  lest  neglect  bring  garget  and  destroy 
her  usefulness.  If  the  calf  is  getting  too  much  milk  as  shown  by 
scouring,  cut  off  part,  remembering  that  the  last  drawn  portion  is 
the  richest  in  fat,  and  that  richness  as  well  as  quantity  causes  diges- 
tive troubles.  (123,  597)  Calves  should  suck  three  times  daily  at 
first,  later  twice.  The  greatest  danger  under  this  system  comes  at 
weaning  time,  when,  if  the  calf  has  not  been  taught  to  eat  solid  food, 
it  pines  and  loses  weight.  To  avoid  this,  teach  it  early  to  eat  shelled 
corn,  whole  oats,  wheat  bran,  oil  meal,  hay,  etc.  The  first  departure 
from  this  simple  and  primitive  method  is  putting  two  calves  with 
each  cow,  which  is  feasible  where  the  cow  yields  a  good  flow  of  milk. 

The  sucking  calf  should  gain  3  Ibs.  per  day  for  the  first  month, 
2.5  Ibs.  the  second,  and  2  Ibs.  subsequently.  Hunt's  experiments 
show  that  pail-fed  calves  require  from  8  to  9  Ibs.  of  whole  milk  for 
each  Ib.  of  increase,  gaining  over  1.75  Ibs.  daily.  While  in  some  dis- 
tricts it  is  still  best  to  rear  the  beef  calf  on  whole  milk  from  dam  or 
pail,  over  large  sections  of  the  country  it  is  now  more  profitable  to 
sell  the  fat  of  the  milk  in  butter  or  cream  and  rear  the  calf  on  skim 
milk  with  proper  supplements.  This  method  involves  increased  labor, 
skill,  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  feeder,  but  its  success  has 
been  widely  demonstrated.  The  method  to  be  employed  is  not  differ- 
ent from  that  detailed  in  the  next  article  for  the  rearing  of  the  dairy 
calf,  except  that  the  beef  calf  should  be  forced  to  more  rapid  gains 
thru  more  liberal  feeding. 

After  weaning  the  beef  calf,  growth  should  be  continued  by  feed- 
ing whole  oats  or  whole  corn  and  a  little  oil  meal,  together  with 
plenty  of  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  fodder  corn,  etc.  Nothing 
equals  grass  for  flesh  building,  and  to  approximate  this  in  winter, 
silage  or  roots  should  be  given  to  keep  the  bodies  of  the  young  things 
sappy  and  growing.  The  stockman  should  always  bear  in  mind  that 
the  "calf  fat"  must  never  be  lost  when  beef  is  the  ultimate  object. 

Calves  that  fail  to  thrive  when  sucking  the  cow  or  when  fed  on 
rich  milk  should  have  their  allowance  reduced  or  should  be  given 
part  skim  milk.  Lime  water  or  wood  ashes  may  possibly  prove  cor- 


310  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

rectives  in  cases  of  trouble  from  this  source.  (123)  The  lime  water 
used  in  such  cases  is  made  by  dropping  a  lump  of  unslaked  lime  into 
a  jug  filled  with  water  and  keeping  the  jug  corked.  A  tablespoonful 
or  more  of  lime  water  should  be  given  with  each  feed. 

490.  The  dairy  calf. — The  fat  of  milk  is  so  valuable  that  all  calves 
designed  for  the  dairy,  as  well  as  many  intended  for  beef,  should  be 
reared  on  skim  milk.  The  skim-milk  calf  is  usually  allowed  to  run 
with  the  dam  2  or  3  days,  tho  many  dairymen  never  allow  it  to  draw- 
milk  from  the  mother,  claiming  that  if  separated  at  once  it  learns 
more  readily  to  drink  from  the  pail.  In  any  event  the  calf  should 
always  get  the  first  milk  or  colostrum,  which  is  designed  by  nature 
for  cleansing  the  bowels  and  starting  the  digestive  functions.  (297) 
Warm,  fresh,  unskimmed  milk  should  be  fed  from  the  pail  2  or  3 
times  daily  until  the  calf  is  2  or  3  weeks  old,  after  which  skim  milk 
is  gradually  substituted,  the  change  covering  a  period  of  a  eouple 
of  weeks. 

When  the  calf  is  a  week  or  two  old,  add  to  its  milk  a  small  allow- 
ance of  some  fine  concentrate  such  as  low-grade  flour,  sieved  ground 
oats,  corn  meal,  or  linseed-oil  meal  made  into  a  jelly  by  boiling,  con- 
tinuing such  feed  2  or  3  weeks  while  the  stomach  is  small  and  in- 
capable of  utilizing  coarser  feed.  As  soon  as  possible,  however, 
change  to  whole  corn  or  whole  oats,  with  or  without  a  little  linseed-oil 
meal  fed  dry  in  a  convenient  feed  box. 

The  following  by  Otis  of  the  Wisconsin  Station1  concisely  covers 
the  use  of  the  several  grains  and  roughages  in  rearing  calves: 

"Skim  milk  contains  more  protein  and  carbohydrates  than  whole 
milk.  In  selecting  a  grain  to  take  the  place  of  the  fat  that  has  been 
removed,  it  is  not  necessary  nor  is  it  advisable  to  get  one  rich  in  pro- 
tein, as  the  skim  milk  furnishes  this  nutrient.  While  calves  may  do 
well  on  high-priced  concentrates,  they  are  unnecessarily  expensive 
and  give  no  better  results  than  the  cheaper  carbonaceous  grains,  as 
corn,  barley,  oats,  kafir,  or  sorghum. 

"Calves  will  sometimes  learn  to  eat  the  grain  more  readily  if  a  little 
bran  forms  a  part  of  the  ration  for  a  short  time.  A  number  of  farm 
grains  have  been  used  successfully  in  feeding  calves.  The  following 
list  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  calf  feeder  in  making-  selections  or 
combinations  to  suit  his  conditions: 

"1.  Corn  meal  gradually  changed  in  four  to  six  weeks  to  shelled 
corn  with  or  without  bran. 

"2.  Whole  oats  and  bran. 

1  Bui.  192. 


Calf  Rearing.  311 

"3.  Whole  oats  and  corn  chop,  the  latter  gradually  replaced  by 
shelled  corn  in  four  to  six  weeks. 

"4.  Ground  barley  with  bran  or  shelled  corn. 

"5.  Shelled  corn  and  ground  kafir  or  sorghum. 

"6.  Whole  oats,  ground  barley,  and  bran. 

"7.  A  mixture  of  20  Ibs.  of  corn  meal,  20  Ibs.  of  oat  meal,  20  Ibs. 
of  oil  meal,  10  Ibs.  of  blood  meal,  and  5  Ibs.  of  bone  meal,  changed 
to  corn,  oats,  and  bran  when  calves  are  three  months  old. 

"8.  A  mixture  of  5  Ibs.  whole  oats,  3  Ibs.  bran,  1  Ib.  corn  meal, 
and  1  Ib.  of  linseed  meal. 

"The  calf  may  be  taught  to  eat  grain  by  rubbing  a  little  on  its 
mouth  when  it  is  through  drinking  milk.  From  this  it  will  soon 
learn  to  eat  from  the  feed  box.  There  is  little  danger  of  calves  get- 
ting too  fat  on  any  of  these  grains  while  being  fed  skim  milk.  Should 
any  of  the  dairy  calves  show  a  tendency  to  fatten,  a  little  bran  or  oil 
meal  can  be  added  to  the  ration  and  the  corn  reduced  or  removed. 
After  weaning  from  milk,  greater  care  will  be  needed  in  selecting 
grains  containing  the  right  amount  of  protein  and  mineral  matter 
for  the  proper  development  of  bone  and  muscle. 

"There  is  also  little  or  no  danger  of  the  calf  fed  skim  milk  eating 
too  much  grain.  The  young  calf  makes  better  gains  for  grain  con- 
sumed than  the  older  calf,  which  is  an  additional  reason  for  giving 
it  all  it  will  eat.  Limiting  the  grain  ration  causes  a  loss  in  gain  and 
is  seldom  to  be  recommended.  The  calf  is  possessed  of  a  good  set 
of  grinder  teeth  and  when  four  to  six  weeks  of  age  is  able  to  do  most 
of  his  own  grinding.  A  number  of  feeders  have  obtained  excellent 
results  with  whole  oats.  Experiments  indicate  that  calves  do  better 
and  are  less  subject  to  scours  when  fed  shelled  corn  instead  of  corn 
chop.  Grains  that  are  small  and  hard,  like  sorghum  or  kafir,  give 
better  results  ground. 

"When  possible  it  is  better  to  feed  a  mixture  of  two  or  three 
grains  than  one,  but  a  large  variety  does  not  seem  to  be  of  any  special 
merit.  A  number  of  calf  meals  may  be  purchased  on  the  market. 
While  these  undoubtedly  possess  some  merit,  they  are  usually  high 
priced  and  appear  to  possess  no  particular  merits  over  a  good  com- 
bination of  farm-grown  grains.  It  is  not  advisable  to  mix  grain  with 
the  milk.  The  calf  needs  to  properly  masticate  it  and  not  gulp  it 
down  before  the  starchy  matter  of  the  feed  is  acted  upon  by  the 
saliva.  This  precaution  will  frequently  avoid  scours. 

"Calves  will  eat  roughage  at  about  the  same  time  they  begin  to 
eat  grain,  viz.  two  to  three  weeks  of  age,  and  will  consume  about  the 


312  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

same  quantity  of  each  at  first.  As  the  calf  grows  older  the  proportion 
of  roughage  to  grain  increases,  and  by  the  time  the  calf  is  six  months 
of  age  it  will  have  consumed  about  three  times  as  much  roughage  as 
grain.  The  quality  of  the  hay  should  be  of  the  best,  always  clean 
and  bright.  It  can  be  placed  in  a  rack  in  one  corner  of  the  calf  pen. 
Any  left  uneaten  should  be  removed  at  the  next  feeding  time  and  a 
new  supply  added. 

"The  kind  of  hay  may  vary  according  to  the  needs  and  condi- 
tion of  the  calf.  Early  cut  blue  grass  is  good,  as  is  also  hay  from 
mixed  grasses.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  frequently  used  to  excellent 
advantage  even  with  the  young  calf,  although  there  is  probably  more 
danger  from  scours  with  these.  Their  importance,  as  the  calf  grows 
older,  cannot  be  overestimated.  Corn  silage  is  also  proving  an  ex- 
cellent roughage  for  calves.  It  is  usually  safe  to  give  the  calf  all  the 
roughage  it  will  eat. 

' '  Some  feeders  have  difficulty  from  scours  in  turning  calves  on  pas- 
ture. This  may  be  overcome  by  allowing  the  calves  to  graze  for  only 
a  short  time  the  first  day  and  gradually  increasing  the  time  each 
day  until  they  become  accustomed  to  handling  the  green  feed,  or 
what  is  better,  gradually  get  them  used  to  green  feed  by  an  increas- 
ing daily  allowance  of  soiling  crops.  Sudden  changes  in  feeding 
should  be  avoided.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  gain  in  placing 
calves  on  pasture  before  they  are  four  months  of  age." 

The  dairy  calf  should  not  be  fed  over  1"0  Ibs.  of  full  milk  daily 
at  first,  ending  with  15  Ibs.  The  skim-milk  allowance  should  start 
with  12  or  14  Ibs.,  not  exceeding  18  Ibs.  daily  until  the  calf  is  6 
weeks  old,  and  only  in  rare  cases  should  it  exceed  20  Ibs.  Skim  milk 
is  at  its  best  when,  still  warm,  it  goes  at  once  from  the  farm  sep- 
arator to  the  calf.  Milk  held  for  any  length  of  time  or  chilled  should 
before  feeding  always  be  warmed  to  blood  temperature,  as  shown  by 
the  thermometer  which  careful  feeders  always  use.  Creamery  skim 
milk  should  always  be  pasteurized  before  it  is  returned  to  the  farm, 
that  acidity  be  checked,  and  the  dread  danger  of  ever-threatening 
bovine  tuberculosis  removed. 

The  calf  is  best  taught  to  drink  milk  from  the  pail  by  using  the 
fingers.  The  various  calf-feeding  devices  are  unsatisfactory  and 
usually  dangerous,  because  the  milk  accumulates  and  putrefies  in 
concealed  places  that  cannot  be  easily  cleaned.  Hand-reared  calves 
should  be  confined  at  feeding  time  in  simple  stanchions,  to  remain 
for  a  time  after  the  milk  is  drunk  in  order  to  consume  their  grain 
allowance  and  pass  the  desire  to  suck  each  other's  ears.  It  is  im- 


Calf  Rearing.  313 

portant  to  have  a  fresh  supply  of  suitable  dry  concentrates,  prefer- 
ably whole  grain,  in  the  feed  box  at  this  particular  time.  Dry  feed 
then  eaten  takes  up  the  saliva  which  is  flowing  freely  in  the  mouth, 
stimulated  by  the  warm  milk.  Where  the  calf  is  slow  to  take  such 
feed,  the  grain  or  meal  should  be  slipped  into  the  mouth  a  few  times 
in  order  that  the  young  thing  learn  the  taste  thereof.  All  excess 
grain  should  be  removed  from  the  feed  box  after  each  meal  lest  it 
grow  stale  and  mold. 

Properly  fed  on  skim  milk  and  suitable  grains  and  roughage  in  lib- 
eral supply,  the  thrifty  calf  should  gain  from  1.5  to  2  Ibs.  daily  for 
the  first  4  months.  In  no  case  should  the  calf  intended  for  the  dairy 
exceed  this  rate  of  increase,  for  any  fixed  tendency  to  lay  on  fat,  in- 
duced by  too  heavy  feeding  with  rich  concentrates,  will  put  the  young 
thing  into  the  beef  class. 

Where  skim-milk  calves  do  poorly,  the  blame  usually  rests  with  the 
feeder.  The  cause  of  the  trouble  will  ordinarily  be  found  in  some 
one  or  more  of  the  following  conditions :  Lack  of  sunlight  and  fresh 
air ;  unsanitary  stalls  or  boxes  that  are  not  properly  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected; feeding  too  much  milk,  or  at  irregular  intervals;  feeding 
stale  or  chilled  milk;  feeding  from  pails  that  have  not  been  scalded 
daily;  feeding  improper  concentrates  or  allowing  the  excess  to  fer- 
ment and  stale  in  the  feed  box. 

491.  Fall  calves. — Where  cattle  are  reared  under  natural  condi- 
tions, the  rule  that  the  young  be  dropped  in  the  spring  will  continue, 
but  this  practice  is  not  necessarily  the  most  successful  in  the  older 
sections  of  the  country.     Fall-dropped  calves  come  at  a  time  when 
the  little  attentions  they  need  can  easily  be  given,  and  they  occupy 
but  little  space  in  barn  or  shed.    Subsisting  on  the  mother's  milk,  or 
on  skim  milk  with  a  little  grain  and  hay,  when  spring  comes  the 
youngsters  are  large  enough  to  make  good  use  of  the  pastures.     The 
result  is  progress  from  the  start  until  fall,  when  they  return  to  the 
barn  or  shed  large  enough  and  strong  enough  in  digestion  to  make 
good  use  of  the  dry  provender  necessitated  by  winter  conditions. 

III.  FEEDING  FOR  VEAL. 

492.  Essentials. — For  the  highest  grade  of  veal  whole  milk  is  the 
sole  feed  allowed,  and  growth  must  be  pushed  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
the  whole  process  being  completed  before  there  is  any  tendency  in 
the  flesh  to  take  on  the  coarser  character  of  beef.     The  demand  for 
fine  veal  is  growing,  and  can  be  greatly  increased  by  supplying  a 


314  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

high-grade  product.  The  farmers  of  Europe  are  far  in  the  lead  in 
this  line  of  meat  production,  and  Dutch  butchers  are  extremely  ex- 
pert in  judging  whether  the  calf  has  received  any  other  feed  than 
whole  milk.  Only  when  whole  milk  has  been  used  exclusively,  is  the 
white  of  the  eye  of  the  veal  calf  free  from  any  yellow  tint,  and  the 
insides  of  the  eye-lids,  lips,  and  nose  perfectly  white. 

493.  Scotch  veal. — At  Strathaven,  Scotland,  a  region  noted  for 
the  excellence  of  its  veal,1  the  youngest  calves  receive  the  first  drawn 
milk  and  the  older  ones  the  last  and  richer  portion.     Thus  one  calf 
is  often  fed  portions  of  milk  from  2  or  3  cows.    After  the  third  week 
they  receive  as  much  milk  twice  a  day  as  they  will  take.     Follow- 
ing feeding  they  are  bedded,  the  stable  being  kept  rather  warm  and 
dark.     Lumps  of  chalk  are  placed  where  the  calves  have  access  to 
them.     The  fattening  period  continues  from  5  to  7  weeks,  when  a 
dressed  weight  of  100  to  120  Ibs.  is  secured. 

In  the  vicinity  of  London  veal  calves  fed  for  about  10  weeks  in 
isolated  pens,  as  in  Holland,  ordinarily  dress  140  Ibs. 

494.  Dutch  veal. — In  Holland,  where  unusually  heavy,  well-fatted 
calves  are  a  specialty,  the  following  practices  are  common,  accord- 
ing to  Forssell  r    The  new-born  calf  is  placed  in  a  stall  6.5  feet  long 
by  1.6  ft.  broad  and  about  5  ft.  high,  the  stall  being  so  narrow  that 
it  cannot  turn  around,  tho  it  can  lie  and  stand  comfortably.     The 
floor  of  the  stall  is  of  slats  or  perforated  boards,  and  is  littered  daily 
so  that  the  animal  has  a  perfectly  dry  berth.     The  calf  barn  is  kept 
dark.     Two  or  3  times  daily  the  calves  get  as  much  milk  as  they 
will  drink,  and  during  the  first  14  days  only  the  dam's  milk  is  fed. 
Eggs  or  other  by-feeds  are  not  given.     The  calf  consumes  on  the 
average  about  34  Ibs.  of  full  milk  daily  for  the  whole  fattening  period 
of  10  to  12  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  veal  is  considered 
to  be  at  its  best.     To  prevent  the  calves  from  eating  feed  other  than 
milk,  they  are  muzzled  if  straw  or  other  roughage  is  used  for  bedding. 
Finely-ground  shells  and  sand  are  given  to  prevent  scouring.     The 
dressed  weight   ranges  from  187  to  220  Ibs.,  or  according  to  Host,3 
from  220  to  330  Ibs.     One  Ib.  of  gain  is  made  in  the  beginning  from 
8  Ibs.  of  milk  and  toward  the  close  from  12  Ibs.,  the  average  being 
10  Ibs.4    The  fat  calf  dresses  from  55  to  60  per  ct.  of  its  live  weight. 

1  Molk.  Zeit.,  1894,  p.  547.  8  Molk.  Zeit.,  1894,  p.  547. 

2  Fodret  och  Utf odringen,  1893,  p.  155.        *  Kraft,  Landwirtschaft,  3,  p.  163. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

GENERAL  PROBLEMS  IN  BEEF  PRODUCTION. 
I.  QUARTERS  FOE  CATTLE. 

495.  Open  shed  v.  confinement. — Waters  of  the  Missouri  Sta- 
tion1 housed  a  bunch  of  dehorned  fattening  steers  in  comfortable, 
well-bedded  quarters  during  winter.  They  were  turned  out  for  water 
at  9  o'clock  each  morning,  remaining  in  the  yard  until  4  in  the 
afternoon  except  during  stormy  weather,  when  they  were  out  only 
long  enough  to  drink.  Another  similar  bunch  was  fed  in  an  open 
shed  located  in  a  small  lot.  The  average  returns  for  4  winters  were : 

In  barn  In  open  shed 

Daily  gain  per  steer _      1.7  pounds  1.9  pounds 

Gain  per  bu.  of  corn 4.9  pounds  5.2  pounds 

Digestible  matter  eaten  per  Ib.  of  gain 11.3  pounds  10.3  pounds 

It  is  seen  that  the  steers  running  in  the  open  shed  did  better  in 
all  ways  than  those  in  the  barn. 

Ingle,2  reviewing  feeding  trials  in  Britain,  concludes  that  housed 
animals,  compared  with  those  in  the  open,  eat  more  food  and  make 
greater  daily  gains  in  weight,  each  Ib.  of  increase  being  obtained, 
however,  from  about  the  same  amount  of  digestible  matter. 

After  summarizing  trials  with  steers  fed  in  open  yards  or  con- 
fined under  cover  at  the  Utah,  Texas,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Minne- 
sota, Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Stations,  Armsby3  writes : 
"The  experiments,  .  .  .  with  one  exception  (Kansas),  show  fully 
as  good  results  for  the  exposed  as  for  the  barn-fed  animals.  It  seems 
clear,  at  least,  that  the  value  of  shelter  for  fattening  cattle  has  been 
exaggerated."  (733-4) 

Waters4  closes  the  discussion  of  this  subject  thus:  "There  is  ap- 
parently sufficient  heat  generated  in  the  body  in  the  mastication, 
digestion,  assimilation,  fermentation,  etc.,  of  this  large  quantity  of 
food  to  maintain  the  normal  temperature  of  the  body.  In  fact  it  is 
not  unreasonable  to  hold  that  under  such  circumstances  a  reason- 
able amount  of  cold  is  a  benefit  to  such  animals  rather  than  a  detri- 

1  Bnl.  76. 

2  Trans.  Higbl.  and  Agr.  Soc.  of  Scotland,  1909. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  108. 
*  Missouri  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  76. 

315 


316 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


ment.  This  is  supposing  that  the  coats  of  the  cattle  are  kept  dry. 
It  is  probable  that  the  radiation  of  heat  by  an  animal  with  a  wet  skin 
is  in  excess  of  the  heat  produced  incidentally  or  as  a  natural  result 
of  the  mechanical  and  chemical  processes  occurring  in  the  body.  In 
that  case  a  portion  of  the  food  would  have  to  be  used  to  supply  the 
heat  to  keep  the  animal  warm.  It  is  of  more  importance  that  fatten- 
ing animals  lie  down  regularly  and  during  a  large  portion  of  the 
time  than  that  they  be  protected  from  the  cold.  Abundance  of  sun- 
shine and  fresh  air,  a  comfortable  place  in  which  to  lie,  and  freedom 
from  all  external  disturbances  are  ideal  conditions  for  large  and 
economical  gains."  (93,  104,  828) 

496.  Loose  v.  tied  steers. — At   the    Ontario    Station1  Day   found 
that  box-fed  steers  made  larger  and  cheaper  gains,  had  better  ap- 
petites, and  did  not  get  off  feed  as  easily  as  tied  steers.     Trials  at 
the  Ottawa  Station2  by  Grisdale  were  decidedly  in  favor  of  loose 
box  feeding. 

497.  Self-feeder. — By  the  use  of  a  large  receptacle  called  a  self- 
feeder,  cattle  may  be  supplied  with  concentrates  twice  a  week.     At 
the    Illinois    Station3    Mumford  and  Allison   fed  2  lots,  each  of  17 
fleshy  3-yr.-old  steers,  the  following  rations  for  89  days.     Lot  I  was 
fed  whole  clover  hay  and  concentrates  separately  at  regular  feeding- 
periods  twice  daily,  while  Lot  II  was  supplied  chaffed   (cut)    hay 
mixed  with  the  concentrates,  the  whole  being  fed  in  a  self-feeder  to 
which  the  cattle  had  access  at  all  times. 

Value  of   the  self-feeder  for  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

total 
gain. 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Clover  hay 

Lot  I,  hand-  fed 
Ground  corn,  19.1  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  2.9  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  13  5  Ibs 

Lbs. 
266 

293 

Lbs. 
3.0 

3.3 

Lbs. 

737 

743 

Lbs. 
451 

385 

Lot  II,  self  -fed 
Ground  corn,  21.5  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  3.1  Ibs. 
Chaffed  clover  hay,  12.8  Ibs. 

The  table  shows  that  the  self-fed  steers  made  larger  gains  than 
those  fed  by  hand,  and  required  61  Ibs.  less  hay  for  100  Ibs.  gain. 
The  self-fed  steers  consumed  a  heavier  concentrate  allowance,  and 
were  brought  to  full  feed  in  a  shorter  time  without  any  setback  by 


1  Spt.  1907. 


Ept.  1904. 


3  Bui.  142. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


317 


gorging  or  overeating.  Tho  consuming  more  feed  than  Lot  I,  the 
self-fed  steers  made  more  economical  gains,  even  after  adding  the 
cost  of  chaffing  the  hay.  Both  systems  required  about  the  same 
amount  of  labor,  but  by  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  the  necessity  of  a 
skilled  feeder  was  reduced.  Mumford1  reports  that  steers  visit  the 
self-feeder  with  remarkable  regularity,  and  once  accustomed  thereto 
do  not  overeat.  He  holds  that  the  system  is  often  unjustly  con- 
demned because  careless  cattle  feeders  do  not  properly  use  it.  (731) 

498.  The  paved  feed  lot.— In  parts  of  the  corn  belt  the  feed  lot 
in  winter  often  becomes  a  sea  of  mud  and  mire.     Mumford  of  the 
Illinois  Station2  fed  one  carload  of  steers  during  winter  in  a  brick- 
paved  lot  and  another  in  an  ordinary  mud  lot,  both  lots  having  ac- 
cess to  an  open  shed,  the  bedding  in  which  was  kept  dry.     The 
paved-lot  steers  made  no  cheaper  gains  than  the  others.     However, 
because  of  their  dirty  appearance,  tho  not  inferior  finish,  the  mud- 
lot  steers  sold  for  10  cents  less  per  100  Ibs.    Pigs  following  the  paved- 
lot  steers  gained  1  Ib.  more  from  each  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  the 
steers  than  did  those  following  the  mud-lot  steers. 

II.  WINTERING  CATTLE. 

499.  Wintering  beef  cows. — Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Station3  di- 
vided a  lot  of  grade  Angus  cows  which  had  suckled  their  calves  the 
previous  summer  and  were  thin  in  flesh  into  bunches  of  10  each 
and  fed  them  on  approximately  a  maintenance  ration  during  140 
days  in  winter.  (96)     Twenty-eight  per  ct.  of  the  corn  silage  and  54 
per  ct.  of  the  shock  corn  consisted  of  ears. 

Wintering  breeding  cows  on  silage  and  shock  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Lot  I 
Corn  silage,  16.  7  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  3.5  Ibs. 
Oat  straw,  9.6  Ibs  

Lbs. 
860 

Lbs. 
1.1 

Lbs. 
150 

Lot  II 
Shock  corn,  8.7  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  3.5  Ibs. 
Oat  straw,  10.  8  Ibs. 

859 

0.8 

106 

Lot  III 
Corn  stover  (42  days),  21.7  Ibs. 
Shredded  stover  (98  days),  10.  3  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  1.6  Ibs. 
Oat  straw,  8.  2  Ibs 

860 

0.4 

58 

1  Beef  Production,  p.  155. 


Loc.  cit.,  14C. 


3  Bui.  111. 


318  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

At  the  close  of  the  trial  the  cows  in  Lot  III  were  in  poor  condi- 
tion, having  made  but  small  gain.  The  cows  of  Lots  I  and  II,  which 
had  made  good  gains,  appeared  about  the  same  until  after  calving, 
when  those  in  Lot  I,  which  had  been  fed  silage,  were  in  decidedly 
superior  form.  It  required  the  feed  grown  on  one-third  of  an  acre 
to  support  a  cow  making  fair  gains  for  140  days  with  Lots  I  and  II, 
and  that  from  one-fifth  of  an  acre  to  little  more  than  maintain  a 
cow  of  Lot  III. 

500.  Wintering  yearlings  without  grain.— At  the  ^Missouri  Sta- 
tion1 during  each  of  4  winters  Waters  fed  lots  of  4  or  5  high-grade 
yearling  Hereford  and  Short-horn  steers  each  for  periods  of  49  to  92 
days.  These  steers,  rather  thin  in  flesh  and  averaging  about  725 
Ibs.  in  weight,  were  fed  the  following  roughages  of  medium  quality, 
without  grain,  with  the  results  shown  below: 

Roughages  for  wintering  yearling  steers  without  grain. 


Average  roughage  allowance 

Roughage 
refused 

Av.  daily 
gain  or  loss 

Lot      I,  Timothy  hay,  17.6  Ibs.*. 

Per  ct. 
16.3 

Lbs. 
+0  31 

Lot    II,  Whole  corn  stover,  31.3  Ibs.* 

40.8 

—0  18 

Lot  III,  Shredded  corn  stover,  23.6  Ibs.t 

35.8 

—0.14 

Lot  IV,  Ensiled  corn  stover,  47.4  Ibs.t 

4.6 

+0.58 

Lot    V,  Corn  stover,  13.6  Ibs.,  clover  hay,  13.6  Ibs.t 

27.0 

+0.44 

*Pour  trials.  tTwo  trials. 

It  is  shown  that  yearling  steers  in  thin  condition  made  only  a  small 
gain  when  wintered  on  timothy  hay  alone.  Those  fed  whole  or 
shredded  field-cured  corn  stover  lost  in  weight,  while  on  ensiled  stover 
or  stover  and  clover  hay  there  were  substantial  gains. 

501.  Wintering  yearlings  with  a  limited  grain  allowance. — Dur- 
ing 4  winters  Waters2  compared  various  roughages  when  fed  to 
yearling  steers  without  limit  with  a  limited  allowance  of  shelled 
corn.  Lots  of  4  steers  each,  similar  to  those  fed  in  the  preceding 
trials  and  averaging  about  750  Ibs.  in  weight,  were  fed  the  rations 
given  below  for  periods  of  66  to  120  days  with  the  results  shown 
on  the  next  page. 

The  steers  fed  whole  corn  stover  with  an  allowance  of  3.8  Ibs.  of 
shelled  corn  per  day  lost  0.32  Ib.  each  daily.  Those  fed  equal  parts  of 
stover  and  clover  hay  gained  1.37  Ibs.  each  daily,  requiring  only  400 
Ibs.  of  corn  and  1,754  Ibs.  of  roughage  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  Waters 
points  out  that  stover  serves  best  when  combined  with  a  limited  quan- 

1  Bui.  75.  2  Loc.  cit. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


319 


tity  of  clover  or  other  leguminous  hay,  a  point  of  great  importance. 
The  steers  fed  clover  hay  made  nearly  twice  as  large  and  far  more 
economical  gains  than  those  fed  timothy  hay,  another  fact  of  great 
value  to  the  feeder.  Alfalfa  hay  proved  about  equal  to  clover  hay, 
and  cowpea  hay  of  slightly  lower  value.  Millet  and  sorghum  hay 
made  a  poor  showing  when  fed  with  shelled  corn. 

Roughages  for  wintering  steers  getting  a  limited  grain  allowance. 


Average  roughage  allowance 

Shelled 
corn  fed 
per  day 

:AV. 

daily  | 
gain  or 
loss 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Shelled 
corn 

Rough- 
age 

Lot 
Lot 

Lot 
Lot 
Lot 
Lot 
Lot 
Lot 

I,  Whole  corn  stover,  29.3  Ibs.*  
II,  Corn  stover,  11.0  Ibs.,  clover  hay, 
10.9  Ibs.t  

Lbs. 

3.8 

5.3 

6.0 
5.3 
5.5 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 

Lbs. 
-0.32 

1.37 
1.97 
1.01 
1.42 
1.63 
0.37 
0.91 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

400 
305 
552 
362 
368 
1,613 
809 

1,754 
966 
1,815 
1,343 
1,061 
3,516 
2,921 

III,  Clover  hay,  19.0  Ibs.  t 

IV,  Timothy  hay,  16.6  Ibs.  J  
V,  Cowpea  hay,  19.0  Ibs.t 

VI,  Alfalfa  hay,  17.3  Ibs.* 

VII,  Millet  hay,  13.1  Ibs.* 

VIII,  Sorghum  hay,  25.8  Ibs.t 

*  One  trial.       t  Two  trials.       t  Three  trials. 

Waters  concludes:  ''One  ton  of  timothy  hay  is  worth  as  much  as 
3  tons  of  whole  corn  stover  when  each  is  the  sole  feed.  (665)  Shred- 
ding corn  stover  did  not  enhance  its  feeding  value,  and  nearly  as 
great  waste  occurred  as  with  whole  corn  stover. "  While  the  steers 
fed  whole  or  shredded  field-cured  corn  stover  did  not  maintain  their 
weight,  those  fed  silage  made  from  corn  cut  at  the  same  time  and 
from  which  all  the  ears  had  been  removed  made  small  daily  gains. 
More  dry  matter  was  given  in  the  stover,  but  a  large  part  was  left 
uneaten,  while  nearly  all  the  silage  was  consumed. 

III.  PASTURING  CATTLE. 

502.  Gains  on  grass  alone. — Mumford  and  Hall  of  the  Illinois 
Station,1  from  extensive  inquiries  in  that  state,  report  that  cattlemen 
estimate  the  daily  increase  per  head  of  steers  during  the  grazing  sea- 
son at  1.66  Ibs.  for  yearlings  and  1.87  Ibs.  for  2-yr.-olds. 

Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station,2  gathering  statistics  from  more 
than  1,000  successful  cattlemen  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  found 
the  average  gains  from  cattle  pastured  for  the  6-months  period, 
May  1  to  November  1,  to  be  as  shown  on  the  next  page. 


1  Cir.  79. 


Cir.  of  Information,  No.  24. 


320 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Assuming  a  pasture  charge  for  yearlings  of  75  cents  per  month, 
their  gains  cost  approximately  $1.60  per  100  Ibs.,  while  the  2-yr.-olds 
at  a  pasture  charge  of  $1  per  month  would  put  on  gains  costing  but 
little  over  $1.90  per  100  Ibs.  When  we  reflect  that  gains  made  by 
steers  in  winter  cost  from  $6  to  $10  per  100  Ibs.,  the  importance  of 
wisely  and  fully  utilizing  the  pastures  in  summer  is  apparent. 

Average  gain  of  steers  for  the  6-months  season  on  grass. 


State 

By  yearlings 

By  2-yr.-olds 

Per  month 

Per  season 

Per  month 

Per  season 

Missouri 

Lbs. 
47 
48 
45 

Lbs. 
282 
288 
270 

Lbs. 
53 
52 
52 

Lbs. 
318 
312 
312 

Iowa 

Illinois 

Skinner  and  Cochel  of  the  Indiana  Station1  found  thru  extensive 
inquiry  that  in  Indiana  during  summer  feeding  each  grain-fed  steer 
grazed  over  1.1  acres  of  land  on  the  average.  Where  no  grain  was 
given,  each  steer  grazed  over  about  2  acres. 

Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station2  reports  that  2-yr.-old  heifers,  fed 
a  light  ration  during  the  winter,  when  turned  to  pasture  gained  1.3 
Ibs.  each  daily  for  178  days  on  pasture  alone.  Steers  of  the  same 
age,  thin  in  flesh  when  turned  to  pasture,  made  daily  gains  of  1.4 
Ibs.  for  178  days,  while  those  full-fed  the  previous  winter  gained  but 
0.8  each  day  during  158  days. 

Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station3  states  that  gains  are  cheaply  made 
on  grass  alone,  but  such  gains  are  also  low  in  selling  value  because 
the  cattle  are  not  usually  fat  enough  to  market  and  must  be  sold  as 
feeders  with  sufficient  margin  for  the  buyer  to  profitably  fit  them 
for  market. 

503.  Summer  v.  winter  feeding. — Waters  of  the  Missouri  Sta- 
tion4 reports  the  gains  in  3  summer  and  5  winter  feeding  trials  as 
follows : 

Summer 

Numberof  animals 88 

Average  length  of  feeding-  period,  days 209 


Concentrates  per  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  Ibs 814 

Roughage  per  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  Ibs grass 

Average  daily  gain  per  steer,  Ibs 2.37 


Winter 
105 
107 
999 
382 
2.13 


Because  of  the  longer  feeding  period  the  summer-fed  cattle  were 
much  fatter  than  those  fed  in  winter.  Despite  this  the  summer 
gains  were  made  on  18.5  per  ct.  less  grain. 


1  Cir.  12. 


2  Kpt.  1903. 


Bui.  76. 


4  Loc.  cit. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


321 


Mumford  and  Hall  of  the  Illinois  Station,1  from  extensive  corre- 
spondence with  feeders  of  their  state,  conclude  that  a  bushel  of  corn 
will  produce: 

Gain  in  winter  Gain  in  sum- 

feed  lot  mer  on  pasture 

With  calves 8.9  pounds          10.0  pounds 

With  yearlings 6. 5  pounds  7.6  pounds 

With  2-yr.- olds _ 5.4  pounds  6.8  pounds 

Waters-  sets  forth  the  following  advantages  from  feeding  grain 
to  steers  on  pasture : 

Grass  is  cheaper  than  hay. 

Summer  gains  require  less  grain  than  winter  gains. 

Steers  fatten  more  quickly. 

Steers  can  be  made  thick  and  prime  on  corn  and  grass  with  greater  cer- 
tainty, more  uniformity,  and  the  smaller  use  of  expensive  supplements  like 
cotton-seed  meal  and  linseed  meal. 

Hogs  following  the  steers  make  larger  gains,  and  return  more  profit,  with 
a  lower  death  rate. 

In  summer  the  grain  only  is  drawn;  there  is  no  roughage  to  handle. 

The  steers  are  usually  fed  but  once  daily. 

The  manure  is  scattered  by  the  cattle  themselves.  (827) 

IV.  INFLUENCE  OF  AGE;  BABY  BEEF;  LONG  AND  SHORT  FEED. 

504.  Feed  and  growth.— At  the  Maryland  Station3  for  a  period 
of  2  years  Patterson  recorded  all  feed,  except  pasture  grass,  eaten 
by  2  pure-bred  Aberdeen-Angus  steer  calves.  Weaned  at  5  days, 
the  calves  were  fed  whole  milk  for  5  months,  and  had  concentrates 
and  hay  at  all  times,  running  on  pasture  during  the  grazing  season. 
The  results  are  summarized  in  the  table: 

Feed,  not  including  pasture,  required  Toy  steers  for  growth. 


Wt.  at 
beginning 

Gain 
during 
year 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  growth 

Milk 

Concen- 
trates 

Hay 

First  year 
Calf  No.  1 

Lbs. 

105 
97 

Lbs. 

447 
455 

434 
559 

Lbs. 

1.2 
1.2 

1.2 

1.5 

Lbs. 

430 
410 

Lbs. 

290 
270 

880 
670 

Lbs. 

200 
190 

760 
600 

Calf  No.  2 

Second  year 
Calf  No.  1 

Calf  No.  2  

It  is  seen  that  during  the  first  year  calf  No.  1  made  an  average 
daily  gain  of  1.2  Ibs.,  requiring,  in  addition  to  pasture,  an  averasre 


Cir.  88. 

Mo.  Expt.  Sta.,  Cir.  of  Information,  No.  24. 
22 


3  Bui.  121. 


322 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


of  430  Ibs.  of  whole  milk,  290  Ibs.  of  concentrates,  and  200  Ibs.  of 
hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  During  the  second  year  no  milk  was  given 
of  course.  The  calves  then  required  nearly  3  times  as  much  concen- 
trates and  hay  for  a  given  gain  as  during  the  first  year.  Calf  No.  2, 
which  was  smallest  at  birth,  grew  the  fastest  and  made  the  cheapest 
gains.  (95)  0 

505.  Cost  of  fattening  influenced  by  age. — At  the  Ottawa  Ex- 
perimental Farms1  in  trials  during  4  winters  with  153  head  in  all, 
Grisdale  compared  the  rate  and  cost  of  gains  made  by  steers  of  dif- 
ferent ages  during  feeding  periods  of  about  6  months.  The  results 
are  shown  in  the  following  table,  partially  as  arranged  by  Waters  :2 

Rate  and  cost  of  gain  for  fattening  steers  of  various  ages. 


Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  cost  of 
100  Ibs.  gain 

For  equal  profit  compared  with  calves 

Purchase  price 
per  cwt.  must  be 
less  by: 

Or  selling  price 
per  cwt.  must  be 
greater  by: 

Calves*... 
Yearlings 
2-yr.-olds  _ 
3-yr.-olds  _ 

Lbs. 
397 
883 
1,011 
1,226 

Lbs. 
1.8 
1.6 
1.8 
1.7 

Dollars 
4.22 
5.31 
5.62 
6.36 

Cents 

Cents 

35 
43 
53 

27 
33 
43 

*Three  trials. 

It  is  seen  that  6-months  calves  averaging  397  Ibs.  in  weight  made 
an  average  daily  gain  of  1.8  Ibs.  during  the  fattening  period  of  about 
6  months,  yearlings  to  3-yr.-olds  averaging  about  the  same.  The 
feed  cost  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  was  $4.22  with  the  calves,  and  increased 
with  the  age  of  the  animals,  the  gains  made  by  the  3-yr.-olds  costing 
$6.36,  or  50  per  ct.  more  than  the  calves,  for  each  100  Ibs. 

The  greater  cost  of  the  gain  by  the  older  animals  might  have  been 
offset  by  buying  these  steers  as  feeders  at  slightly  lower  prices  per 
100  Ibs.  than  the  younger  animals,  or  by  a  small  increase  in  their 
selling  price  when  fattened,  which  would  be  reasonable  because  of 
their  superior  condition.  If  the  yearlings  could  have  been  purchased 
for  35  cents  per  100  Ibs.  less  than  was  paid  for  the  calves  and  sold 
at  the  same  price  per  100  Ibs.,  or  if  after  fattening  they  could  have 
been  sold  for  27  cents  more  per  100  Ibs.,  the  increased  cost  of  the 
gains  by  the  yearlings  would  have  been  met. 

Under  the  usual  market  conditions,  young,  unfinished  animals  cost 
enough  more  per  Ib.  as  feeders  to  counterbalance  the  lower  feed-cost 
required  to  make  them  fat.  Mature  cattle  fatten  more  quickly  than 
do  calves  or  yearlings.  Hence  when  steers  of  different  ages  are  fed 


Epts.  1900-1904. 


Ept.  Mo.  Bd.  Agr.,  1907. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


323 


for  the  same  period,  the  older  animals  will  reach  a  higher  finish,  and 
therefore  usually  sell  for  a  higher  price  than  the  less  highly  finished 
calves  or  yearlings.  Older  steers  also  fatten  more  uniformly  and  re- 
quire less  careful  attention.  Waters  concludes:  "It  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  final  that  so  long  as  the  professional  feeder  can  buy  the 
older  cattle  with  sufficient  margin  to  fully  overcome  the  increased 
cost  of  gains  made  in  his  feed  yard,  he  will  consider  it  to  his  ad- 
vantage to  feed  them  in  preference  to  younger  animals."  (579) 

That  the  daily  rate  of  gain  with  cattle  on  full  feed  is  directly  af- 
fected by  the  age  of  the  animal  is  illustrated  by  the  records  of  the 
fat-stock  shows.  Some  of  the  results  obtained  in  England  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Age  and  weight  of  steers  slaughtered  at  the  Smithfield  (England)  Fat- 
Stock  Show,  1888-95. * 


No.  of 
animals 

Age 

Average 
daily  gain 

Live  wt.  at 
slaughtering 

Dressed  meat 
to  live  wt. 

Short-horn 
1  year  old 

5 

Days 
642 

Lbs. 
2  11 

Lbs. 
1,355 

Per  cent 
66  13 

2  years  old      

18 

963 

1.92 

1,842 

67.48 

3  years  old 

16 

1  321 

1  70 

2,251 

69  38 

Hereford 
1  year  old 

16 

663 

1  97 

1,308 

65.08 

2  years  old     

13 

1,020 

1  78 

1,817 

67.15 

3  years  old  _    

8 

1,349 

1  64 

2,218 

69.18 

Devon 
1  year  old  

13 

634 

1.75 

1,112 

66.01 

2  years  old 

19 

1  045 

1  51 

1,583 

67  73 

3  years  old     

16 

1,311 

1.37 

1,796 

67.32 

Aberdeen-  Ana  us 
1  year  old 

26 

668 

2  04 

1,366 

65.37 

2  years  old 

21 

1,008 

1.74 

1,765 

66.67 

3  years  old 

2 

1,346 

1.59 

2,138 

67.39 

Sussex 
1  year  old  

17 

677 

2.15 

1,452 

65.42 

2  years  old  

18 

989 

1.86 

1,837 

68.18 

3  years  old  

12 

1,285 

1.61 

2,064 

67.98 

Eed  Poll 
2  years  old 

12 

1,002 

1.64 

1,631 

65.73 

3  years  old 

6 

1,362 

1.49 

2,022 

65.77 

Galloway 
2  years  old  

7 

1,027 

1.64 

1,688 

64.45] 

3  years  old.     

4 

1,344 

1.47 

1,969 

64.84 

506.  Gains  of  steers  and  hogs  following.— At  the  Indiana  Sta- 
tion2 during  each  of  2  winters,  Skinner  and  Cochel  fed  for  a  period 
of  180  days  3  lots  of  steers,  one  of  20  calves,  a  second  of  10  year- 
lings, and  another  of  10  two-yr.-olds  as  shown  on  the  next  page. 

1  Reported  annually  in  the  Live  Stock  Journal  and  Agricultural  Gazette,  London 
a  Bui.  129. 


324 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  ration  consisted  of  6  parts  shelled  corn  and  1  part  cotton-seed 
meal,  with  clover  hay  and  corn  silage  for  roughage.  Hogs  followed 
the  steers  in  each  lot. 

Influence  of  age  of  steers  on  gains  of  steers  and  shotes  following  steers. 


Age  of  steers 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  given  to  steers  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

By  steers 

By  hogs 

Concen- 
trates 

Clover 
hay 

Silage 

Concen- 
trates 

Calves   _ 

Lbs. 
521 
888 
1,067 

Lbs. 
2.0 
2.3 
2.6 

Lbs. 
555 

774 
790 

Lbs. 
126 
162 
161 

Lbs. 
506 
652 
573 

Lbs. 
6,597 
4,286 
4,058 

Yearlings..  ___  __ 

2-yr.-olos  

The  calves  required  much  less  feed  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain  than 
either  the  yearlings  or  the  2-yr.-olds.  The  rate  of  daily  gain  in- 
creased with  the  age  of  the  steer,  the  2-yr.-olds  making  the  heaviest 
gains.  The  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  pork  was 
greatest  for  the  hogs  following  the  calves,  and  smallest  with  those 
following  the  2-yr.-olds,  showing  that  calves  utilize  their  food  more 
closely  than  mature  steers. 

Skinner  and  Cochel  write:  "High  grade,  blocky,  early  maturing 
beef  calves  showing  both  breeding  and  quality  are  necessary  in  mak- 
ing yearling  beef.  Quality  and  type  are  not  so  essential  in  feeding 
aged  steers  as  in  feeding  calves,  provided  the  purchase  price  is  pro- 
portionate. The  older  cattle,  if  placed  in  the  feed  lot  in  equal  condi- 
tion and  given  a  full  feed,  will  be  in  higher  condition  than  either 
yearlings  or  calves  at  the  end  of  6  months.  More  capital  is  required 
in  feeding  the  same  number  of  2-yr.-old  steers  than  either  yearlings 
or  calves.  The  profit  per  steer  was  greater  in  both  tests  on  2-yr.- 
olds  than  on  either  yearlings  or  calves."  (525) 

507.  Heifers  v.  steers. — At  the  Iowa  Station1  Wilson  and  Cur- 
tiss  conducted  2  experiments  with  steers  and  spayed  and  open  heif- 
ers. The  cattle  topped  their  respective  classes  in  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket, the  heifers  of  the  first  trial  selling  for  $4.75  and  the  steers  for 
$5.75  per  cwt.  on  the  same  market.  In  the  second  trial  the  heifers 
brought  $4.25  and  the  steers  $4.50  per  cwt.  All  lots  yielded  practi- 
cally the  same  amount  of  dressed  carcass,  but  the  heifers  yielded 
about  1  per  ct.  more  in  the  high-priced  cuts  of  meat.  But  little,  if 
any,  benefit  was  derived  from  spaying  heifers.  (836) 

1  Bui.  33. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


325 


508.  Baby  beef.— At  the  Kansas  Station1  Cottrell,  Haney,  and 
Elling  placed  130  calves,  just  weaned,  in  the  feed  lot  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  October.  Sixty  were  grade  Short-horn,  Hereford,  and 
Angus  range  heifers.  The  rest  were  purchased  locally  or  raised  at 
the  college  farm.  All  were  fed  twice  daily  with  great  regularity, 
getting  all  the  grain  and  roughage  they  would  clean  up  within  3 
hours  after  feeding.  They  were  sheltered  by  a  common  board  shed 
open  to  the  south  and  were  fed  for  7  months  with  the  results  shown 
below : 

Feed  and  7-months  gain  of  calves  fed  for  l)aby  l>eef. 


Feed  given 

Av. 

gain 
per 
head 

Feed  per  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Rough- 
age 

Lot     I, 
Lot    II, 
Lot  III, 
Lot  IV, 
Lot    Y, 
Lot  VI, 

Alfalfa  hay  and  corn     

Lbs. 
407 
379 
378 
342 
440 
404 

Lbs. 
470 
524 
520 
594 
439 
470 

Lbs. 
544 

626 
486 
539 
436 
420 

Alfalfa  hay  and  kafir   

Prairie  hay,  corn  f-  ,  and  soy  beans  £__  . 

Prairie  hay,  kafir  £,  and  soy  beans  i 

Skim-milk  calves—  alfalfa  hay  and  corn.. 
Whole-milk  calves—  alfalfa  hay  and  corn- 

Average.                          _  _ 

392 

503 

509 

The  surprisingly  small  amount  of  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  will  be 
noted.  The  last  of  the  following  May,  at  which  time  they  must  have 
been  from  12  to  14  months  old,  the  entire  lot  averaged  800  Ibs.  in  the 
college  feed  lot,  and  on  shipping  to  Kansas  City  shrank  3  per  ct. 

509.  Short-  v.  long-feed. — At  the  Indiana  Station2  Skinner  and 
Cochel  obtained  the  following  results  during  long  and  short-feeding 
periods  with  2  lots  of  10  grade  Short-horn  and  Hereford  steers  each. 
All  were  strictly  grass-fed  cattle,  the  short-fed  steers  carrying  enough 
flesh  to  be  sold  as  killers  when  the  feeding  began,  the  others  being  of 
the  same  quality  but  thinner  in  flesh: 

The  short-fed  steers  made  the  high  average  daily  gain  of  3.2  Ibs., 
while  those  long-fed  made  lower  daily  but  larger  total  gains.  A 
greater  proportion  of  concentrates  was  given  the  short-fed  steers,  and 
they  required  somewhat  more  corn  but  less  roughage  per  100  Ibs. 
gain  than  did  the  long-fed  steers.  During  fattening  each  long-fed 
steer  consumed  55  bushels  and  each  short-fed  steer  34  bushels  of 
corn.  Valuing  corn  at  50  cents  a  bushel,  and  cotton-seed  meal  at 
$28,  clover  hay  at  $8,  and  corn  silage  at  $2.50  per  ton,  each  100  Ibs. 
of  gain  made  by  the  short-fed  steers  cost  $8.17  and  by  the  lonar-fed 


1  Bui.  113. 


Bui.  130. 


326 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


steers  $8.74.  Combining  the  cost  of  steers  and  feed  it  was  found 
that  when  finished  the  short-fed  steers  cost  $5.21  and  the  long-fed 
steers  $5.66  per  100  Ibs.  To  break  even,  a  margin  or  spread  of  $1.41 
per  100  Ibs.  was  required  with  the  long-fed  and  half  that  with  the 
short-fed  cattle. 

Data  concerning  short-  and  long-fed  cattle. 


Lot  I 
short-fed 

Lot  II 
long-fed 

Length  of  feeding  period,  days 

90 

180 

Av.  weight  at  beginning,  Ibs. 

1,176 

1,011 

Av.  gain  per  head,  Ibs. 

285 

464 

Av.  daily  gain  per  head,  Ibs. 

3.2 

2.6 

Av.  daily  feed  per  head: 
Shelled  corn,  Ibs.                         _  _ 

21.2 

16.7 

Cotton-seed  meal,  Ibs 

2  7 

3  0 

Clover  hay,  Ibs. 

3.2 

3.9 

Corn  silage,  Ibs. 

15.0 

15.0 

Av.  feed  per  100  Ibs.  gain: 
Shelled  corn,  Ibs. 

670 

647 

Cotton-seed  meal,  Ibs. 

86 

116 

Clover  hay,  Ibs.         _ 

99 

152 

Corn  silage,  Ibs.  

474 

582 

Feed  cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain 

$8.17 

$8.74 

Purchase  cost  of  100  Ibs.  of  steer 

4.50 

4.25 

Finished  cost  per  100  Ibs.  of  steer 

5.21 

5.66 

Spread,  or  amount  necessary  to  break  even 

0.71 

1.41 

510.  Lengthening  the  fattening  period. — Other  conditions  being 
equal,  the  longer  the  fattening  period  the  larger  the  quantity  of 
feed  required  to  produce  a  given  gain.  Georgeson  of  the  Kansas  Sta- 
tion1 found  the  grain  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  fattening 
steers  for  different  periods  to  be  as  follows : 


Up  to  56  days  the  steers  required __ 
Up  to  84  days  the  steers  required... 
Up  to  112  days  the  steers  required . . . 
Up  to  140  days  the  steers  required.  _ 
Up  to  168  days  the  steers  required... 
Up  to  182  days  the  steers  required.. 


Grain  for 
100  Ibs.  grain 

730  pounds  of  grain. 
807  pounds  of  grain. 
840  pounds  of  grain. 
901  pounds  of  grain. 
927  pounds  of  grain. 
1, 000  pounds  of  grain. 


Increase  of 
feed  required 

10  per  cent 
15  per  cent 
23  per  cent 
27  per  cent 
37  per  cent 


We  learn  that  while  at  first  only  730  Ibs.  of  grain  were  required 
per  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  for  the  whole  6-months  period  1,000  Ibs.,  or  37 
per  ct.  more,  were  required.  The  heavy  cost  of  thoroly  fattening 
the  steer  and  the  importance  of  selling  at  the  earliest  possible  date 
are  here  made  plain.  (830) 

1  Bui.  34. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


327 


511.  Water  drank. — Georgeson  of  the  Kansas  Station1  kept  a 
record  of  the  water  drank  by  fattening  steers  in  winter  with  the  fol- 
lowing results: 

Water  drank  Inj  fattening  steers  in  winter. 


^ 

Vater  dranl 

c 

Feed  given 

Daily  per 
steer 

Per  Ib. 
of  gain 

Per  Ib. 
of  feed 

Lot     I,  Corn  meal,  bran,  shorts,  oil  meal,  with 

hay          _ 

Lbs. 

79! 

Lbs. 
33 

Lbs. 
2.5 

Lot    II,  Corn  meal,  molasses,  and  corn  fodder.  _ 
Lot  III,  Oil  cake,  hay         _    

73 

91 

56 
57 

2.4 
3.4 

Lot  IV,  Ear  corn,  corn  f  odder  __    __  __ 

56 

27 

1.8 

We  note  that  on  the  carbohydrate-rich  ration  of  corn  and  corn 
fodder  the  steers  drank  but  1.8  Ibs.  of  water  for  each  pound  of  feed 
eaten,  while  on  the  highly  nitrogenous  ration  of  oil  cake  and  hay 
they  drank  3.4  Ibs.,  or  nearly  twice  as  much.  (87) 

512.  Variations  in  weight. — Fattening  steers  show  surprising  va- 
riations in  weight  from  day  to  day,  and  even  from  week  to  week. 
Much  data  could  be  given  on  this  point,  but  the  following  from  one 
of  Georgeson 's  experiments  at  the  Kansas  Station2  will  suffice: 

Weekly  variations  in  the  weight  of  steers  during  fattening. 


Date  of  weekly  weighing 

Weight  of 
steer  No.  1 

Gain  or 
loss 

Weight  of 
steer  No.  2 

Gain  or 
loss 

Weight  of 
steer  No.  3 

Gain  or 
loss 

November  30 

Lbs. 
1,232 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
1,190 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
1,207 

Lbs. 

December  7 

1,269 

37 

1,205 

15 

1,240 

38 

December  14 

1,280 

11 

1,213 

8 

1,236 

-4 

December  21  _ 

1,278 

2 

1,226 

13 

1,244 

8 

December  28_      

1,325 

47 

1,250 

24 

1,270 

26 

May  2 

1,545 

1,583 

1,567 

May  9  ... 

1,565 

20 

1,603 

20 

1,593 

26 

May  16  

1,597 

32 

1,620 

17 

1,619 

26 

May  23  

1,598 

1 

1,643 

23 

1,626 

7 

May  30  

1,610 

12 

1,606 

-37 

1,593 

-33 

These  variations,  which  are  not  extraordinary,  show  how  difficult 
it  is  to  know  the  true  weight  of  a  steer  at  any  given  time.  Experi- 
ment stations  now  quite  generally  weigh  the  steer  for  3  successive 
days,  taking  the  average  as  the  true  weight  of  the  steer  on  the  sec- 
ond day.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  variations  follow  somewhat 


Bui.  39. 


2  Bui.  34. 


328 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


the  amount  of  water  drank  from  day  to  day,  but  this  explanation 
does  not  always  seem  sufficient.  It  seems  more  generally  due  to  the 
irregular  movement  of  the  contents  of  the  digestive  tract,  which 
movement  is  influenced  by  changes  in  the  character  and  quantity  of 
the  food  consumed,  the  exercise  or  confinement  enforced,  and  the 
weather. 

V.  VALUE  OF  BREED  IN  BEEF  MAKING. 

Every  person  with  experience  in  the  cattle  business  knows  that 
"blood  tells "  in  beef  production.  Where  there  is  such  unanimity 
of  expression  the  fact  must  exist,  but  the  reasons  given  are  not  al- 
ways the  same,  and  so  are  worthy  of  careful  examination.  They  will 
be  considered  in  their  usual  order  of  advancement. 

513.  Amount  of  feed  consumed. — Occasionally  the  claim  is  yet 
advanced  that  well-bred  cattle  eat  less  than  natives  or  scrubs.    This 
opinion  is  not  generally  held  by  owners  of  pure-bred  or  high-grade 
stock,  who  know  that  their  animals  when  gaining  rapidly  are  hearty 
feeders,  tho  when  mature  they  require  only  a  small  amount  of  prov- 
ender for  maintenance.     Nothing  in  the  tables  given  in  this  chap- 
ter warrants  the  statement  that  pure-bred  or  high-grade  cattle  of  the 
beef  breeds  are  small  eaters. 

514.  Less  feed  for  a  given  gain. — The  second  and  more  common 
claim  is  that  beef-bred  cattle  make  better  gains  on  a  given  amount 
of  feed  than  do  dairy-bred  or  scrub  cattle.     Several  stations  have 
recorded  the  comparative  gains  of  the  various  breeds  from  a  given 
quantity  of  feed  with  the  results  presented  in  the  table: 

Concentrates  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  steers  of  several  breeds. 


g 

Steers 

Length 

3 

"2 

£3 

cS 

5 

© 

Station 

each 
lot 

of 
period 

t 

! 

1 

s 

£ 
"3 

I 

o> 

| 

£ 

Cfl 

"o 

d 

cc 

K 

P5 

Q 

cc 

K 

£ 

& 

No. 

Days 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Iowa,  Bui.  20  

2 

92 

659 

874 

744 

753 

977 

663 

712 

870 

861 



Iowa   Bui  28 

10 

180 

965 

947 

Michigan  Bui  44 

2 

365 

557 

561 

581 

477 

565 

557 

Michigan  Bui  44 

2 

365 

796 

916 

763 

755 

939 

807 

Michigan  Bui  69 

2 

540 

493 

552 

612 

478 

665 

Ontario,  Rpt.  1892. 

1 

365 

597 

793 

698 

553 

495 

686 

491 

Kansas  Bui  51 

1 

161 

777 

876 

Missouri  Bui  23 

4  6 

540 

706 

742 

661 

631 

It  will  be  seen  that  while  we  can  point  to  cases  where  the  beef -bred 
steer  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  less  feed  than  the  dairy-bred  or 
native  steer,  yet  the  largest  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  any  animal 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


329 


for  a  given  gain  stands  charged  to  one  of  the  beef  type.  From  the 
data,  covering  8  feeding  trials  at  5  stations,  we  are  unable  to 
show  that  a  pound  of  feed  goes  further  in  making  gain  with  beef- 
bred  animals  than  with  those  not  especially  bred  for  that  purpose. 

515.  Early   maturity. — The  most  common  claim  for  superiority 
with  the  beef  breeds  is  that  animals  so  bred  mature  earlier  than  oth- 
ers.    Consulting  the  figures  given  in  the  next  table,  we  find  that 
steers  of  the  strictly  dairy  breeds  reached  as  heavy  weight  in  a  given 
time  as  did  several  of  the  beef-bred  representatives.    Holstein  steers 
made  substantially  as  large  daily  gains  as  any  of  the  others,  and  Jer- 
sey and  native  steers  rivaled  the  Devons.     So  far  as  the  data  go,  we 
have  no  evidence  that  beef-bred  animals  make  more  rapid  growth 
than  do  others.     The  degree  of  maturity  of  the  animal  as  a  producer 
of  beef  is  not  wholly  measured,  however,  by  weight,  so  that  this  di- 
vision of  the  subject  cannot  be  considered  as  entirely  covered  by  the 
data  here  presented  in  regard  to  daily  gain. 

516.  Dressed  carcass. — The  animals  of  the  various  breeds,  whose 
feed  requirements  for  100  Ibs.  gain  are  reported  in  Article  514,  on 
being  slaughtered  showed  the  following  percentages  of  dressed  car- 
cass to  live  weight: 

Daily  gain  and  dressed  weight  of  steers  of  different  breeds. 


Breed 

No.  of 
ani- 
mals 

No.  of 
sta- 
tions 

Av.  age 

Av.  live 
weight 

Daily 
gain 
from 
birth 

Limits 
of  dressed 
weight 

Av. 

dressed 
weight 

Hereford  .  .. 

11 

4 

Days 
983 

Lbs. 
1,515 

Lbs. 
1.54 

Per  cent 
63.0-68.0 

Per  cent 
65.0 

Red  Poll 

2 

1 

1,000 

1,520 

1.52 

63.8-66.5 

65.2 

Aberdeen-  Angus  . 
Swiss  

16 
2 

4 
1 

976 
1,000 

1,493 
,570 

1.53 
1.57 

63.2-69.0 

64.8 

64.8 
64.8 

Short-horn 

26 

5 

1,011 

,510 

1.50 

62  1  68  0 

64.4 

Galloway 

6 

3 

923 

,503 

1.62 

62.0  66.7 

63.9 

Devon 

7 

3 

1,021 

,376 

1.35 

62.5-65.8 

63.6 

Ayrshire 

1 

1 

1,095 

,320 

.20 

63.3 

Sussex  

1 

1 

1,021 

,625 

1.59 

63.0 

Holstein  _   _  _ 

6 

3 

937 

1,469 

1.57 

60.6-64.4 

62.6 

Jersey  

•     3 

2 

1,058 

1,440 

1.36 

58.7-63.9 

60.5 

Native 

9 

3 

1,038 

1,259 

1  26 

57  9  61  5 

60.2 

The  data  referring  to  live  weight  at  the  time  of  slaughter  and 
daily  gain  from  birth  have  already  been  discussed.  Let  us  now 
consider  the  dressed  weights  of  cattle  of  the  several  breeds.  The 
Red  Polls  gave  the  largest  percentage  of  dressed  carcass  to  live 
weight,  but  the  figures  are  the  average  for  2  animals  only,  and  the 
best  of  these  is  lower  than  the  best  of  the  representatives  of  5  other 


330 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


breeds.  Were  as  many  animals  included  as  there  are  of  the  Short- 
horns, for  example,  they  would  no  doubt  rank  lower  in  the  list. 

By  the  last  column  of  the  table  we  learn  that  steers  of  the  beef 
breeds  yielded  from  64  to  65  per  ct.  of  dressed  carcass,  while  those  of 
the  dairy  breeds  and  the  natives  dressed  only  60  to  63  per  ct.  Eleven 
Herefords  fattened  and  slaughtered  at  4  stations  yielded  8  per  ct. 
more  dressed  carcass  to  live  weight  than  did  9  natives  at  3  stations. 
The  weights  of  the  native  and  dairy-bred  steers  are  so  large  as  to  in- 
dicate that  they  were  as  mature  and  as  well  fattened  as  their  com- 
petitors. Here  is  the  first  marked  difference  in  favor  of  the  beef-bred 
over  other  cattle  for  beef  production. 

517.  Loose  tallow. — At  the  Iowa  Station1  Wilson  and  Curtis2 
found  the  quantity  of  fat  about  the  internal  organs  of  fat  steers  of 
the  various  breeds  to  be  as  shown  in  the  table  below: 

Weight  of  carcass  and  loose  tallow  of  steers  of  various  "breeds. 


Breed 

Average  dressed 
weight 

Loosed 
tallow 

Per  cent  of  loose 
tallow  to  beef 

Short-horn 

Lbs. 
1,092 

Lbs. 
145 

13.3 

Hereford 

1,022 

129 

12.6 

Ked  Poll 

990 

125 

12.6 

Galloway 

1.088 

147 

13.5 

Angus 

1,131 

157 

13.8 

Devon                             

815 

123 

15.0 

Swiss    -    _                            _  __ 

1.017 

119 

11.7 

Holstein                               .    __ 

862 

155 

17.9 

Jersey.                     _.  

880 

166 

18.8 

It  is  shown  that  the  Short-horn  steers,  dressing  about  1,100  Ibs. 
each,  yielded  145  Ibs.,  or  13  per  ct,  of  loose  tallow,  while  Jersey 
steers  averaging  880  Ibs.  yielded  over  165  Ibs.,  or  18.8  per  ct.  These 
figures  are  corroborated  by  similar  findings  at  the  Michigan2  and  Mis- 
souri3 Stations.  Commenting  on  the  character  of  the  carcasses  of  the 
various  breeds  slaughtered  at  the  Michigan  Station,  Davenport  wrote : 
"Note  the  excess  of  rough  tallow  in  Walton  (a  Holstein  steer)  as 
compared  with  the  others.  Walton  was  'all  cow/  as  the  saying  goes, 
and  the  fat  about  his  kidneys  was  astonishing. ' ' 

From  these  data  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a  specific  difference 
between  the  beef  and  dairy  breeds  in  the  distribution  of  fat  within 
the  body.  It  appears  that  the  beef  representatives  place  more  of  the 
fat  between  the  fibers  of  the  muscles.  On  the  other  hand,  steers  of 
the  dairy  breeds  deposit  proportionately  more  fat  about  the  intes- 


Bul.  20. 


Bui.  24. 


Bui.  69. 


General  Problems  in  Beef  Production. 


331 


lines  and  kidneys.  Fat  intimately  mingled  with  the  muscular  fibers 
of  the  lean  tissues  renders  such  meat  tender,  juicy,  and  toothsome. 
Placed  in  separate  masses  anywhere  about  the  body,  and  especially 
within  the  body  cavity,  it  has  but  low  value.  Such  storage  is  doubt- 
less best  for  animals  whose  function  is  milk  production,  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly against  their  highest  usefulness  for  beef.  In  this  second  char- 
acteristic, which  sets  beef  animals  somewhat  apart  from  dairy  ani- 
mals, we  have  a  remarkable  example  of  specialization  for  a  definite 
end,  and  this  lesson  is  important  and  far-reaching. 

518.  Proportion  of  valuable  parts. — Georgeson  of  the  Kansas 
Station1  and  Wilson  and  Curtiss  of  the  Iowa  Station2  closed  breed 
feeding  trials  by  forwarding  the  animals  to  Swift  &  Company,  Pack- 
ers, who  reported  the  following  percentages  of  cuts  in  the  dressed 
carcasses : 

Percentage  of  the  various  cuts  in  the  dressed  carcass. 


Kans 

as 

lows 

t 

Short-horn 

Native 

Short-horn" 

Native 

Loins  .  . 

Per  cent 
16.6 

Per  cent 
17.0 

.Per  cent 
17.1 

Per  cent 
16.6 

Ribs  

9.6 

10.1 

9.9 

10.2 

Rounds 

22.9 

22.4 

22.9 

23.3 

Chucks 

20.6 

20.8 

21.1 

21.9 

Plates 

13.5 

12.8 

15.4 

14.2 

Shanks    _ 

6.1 

5.8 

5.7 

6.4 

Minor  cheap  parts 

10.7 

11.1 

7.9 

7.4 

There  is  nothing  in  the  figures  to  show  that  the  carcasses  of  steers 
of  the  beef  breeds  yield  a  noticeably  larger  proportion  of  the  high- 
priced  cuts.  Nor  can  it  be  otherwise ;  for  the  framework  of  animals 
of  the  different  types  can  vary  but  little  in  the  proportion  of  the 
several  parts.  Thin-fleshed  steers  do  not  cut  up  percentagely  much 
different  from  those  yielding  thick-fleshed  cuts.  These  thick-fleshed 
cuts,  however,  command  a  much  higher  price  per  pound  than  do  the 
thin-fleshed  cuts,  thereby  giving  to  the  carcass  that  furnishes  them  a 
marked  advantage  in  the  market. 

519.  Judgment  of  the  market. — The  18  steers  representing  9 
breeds  fattened  by  the  Iowa  Station,  as  reported  in  Article  514,  when 
shipped  to  Chicago,  were  passed  upon  by  a  committee  of  3  stock 
buyers  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  where 
there  is  a  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest  valuation  of  $2.13 
per  cwt.,  or  about  32  per  ct. 


Bui.  51. 


Bui.  20. 


332  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

In  the  slaughter  test  of  the  Kansas  Short-horns  and  natives  re- 
ferred to  in  Article  514  the  loins  of  the  best  Short-horns  were  rated 
at  18  cents  per  Ib.  and  of  the  natives  as  low  as  14  cents. 

Average  live  Experts'  valua- 

weight  tion  per  cwt. 

Hereford 1,525  pounds  $6.63 

Short-horn 1,660  pounds  6.38 

Galloway 1,635  pounds  6.38 

Aberdeen-Angus 1,725  pounds  6.38 

BedPol) 1,520  pounds  6.28 

Swiss 1,570  pounds  6.00 

Devon 1,290  pounds  5.75 

Holstein 1,410  pounds  5.00 

Jersey 1,430  pounds  4.50 

520.  Quality. — Beyond  that  which  can  be  expressed  in  figures  or 
stated  percentagely  lies  that  indefinable  something  described  by  the 
word  "quality"  which  enters  into  all  objects  of  barter.  No  one  can 
compare  a  bunch  of  well-fed  beef-bred  steers  with  one  representing 
the  dairy  breeds  or  natives  without  being  impressed  by  a  difference 
not  measured  by  the  scales.  Speaking  of  the  breed  tests,  Wilson1 
writes:  ''The  carcasses  of  the  dairy  breeds  lacked  in  thickness  of 
cuts,  and  the  marbling  of  the  fat  and  lean  was  not  equal  to  that  of 
the  others  (beef  breeds)."  Georgeson2  writes:  "The  Short-horns 
gave  the  best  returns,  not  simply  because  the  gross  weight  of  their 
carcasses  was  greater  than  that  of  the  scrubs,  but  also  because  their 
meat  was  esteemed  better  by  experts  in  the  packing-house  who  were 
asked  to  judge  of  the  quality  and  assign  prices."  Of  the  Ontario 
native  Shaw3  wrote :  ' '  There  was  a  lack  of  thickness  of  carcass  thru- 
out,  the  deficiency  in  depth  of  rib  and  loin  being  very  noticeable,  and 
the  absence  of  what  may  be  termed  fleshiness  was  conspicuous." 

The  matter  at  issue  may  be  illustrated  by  a  condition  in  the  fruit 
world:  No  orchardist  will  hold  that  the  Baldwin  apple  tree  neces- 
sarily grows  faster  than  the  seedling  apple  tree,  or  that  it  will  make 
wood  and  fruit  on  less  material  from  soil  and  air.  Neither  will  he 
hold  that  Baldwin  trees  necessarily  yield  more  barrels  of  fruit  than 
seedlings,  nor  that  a  given  measure  of  Baldwin  apples  contains  more 
juice  or  human  food  than  the  same  measure  of  common  seedling  ap- 
ples. Fruit  growers  do  rightfully  assert,  however,  that  the  market 
wants  Baldwin  apples  and  will  pay  more  for  them  than  for  com- 
mon seedling  fruit,  and  that  from  this  judgment  of  the  market,  be 
it  reasonable  or  unreasonable,  there  is  no  appeal.  Beef  cattle  have 
been  bred  for  meat  production — it  would  be  passing  strange  if  they 
did  not  excel  for  that  purpose. 

1  Iowa  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  20.  3  Ontario  Agr.  Col.,  Rpt.  1892. 

2  Kansas  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  51. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


VALUE  OF  THE  VAEIOUS  FEEDING  STUFFS  FOE  FATTENING 
CATTLE  AS  FOUND  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STA- 
TIONS—BRITISH FEEDING  TRIALS. 

I.  THE  CONCENTRATES. 

521.  Heavy  v.  light  corn  feeding. — Smith  of  the  Nebraska  Sta- 
tion1 fed  2  lots,  each  of  10  steers  grown  under  range  conditions  and 
averaging  978  Ibs.,  the  first  for  140  and  the  second  for  168  days,  on 
light  and  heavy  rations  of  corn  together  with  alfalfa  hay  and  corn 
stover,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table: 

Heavy  and  light  corn  feeding  for  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Corn,  22.  3  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  4.9  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  4.9  Ibs.  . 

Lbs. 
2.4 

2.0 

Lbs. 
339 

339 

Lbs. 
922 

691 

Lbs. 
403 

896 

Lot  II 

Corn,  13.9  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10.  9  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,    7.2  Ibs.  _  _  

It  is  shown  that  the  steers  fed  22.3  Ibs.  of  corn  daily  made  an  aver- 
age daily  gain  of  2.4  Ibs.,  and  required  922  Ibs.  of  corn  for  100  Ibs. 
gain.  The  lot  getting  13.9  Ibs.  of  corn  daily  consumed  more  rough- 
age and  less  grain.  They  made  the  smaller  gain  of  2.0  Ibs.  daily, 
putting  on  the  same  amount  of  gain,  339  Ibs.,  in  168  days  that  the 
other  lot  did  in  140  days.  The  lighter  fed  steers  required  231  Ibs., 
or  25  per  ct,  less  grain  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  those  getting  the  heavy 
ration.  These  data  admirably  illustrate  the  fact  that  steers  given  a 
heavy  allowance  of  rich  concentrates,  like  corn,  make  a  large  daily 
gain,  and  attain  a  desired  weight  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 
Such  increase  is,  however,  secured  by  the  excessive  use  of  rich,  ex- 
pensive concentrates. 

522.  Soaked  shelled  corn  v.  dry  corn. — At  the  Kansas  Station2 
Georgeson  divided  a  bunch  of  10  thrifty  steers,  averaging  1,033  Ibs.. 


Bui.  100. 


2  Bui.  47. 


333 


334 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


into  2  lots  of  5  each,  giving  to  the  first  dry  shelled  corn  and  to  the 
second  soaked  shelled  corn,  both  lots  receiving  the  same  roughage. 
The  statements  of  corn  fed  are  based  on  the  weight  of  dry  shelled 
corn.  Eight  shotes,  averaging  88  Ibs.  each,  were  placed  with  each 
lot  of  steers.  At  first  they  subsisted  entirely  on  corn  in  the  drop- 
pings, but  later  they  were  supplied  additional  grain.  The  table 
shows  the  result  of  the  trial,  which  lasted  5  months. 

Soaked  and  dry  corn  for  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain  by  steers 

Extra  corn 
fed  pigs  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Total  corn 
for  100  Ibs. 
gain  by  steers 
and  pigs 

Corn 

Koughage 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

[Lbs. 

Dry  corn,  21.  7  Ibs. 

Mixed  roughage,  10.8  Ibs.  ... 

2.0 

1,105 

554 

170 

791 

Lot  II 

Soaked  corn,  21.0  Ibs. 

Mixed  roughage,  11.1  Ibs.  ._. 

2.2 

938 

512 

200 

752 

By  the  table  it  is  shown  that  the  steers  getting  soaked  shelled  corn 
made  larger  daily  gains  and  required  15  per  ct.  less  corn  for  a  given 
gain  than  those  fed  dry  corn.  The  pigs  following  the  steers  getting 
the  dry  corn  required  30  Ibs.  less  additional  corn  for  100  Ibs.  gain. 
The  last  column  of  the  table  shows  that  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  combined 
gain  of  steers  and  pigs  there  was  a  net  saving  of  39  Ibs.  of  corn,  or 
5  per  ct.,  by  soaking  it  before  feeding.  Other  trials  with  soaked  and 
dry  corn  have  not  always  shown  results  so  favorable  for  soaked 
corn.  (339) 

523.  Corn  fed  in  various  forms. — Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Sta- 
tion1 fed  4  lots  of  choice  feeders,  averaging  about  1,000  Ibs.  each,  for 
186  days.  Lots  III  and  V  contained  10  steers  each,  and  the  other 
lots  15  steers  each.  Pigs  following  the  steers  worked  over  the  drop- 
pings. Each  lot  was  given  clover  hay  for  roughage,  a  limited  allow- 
ance of  gluten  meal  being  fed  in  the  first  half  and  of  oil  meal  in  the 
second  half  of  the  trial.  As  the  table  shows,  Lot  I  was  fed  ear 
corn ;  Lot  II,  corn-and-cob  meal ;  Lot  III,  shelled  corn ;  Lot  IV,  corn 
meal;  and  Lot  V,  ear  corn  and  shock  corn,  this  lot  being  fed  no 
gluten  meal. 

Lot  II,  fed  corn-and-cob  meal,  made  neither  larger  nor  more  eco- 
nomical gains  than  Lot  I,  fed  ear  corn,  while  the  pigs  following  the 

1  Bui.  103. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


335 


steers  getting  ear  corn  made  decidedly  better  gains  than  those  fol- 
lowing the  steers  fed  corn-and-cob  meal.  (157) 

Lot  III,  getting  shelled  corn,  made  the  poorest  gains,  due  to  the 
fact,  Mumford  tells  us,  that  these  steers  did  not  masticate  their  corn 
so  thoroly  as  the  others.  While  about  the  same  amount  of  concen- 
trates was  required  for  100  Ibs.  gain  as  with  the  preceding  lots,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  ear  corn  and  the  corn-and-cob  meal 
rations  contained  over  17  per  ct.  cob.  Thus  shelled  corn  proved  in- 
ferior to  ear  corn  or  corn-and-cob  meal  in  beef  production. 

Feeding  corn  in  various  forms  to  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Gain  of  pigs 
per  100  Ibs. 
corn  fed  to 
steers 

Concen- 
trates 

Rough- 
age 

Lot  I 

Ear  corn,  20.1  Ibs. 
Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.  9  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  8.0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.3 

2.3 

2.0 
2.4 

2.1 

Lbs. 
434 

432 

370 
443 

388 

Lbs. 

986 

993 

984 

822 

991* 

Lbs. 
344 

350 
454 
370 

782 

Lbs. 
1.7 

0.5 
3.6 
0.7 

1.8 

Lot  II 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  20.0  Ibs. 
Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.  9  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  8.1  Ibs  

Lot  III 

Shelled  corn,  16.  6  Ibs. 
Gluten  or  oil  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  9.0  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Corn  meal,  16.  6  Ibs. 
Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.  9  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  8  .  7  Ibs. 

Lot  V 
Ear  corn,  13.  5  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  1.4  Ibs. 
Shock  corn,  14.7  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  7.2  Ibs  

*Including  ear  corn  in  the  shock  corn. 

The  steers  in  Lot  IV,  fed  corn  meal,  made  the  largest  gains,  and 
required  162  Ibs.  less  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  those  fed 
shelled  corn.  Considering  the  low  gains  of  the  pigs  following  the 
corn-meal-fed  steers,  corn  meal  was  no  more  efficient  than  shelled 
corn  for  combined  beef  and  pork  production.  Earcorn.  proved  the 
most  economical  form  of  corn  for  combined  gains  of  steers  and 
hogs.  (156,  845) 

Lot  V,  fed  shock  corn  at  first  and  ear  corn  during  the  finishing 
period,  made  larger  gains  than  Lot  III,  fed  shelled  corn.  In  economy 
of  combined  gains  of  steers  and  pigs  this  ration  ranked  second.  (216) 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


524.  Soft  corn. — Kennedy  and  Rutherford  of  the  Iowa  Station,1 
studying  the  feeding  value  of  soft  corn  with  2  lots  of  8  steers  each, 
fed  for  6  months,  found  that  soft  corn  containing  35  per  ct.  of  mois- 
ture at  the  beginning  of  the  trial  and  16  per  ct.  at  its  close  made 
rather  more  economical  gains  than  mature  corn,  taking  dry  matter 
as  the  basis,  and  that  the  cattle  finished  equally  well  on  it.  (154) 

525.  Gain  by  hogs  from  droppings. — Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Sta- 
tion2 found  that  hogs  placed  behind  steers  fattening  on  corn  supple- 
mented with  oil  meal  or  gluten  meal  made  the  following  gains  wholly 
from  the  droppings  of  the  steers: 

Gain  Toy  hogs  living  on  the  droppings  of  steers  variously  fed. 


Form  in  which  corn  was  fed 

Hogs  per 
10  steers 

Increase 
by  hogs 
per  steer 

Gain  per  100 
Ibs.  corn 
fed  to  steer 

Feed  cost 
returned 
by  hogst 

Lot       I,  Shelled  corn 

Number 

7 

Lbs. 
112 

Lbs. 
3.6 

Per  cent 
16.7 

Lot     II,  Shelled  corn  fed  in  mud  
Lot  III,  Shock  corn  and  ear  corn  
Lot    IV,  Ear  corn  . 

7 
6 
5 

86 
74 
63 

2.8 
1.8* 
1.7 

12.9 
12.7 
9.7 

Lot     V,  Ground  corn  ...  

3 

21 

0.7 

3.0 

Lot    YI,  Corn-and-cob  meal  _  . 

3 

18 

0.5 

2.6 

Lot  VII,  Silage  and  corn  meal  _    _  __ 

1 

6 

0.2* 

0.9 

"Computed  on  basis  of  ear  corn  in  silage  and  shock  corn. 
tGain  by  hogs  valued  at  $5  per  100  Ibs. 

It  is  seen  that  where  shelled  corn  was  fed,  the  7  hogs  following 
each  10  steers  made  a  total  gain  of  112  Ibs.  from  the  droppings  of 
each  steer.  From  each  100  Ibs.  of  corn  fed  to  the  steers  the  hogs 
gained  3.6  Ibs.,  returning  16.7  per  ct.  of  the  value  of  the  corn  given 
to  the  steers.  Where  ground  corn  was  fed,  the  hogs  made  but  21  Ibs. 
of  gain  per  steer  and  returned  but  0.7  Ib.  increase  for  100  Ibs.  of  corn 
fed  to  the  steers.  Corn-and-cob  meal  made  still  poorer  returns,  and 
silage  corn  returned  practically  nothing.  (506) 

526.  Low-grade  wheat. — At  the  North  Dakota  Station3  Shepperd 
and  Richards  fed  2  lots,  each  of  11  two-yr.-old  steers  of  fair  quality 
and  averaging  1,035  Ibs.,  for  a  period  of  112  days.     One  lot  re- 
ceived rejected  wheat,  while  the  other  was  given  corn,  poor  hay 
forming  the  roughage  in  both  rations. 

The  table  shows  that  the  steers  required  about  twice  as  much 
ground  low-grade  wheat  as  ground  corn  for  100  Ibs.  gain.  After  the 
trial  was  closed,  both  lots  were  fed  corn  and  bran  7  weeks  longer, 
during  which  time  the  wheat-fed  steers  made  the  very  large  gain  of 
3.1  Ibs.  daily,  due  possibly  to  greater  growth  made  in  the  first  period, 


Bui.  75. 


Bui.  103. 


3  Bui.  73. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs.  337 

while  those  previously  fed  corn  gained  only  1.5  Ibs.  daily.  Low- 
grade  or  rejected  wheat  should  be  used  for  growing  rather  than  for 
fattening  cattle.  (161) 

Rejected  wheat  compared  with  corn  for  steers. 


Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
gain  per 
head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen  trates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Ground  wheat,  £ 
Wheat  bran,  2.6 
Hay,  17  1  Ibs. 

.5  Ibs. 
Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.7 

1.5 

Lbs. 
79 

165 

Lbs. 
1,701 

847 

Lbs. 
2,430 

1,240 

Lot  1  1 

Corn  meal,  9.5  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  3.0  Ibs. 
Hay,  18.3  Ibs. 

527.  Wheat,  oats,  and  barley.— Linfield  of  the  Montana  Station1 
fed  4  lots,  each  of  eight  936-lb.  steers  of  only  fair  quality,  the  fol- 
lowing rations  for  101  days,  to  compare  the  value  of  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  and  a  mixture  of  these  grains,  when  fed  with  clover  hay. 
The  wheat  and  oats  were  crushed,  and  the  barley  ground  medium 
fine. 

Wheat,  oats,  and  barley  for  fattening  steers. 


Av.  daily 

Av.  gain 

Feed  for  100 

Ibs.  gain 

gain 

per  head 

Cone  entrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 

Wheat,  4.4  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  23.7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.1 

Lbs. 
208 

Lbs. 
215 

Lbs. 
1,150 

Lot  II 
Oats,  4.4  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  23.7  Ibs  

2.1 

211 

212 

1,130 

Lot  III 
Barley,  4.4  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  23.7  Ibs. 

2.1 

215 

208 

1,110 

Lot  IV 
Mixed  grain,  4.4  Ibs. 
Clover,  23.7  Ibs  

2.4 

»238 

183 

1,000 

The  table  is  worthy  of  careful  study  by  western  stockmen  who  can 
avail  themselves  of  the  feeds  employed.  The  several  grains  were 
about  equally  effective.  The  clover  hay  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  re- 
gion often  equals  alfalfa  hay  in  feeding  value.  (169,  171) 

528.  Barley  v.  bran  and  shorts.— At  the  North  Dakota  Station- 
Shepperd  fed  2  lots,  each  of  five  2-yr.-old,  1050-lb.  range  steers  of 


Bnl.  58. 
23 


2  Bui.  33. 


338 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


good  quality,  for  84  days  with  the  results  shown  below.  One  lot 
was  fed  ground  barley,  and  the  other  a  mixture  of  2  parts  wheat 
shorts  and  1  part  wheat  bran,  both  lots  receiving  a  small  allowance 
of  oil  meal  in  addition. 

Ground  barley  compared  with  wheat  "bran  and  shorts. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Barley,  14.4  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  1.5  Ibs. 
Hay,  16.9  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1.7 

1.4 

Lbs. 
146 

113 

Lbs. 
914 

1,008 

Lbs. 
971 

1,271 

Lot  1  1 
Bran  and  shorts,  13.  0  Ibs. 
Oil  meal,  1.3  Ibs. 
Hay,  17.2  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  the  barley-fed  steers  made  heavier  daily  gains 
and  required  less  feed  for  a  given  gain  than  those  getting  wheat  bran 
and  shorts.  The  barley-fed  steers  reached  a  higher  finish  than  those 
fed  bran  and  shorts.  Shepperd  reports :  ' '  The  difference  in  the  qual- 
ity or  ripeness  was  greater  than  the  difference  in  the  rate  of  increase 
in  weight."  Bran  should  be  used  for  producing  growth  rather  than 
fat.  (165-6) 

529.  Emmer  v.  shelled  corn. — At  the  South  Dakota  Station1  Wil- 
son and  Skinner  fed  4  lots,  each  containing  four  2-yr.-old  grade  Here- 
ford steers,  the  rations  shown  below  for  170  days  to  compare  the 
values  of  emmer  (speltz)  and  shelled  corn  for  fattening  steers. 

Emmer  (speltz)  v.  shelled  corn  for  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Pork  per 

steer 

Grain 

Hay 

Lot! 
Shelled  corn,  20.  3  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  11.1  Ibs  
Lot  1  1 
Whole  emmer,  18.  9  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  10  .  7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.4 

1.8 
1.5 

2.0 

Lbs. 
406 

303 
262 

344 

Lbs. 

848 

1,060 

988 

912 

Lbs. 
466 

601 

882 

594 

Lbs. 
63 

26 
14 

40 

Lot  III 
Ground  emmer,  15.4  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  13.6  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Whole  emmer,  9.2  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  9.  2  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  12.0  Ibs  

1  Bui.  100. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


339 


The  table  shows  that  the  steers  fed  shelled  corn  gained  2.4  Ibs.  each 
daily,  while  those  fed  whole  emmer  gained  but  1.8  Ibs.  and  those  fed 
ground  emmer  1.5  Ibs.  each.  The  emmer-corn  mixture  gave  better 
results  than  emmer  alone.  In  this  trial  100  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn  was 
equal  to  125  Ibs.  of  emmer  in  feeding  value.  The  lot  fed  ground 
emmer  did  not  reach  as  high  a  finish  as  the  other  lots.  Sixty  Ibs. 
of  pork  was  produced  per  steer  on  the  shelled-corn  ration,  26  Ibs. 
on  the  whole  emmer  ration,  and  only  14  Ibs.  on  the  ground  emmer 
ration.  (178) 

530.  Millet  and  emmer  v.  corn. — At  the  South  Dakota  Station1 
Wilson  and  Skinner  fed  4  lots  of  3  calves  each  for  baby  beef  on  sep- 
arator skim  milk  until  6  months  old.  Beginning  with  an  average 
weight  of  about  500  Ibs.,  all  were  fed  to  the  finish  on  clover  hay  and 
either  corn,  oats,  Black  Veronesh  millet,  or  emmer  (speltz).  The  re- 
sults are  summarized  in  the  following  table: 

Feeding  millet  and  emmer  for  baby  beef  production. 


Grain  fed 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Grain  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Av.  selling 
price  per 
100  Ibs. 

As  calves 

While  on 
grass 

Fattening 
period 

Lot     1,  Corn  

Lbs. 
1.8 
1.8 
1.5 
1.7 

Lbs. 
797 
759 
637 

727 

Lbs. 
494 
474 

584 
628 

Lbs. 
703 
828 
635 
516 

Lbs. 
716 
628 
697 
725 

Dollars 
6.25 
6.00 
5.75 

5.85 

Lot  II,  Oats__ 

Lot  III,  Millet.  .__ 
Lot  IV,  Emmer  ._ 

It  is  seen  that  the  corn-fed  and  oat-fed  lots  made  the  most  rapid 
gains,  and  that  the  corn-fed  lot  brought  the  highest  price  in  the 
Chicago  market  where  they  were  sold.  Millet  produced  smaller  daily 
gains  than  emmer.  In  all  cases  the  grain  requirements  for  100  Ibs. 
of  gain  are  low  compared  with  those  of  more  mature  steers.  On  the 
plains  of  the  West,  where  millet  and  emmer  flourish,  these  grains 
are  sure  to  increase  in  importance  and  prove  useful  factors  in  meat 
production.  In  this  trial  emmer  produced  a  hard  fat  the  same  as  did 
oats,  and  meat  of  as  good  a  quality  as  that  from  corn.  (185) 

531.  Kafir. — At  the  Kansas  Station2  Georgeson  divided  a  bunch 
of  15  three-year-old  grade  steers  into  3  lots  of  5  each,  feeding  the 
concentrates  given  in  the  table.  The  grain  was  ground  to  such  fine- 
ness that  three-fourths  of  the  meal  passed  thru  a  sieve  of  one-twen- 
tieth inch  mesh.  At  first  kafir  stover  and  later  corn  stover  and 
alfalfa  hay  were  fed  for  roughage,  only  that  actually  consumed 


Bui.  97. 


2  Bui.  67. 


340  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

being  reported.  Shotes  followed  the  steers  during  the  175-day  trial. 
Kafir  meal  compared  with  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn  fed  to 
pigs  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Corn  meal,  18.6  Ibs. 
Roughage  10  6  Ibs 

Lbs. 
1.9 

1.7 
1.8 

Lbs. 
326 

299 
313 

Lbs. 
997 

1,086 
1,041 

Lbs. 
569 

688 
692 

Lbs. 
397 

361 
342 

Lot  II 
Red  kafir  meal,  18.6  Ibs. 
Roughage,  11.  8  Ibs. 

Lot  III 
White  kafir  meal,  18.6  Ibs. 
Roughage,  12.  4  Ibs. 

While  the  feeding  value  of  Indian  corn  for  steers  has  long  been 
known,  this  was  the  first  experiment  in  which  kafir  was  thoroly  tested 
for  a  long  period  under  normal  conditions.  The  table  shows  that 
kafir  meal  proved  about  7  per  ct.  less  valuable  than  corn  meal  as  a 
feed  for  fattening  steers.  Burtis  of  the  Oklahoma  Station1  writes: 
"A  bushel  of  corn  meal  produced,  when  fed  to  steers,  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  Ib.  more  beef  than  did  a  bushel  of  kafir  meal."  Haney 
of  the  Kansas  Station2  found  that  when  fed  with  either  kafir  hay  or 
sorghum  hay,  kafir  meal  was  not  equal  to  corn  meal,  over  200  Ibs. 
more  kafir  meal  than  corn  meal  being  required  for  100  Ibs.  gain  when 
the  roughage  was  kafir  hay.  (183) 

532.  Milo  and  kafir  v.  Indian  corn. — At  the  Texas  Station3  Burns 
fed  3  lots,  each  of  six  2-yr.-old  grade  Aberdeen- Angus  steers  averag- 
ing about  875  Ibs.  each,  the  following  rations  for  120  days  to  com- 
pare the  feeding  value  of  milo  and  kafir  "chop"  with  corn  "chop." 

Milo  and  kafir  compared  with  Indian  corn. 


Av. 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Average  ration 

daily 
gain 

Av.  J_TIllll 

per  head 

Grain 

Cotton- 
seed meal 

Cotton- 
seed hulls 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Indian  corn,  15.1  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.6  Ibs. 

2.1 

253 

718 

140 

599 

Lot  1  1 

Milo,  15.1  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.6  Ibs. 

2.1 

255 

714 

139 

596 

Lot  III 

Kafir,  15.1  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.6  Ibs. 

2.5 

297 

612 

119 

510 

Ept.  1901. 


Bui.  132. 


Bui.  110. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


341 


The  milo,  kafir,  and  corn  were  all  ground  to  the  same  fineness.  It 
is  shown  that  under  Texas  conditions  with  cotton-seed  hulls  for 
roughage,  kafir  chop  produced  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains 
and  milo  chop  proved  equal  to  Indian  corn  chop  for  fattening  steers. 
There  was  no  material  difference  in  the  quality  of  meat  from  the  three 
lots.  (184) 

533.  Rough  rice  and  by-products. — In  feeding  trials  with  steers 
at  the  Texas  Station1  Craig  and  Marshall  found  that  when  feeding 
cotton-seed  hulls  for  roughage  2.3  Ibs.  of  rough  rice  was  equal  to  1  Ib. 
of  cotton-seed  meal  in  the  ration.    Ten  Ibs.  of  rice  bran  proved  equal 
to  6  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  when  forming  two-fifths  of  the  concen- 
trates of  the  ration.    Rice  polish  was  about  equal  to  cotton-seed  meal 
when  substituted  for  a  portion  thereof  in  the  ration.     Rice  hulls 
proved  to  be  without  value.  (179) 

534.  Velvet    bean.— At    the    Florida  Station2    Scott    fed    velvet 
beans  in  the  pod  in  comparison  with  other  feeds  as  stated  below  to 
sixteen  700-lb.  steers  divided  into  4  lots  of  4  each  for  84  days  with 
the  results  shown  in  the  table. 

Feeding  velvet  beans  in  the  pod,  corn,  cotton-seed  meal,  etc., 
to  Florida  steers. 


Average  ration  per  1,000  Ibs.  of  steer 

Av. 
daily  gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Cost  of 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 
Corn,  8.0  Ibs. 
Velvet  beans  in  pod,  12.0  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  10.  0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.9 

Lbs. 
246 

Dollars 
7.55 

Lot  1  1 
Corn,  10.  5  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.8  Ibs. 
Crab-grass  hay,  13.5  Ibs.       .                   _  . 

2.6 

217 

9.07 

Corn,  6.  0  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5.0  Ibs. 
Sorghum  silage,  20.0  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  14.0  Ibs. 

2.7 

225 

10.65 

Lot  IV 
Cotton-seed  meal,  6.5  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  25.0  Ibs. 

1  9 

155 

12  00 

It  is  shown  that  the  steers  getting  12  Ibs.  of  velvet  beans  in  the 
pod  per  1,000  Ibs.  of  live  weight,  together  with  corn  and  cotton-seed 
hulls,  made  the  high  average  gain  of  2.9  Ibs.  daily  for  8*  days.  While 
all  gains  were  satisfactory,  those  of  the  steers  fed  velvet  beans  were 
the  largest  and  cheapest.  (263) 


Buls.  76,  86. 


2  Bui.  102. 


342 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


II.  BY-PRODUCTS  OF  THE  MILLS  AND  FACTORIES. 

535.  Cotton  seed  v.  cotton-seed  meal. — Marshall  and  Burns  of 
the  Texas  Station1  divided  one  hundred  3-yr.-old  grade  Short-horn 
steers  of  good  quality  and  averaging  1,115  Ibs.  into  2  lots  of  50  each, 
feeding  them  for  84  days  on  the  rations  shown  in  the  table. 

Cotton  seed  v.  cotton-seed  meal  when  fed  with  kafir  stover. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Concentrates  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 
Cotton  seed,  5.  2  Ibs. 
Ground  kalir,  21.6  Ibs. 
Kafir  stover,  without  limit 

Lbs. 
3.1 

Lbs. 
262 

Lbs. 
859 

Lot  II 
Cotton  seed  meal,  3.3  Ibs. 
Ground  kafir,  22.  7  Ibs. 
Kafir  stover,  without  limit 

2.4 

203 

1,074 

It  is  seen  that  the  steers  getting  cotton  seed  made  the  very  large 
gain  of  3.1  Ibs.  each  daily,  or  0.7  Ib.  more  than  those  getting  cotton- 
seed meal.  The  shrinkage  of  Lot  I  on  shipping  was  9.2  and  of  Lot  II 
7.5  per  ct.  In  this  trial  with  kafir  stover  for  the  roughage,  cotton 
seed  at  $12  per  ton  proved  more  profitable  than  cotton-seed  meal  at 
$26  per  ton. 

At  the  same  Station2  Burns  compared  cotton  seed  and  cotton-seed 
meal  in  a  90-day  trial  with  2  lots,  each  of  6  high  grade  Aberdeen- 
Angus  steers  averaging  963  Ibs.  Each  lot  was  fed  16.0  Ibs.  of  kafir 
chop  and  12.8  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  hulls  per  head  daily  in  addition  to 
cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal,  with  the  following  results: 

Cotton  seed  v.  cotton-seed  meat  for  fattening  steers. 


Av. 

Peed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Average  ration 

daily 
gain 

gain 
per 
head 

Kafir 
chop 

Cotton 
seed 

Cotton- 
seed 
meal 

Cotton- 
seed 
hulls 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cottonseed,  4.0  Ibs. 

Cotton  seed  meal,  1.0  Ibs. 

Kafir  chop,  16  .  0  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.8  Ibs. 

2.0 

184 

782 

196 

48 

626 

Lot  11 

Cotton-seed  meal,  2.  9  Ibs. 

Kafir  chop,  16.0  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.  8  Ibs. 

2.5 

227 

634 

116 

508 

1  Bui.  97. 


2  Bui.  110. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


343 


The  results  show  that  when  4  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  was  substituted 
for  1.9  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  smaller  and  less  economical  gains 
were  produced.  In  this  trial  it  was  found  that  with  cotton-seed  hulls 
for  roughage  cotton-seed  meal  was  cheaper  at  $26  per  ton  than  cotton 
seed  at  $12.  (188) 

536.  Cotton-seed  meal  as  a  supplement. — At  the  Indiana  Station1 
Skinner  and  Cochel  fed  2  lots,  each  of  ten  2-yr.-old  steers  averaging 
1,010  Ibs.,  on  corn,  clover  hay,  and  corn  silage  for  180  days.  The 
steers  in  Lot  II  received  in  addition  a  daily  allowance  of  3  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  as  shown  in  the  table. 

Cotton-seed  meal  as  a  supplement  to  corn,  clover  hay,  and  silage. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
grain 

Av. 
gain 
pei- 
head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Corn 

Cotton- 
seed meal 

Clover 
hay 

Silage 

Lot  I 
Shelled  corn,  16.  7  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  4.0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  15.0  Ibs  
Lot  1  1 
Shelled  corn,  16.  7  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  4.  0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  15.0  Ibs.  ___ 

Lbs. 
1.9 

2.6 

Lbs. 
334 

464 

Lbs. 
902 

647 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
215 

152 

Lbs. 
808 

582 

116 

The  addition  of  cotton-seed  meal  to  an  already  excellent  ration  so 
stimulated  the  appetite  of  the  steers  that  they  ate  more  corn,  and  as 
a  result  gained  0.7  Ib.  more  daily  than  the  other  lot.  It  is  shown  that 
the  feeding  of  116  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  effected  a  saving  of  255 
Ibs.  of  corn,  63  Ibs.  of  clover  hay,  and  226  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  in  making 
100  Ibs.  of  gain.  Because  of  their  better  finish,  the  steers  getting 
cotton-seed  meal  sold  for  30  cents  per  100  Ibs.  more  than  the  others. 

At  the  same  Station2  2  lots,  each  of  ten  2-yr.-old  steers  averaging 
966  Ibs.,  were  fed  180  days  to  determine  the  value  of  cotton-seed  meal 
as  a  supplement  when  fed  with  shelled  corn  and  clover  hay.  The 
steers  receiving  cotton-seed  meal  gained  0.4  Ib.  more  daily  and  re- 
quired 120  Ibs.  less  concentrates  and  110  Ibs.  less  clover  hay  for  100 
Ibs.  gain  than  those  receiving  no  supplement.  (188) 

537.  Cotton-seed  meal  with  pasture. — At  the  Texas  Station3 
Craig  and  Marshall,  feeding  2  lots  of  19  yearling  steers  each  for  196 


Bui.  129. 


Bui.  130. 


« Bui.  76. 


344 


Feeds  and  Feeding, 


days  on  pasture,  tested  the  value  of  a  limited  allowance  of  cotton- 
seed meal  as  a  partial  substitute  for  corn. 

Cotton-seed  meal  as  a  supplement  to  corn  for  steers  on  pasture. 


Average  ration 

Average 
daily  g-ain 

Av.  grain 
per  head 

Concentrates 
for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 
Corn,  3.7  Ibs. 
Pasture 

Lbs. 
0.9 

Lbs. 
171 

Lbs. 

428 

Lot  11 
Corn,  2.  8  Ibs, 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.9  Ib. 
Pasture  _  _ 

1.1 

214 

337 

It  is  shown  that  the  substitution  of  0.9  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  for 
an  equal  weight  of  corn  increased  the  daily  gain  by  0.2  Ib.,  and  ef- 
fected a  saving  of  21  per  ct.  in  the  concentrates  required  for  100  Ibs. 
of  gain. 

At  the  Mississippi  Station1  MacLean  fed  20  thousand-lb.,  poor-qual- 
ity grade  steers  cotton-seed  meal  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  cot- 
ton-seed hulls  for  97  days  in  summer  while  grazing  on  mixed  pasture. 
The  steers  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.3  Ibs.,  requiring  326  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal  and  328  Ibs.  of  hulls  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  These 
steers  fed  on  pasture  made  more  economical  gains  and  returned  a 
much  greater  profit  than  did  a  similar  lot  fed  cotton-seed  meal  and 
hulls  during  the  winter. 

538.  Linseed  oil  meal. — Smith  of  the  Nebraska  Station,2  as  a  re- 
sult of  3  trials  with  steers  fed  corn  and  prairie  hay  in  comparison 
with  others  fed  90  per  ct.  corn  and  10  per  ct.  linseed  meal  with 
prairie  hay,  found  that  it  required  23  per  ct.  less  concentrates  for 
100  Ibs.  gain  when  the  ration  containing  linseed  oil  meal  was  used. 
For  steer  fattening  linseed  meal  was  rated  a  little  higher  than  cotton- 
seed meal  and  much  more  valuable  than  wheat  bran  for  supplement- 
ing corn  fed  with  prairie  hay  or   corn  stover.     Smith  found  that 
alfalfa  hay  furnished  sufficient  protein,  and  proved  much  cheaper 
than  linseed  oil  meal  with  fattening  steers,  yet  no  form  of  hay  can 
quite  take  its  place  in  giving  finish  to  such  steers.  (200) 

539.  Linseed  meal,  corn,  and  pasture. — At  the  Nebraska  Station0 
Burnett  and  Smith  pastured  2  lots,  each  of  five  2-yr.-old  steers,  one 
receiving  17.8  Ibs.  corn  meal  per  head  daily  and  the  other  16  Ibs.  corn 
meal  and  1.8  Ibs.  linseed  meal.     The  steers  getting  the  linseed  meal 
each  gained  0.4  Ib.  more  daily,  consumed  200  Ibs.  less  concentrates 


Bui.  136. 


2  Bui.  100. 


Bui.  85. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


345 


for  100  Ibs.  gain,  and  were  much  less  troubled  with  scours  than  the 
lot  receiving  corn  meal  only.  This  trial  shows  the  value  of  a  pro- 
tein-rich supplement  for  steers  fed  corn  on  pasture. 

540.  Dried  distillers'  grains. — May  of  the  Kentucky  Station1  fed 
2  lots,  each  of  4  Short-horn  and  Angus  grade  steers  running  on 
closely  cropped  blue  grass  pasture,  the  feeds  shown  in  the  table  for 
168  days. 

Dried  distillers'  grains  compared  with  corn-and-cob  meal. 


Average  ration 

Average 
daily  gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Concentrates 
for  100  ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  14.3  Ibs. 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  5.4  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  without  limit.  . 

Lbs. 
2.2 

Lbs. 
375 

Lbs. 

882 

Lot  11 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  23.0  Ibs. 
Clover  hav,  without  limit 

1  8 

300 

1  287 

It  is  seen  that  the  substitution  of  5.4  Ibs.  of  dried  distillers'  grains 
for  8.7  Ibs.  of  corn-and-cob  meal  in  the  ration  brought  0.4  Ib.  more 
gain  daily  with  each  steer,  with  about  400  Ibs.  less  concentrates  re- 
quired for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  high  value  of  this  feed  used  in  a 
limited  way  and  in  proper  combination  is  here  shown  (317) 

541.  Sugar-beet  pulp.— Carlyle  and  Griffith  of  the  Colorado  Sta- 
tion2 divided  a  bunch  of  forty-eight  956-lb.  steers  of  mixed  breeding 
and  below  average  in  quality  into  4  lots  of  12  each,  giving  alfalfa 
hay  of  poor  quality  to  all  without  limit.  Sugar-beet  pulp  was  fed 
without  limit  to  2  lots  twice  a  day.  Coarse  corn  meal  was  fed  for 
concentrates  to  Lots  I  and  II,  the  allowance  starting  with  2  Ibs.  per 
steer  daily  and  being  gradually  increased  during  the  100-day  trial. 

Value  of  wet  beet-pulp  in  steer  feeding. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Hay 

Pulp 

Lot  I 
Beet  pulp,  93.  4  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  20.0  Ibs. 
Corn,  6  6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

2.6 
1.8 

1.8 
1.5 

Lbs. 

263 

176 

184 
147 

Lbs. 

251 
376 

Lbs. 

759 

1,778 

1,189 

2,829 

Lbs. 
3,545 

Lot  11 
Alfalfa  hay,  31.  3  Ibs. 
Corn,  6.  6  Ibs. 

Lot  III 
Beet  pulp,  97.  3  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  21.  9  Ibs. 

5,283 

Lot  IV 
Alfalfa  hay,  41.5  Ibs. 

Bui.  108. 


-  Bui.  102. 


346 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  table  shows  that  each  steer  in  Lot  I  consumed  over  93  Ibs.  of 
beet  pulp  daily  in  addition  to  20  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  and  6.6  Ibs.  corn 
meal.  On  this  ration  they  made  the  excellent  daily  gain  of  2.6  Ibs. 
each,  gaining  263  Ibs.  in  100  days.  With  alfalfa  hay,  beet  pulp,  and 
no  grain,  the  steers  of  Lot  III  gained  1.8  Ibs.  against  1.5  Ibs.  daily 
for  Lot  IV  on  alfalfa  hay  alone.  These  investigators  report  that  thru- 
out  the  trial  the  pulp-fed  steers  were  more  uniformly  thrifty  than 
those  getting  no  pulp.  They  estimate  that  for  2-yr.-old  fattening 
steers  9  Ibs.  of  wet  sugar-beet  pulp  proved  equal  to  2.8  Ibs.  of  alfalfa 
hay  or  1  Ib.  of  ground  corn.  (309) 

542.  Dried  beet  pulp. — Shaw  and  Norton  of  the  Michigan  Sta- 
tion1 found  as  the  results  of  three  winter  trials  that  dried  beet  pulp 
tended  to  growth  with  cattle  rather  than  to  fattening,  and  conclude 
that  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  feeding  period  dried  pulp  can  be  fed 
advantageously  in  large  quantities  because  of  its  cheapness  and  ability 
to  produce   rapid  gains.     During  the  finishing  period,   however,   it 
should  be  largely  replaced  by  corn  meal.     A  1000-lb.  steer  will  not 
consume  over  10  Ibs.  of  dried  beet  pulp  daily.  (311) 

543.  Cane  molasses. — At  the   Texas   Station2  Burns  fed  2   lots, 
each  of  6  high-grade  2-yr.-old  Aberdeen- Angus  steers  averaging  about 
870  Ibs.,  for  120  days.     The  steers  in  both  lots  were  fed  cotton-seed 
meal  and  cotton-seed  hulls.     Lot  I  received  corn  additional,  while 
Lot  II  received  cane  molasses  in  place  of  part  of  the  corn.     The  re- 
sults of  the  trial  are  given  below: 

Cane  molasses  as  a  partial  substitute  for  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

gain 
per 
head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Molasses 

Cotton- 
seed 
meal 

Cotton- 
seed 
hulls 

Lot  I 
Corn,  15.  1  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.6  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Molasses,  6  .  6  Ibs. 
Corn,  8.6  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  12.6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.1 

2.3 

Lbs. 
253 

272 

Lbs. 

718 

378 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
140 

130 

Lbs. 
599 

559 

290 

The  results  show  cane  molasses  somewhat  higher  in  feeding  value 
pound  for  pound  than  corn  where  it  replaces  not  more  than  one-half 
of  the  corn  in  the  ration.  When  fed  in  this  proportion  it  did  not 
induce  scouring. 


Bui.  247. 


Bui.  110. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


347 


Craig  and  Marshall  of  the  Texas  Station1  found  that  cane  molasses 
iiad  a  feeding  value  with  fattening  steers  of  from  3  to  30  cents  per 
gallon,  the  lower  figure  coming  from  its  use  in  a  ration  already  bal- 
anced. They  state  that  the  practice  of  Texan  feeders  is  to  mix  cane 
molasses  with  water  in  equal  parts,  drive  thru  the  feed  lots,  and 
spray  the  mixture  on  the  feed  in  the  bunks.  Others  mix  it  with  meal 
and  hulls  before  feeding.  Some  feeders  restrict  its  use  to  1  quart 
per  steer  daily,  mixing  it  with  the  feed  principally  to  render  it  more 
palatable  and  induce  the  cattle  to  eat  more  of  other  feeds.  (314) 

544.  Sugar-beet  molasses. — Ware2  reports  that  beet  molasses  has 
been  fed  to  oxen  for  about  30  years  at  the  Hohenau  sugar  factory, 
Germany.    During  the  first  month  3.3  Ibs.  is  fed  per  head  daily,  and 
after  this  4.4  Ibs.,  the  molasses  being  mixed  with  beet  pulp.     The 
oxen  so  fed  have  better  appetites  than  those  fed  no  molasses,  and 
fatten  rapidly. 

At  the  Utah  Station,3  when  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  valued  at  $3.50 
per  ton,  and  bran  and  shorts  at  $14  per  ton,  beet  molasses  had  a  value 
of  $2.35  per  ton  for  fattening  steers.  (312) 

III.  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  VARIOUS  DRY  EOUGHAGES. 

545.  Corn  stover. — Smith  of  the  Nebraska  Station4  conducted  2 
feeding  trials  in  which  there  were  ten  2-yr.-old  range  steers  averaging 
957  Ibs.  in  each  lot.     To  one  lot  was  given  alfalfa  hay  for  roughage, 
and  to  the  other  lot  half  alfalfa  and  half  corn  stover. 

Corn  stover  fed  in  combination  with  alfalfa  hay  to  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Roughage 

Trial  lasting  84  days 
Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  22.  2  Ibs. 
Corn,  9.5  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.1 

2.0 

2.3 
2.4 

Lbs. 

173 

165 

385 
402 

Lbs. 
460 

490 

814 

789 

Lbs. 
1,075 

1,144 

402 
456 

Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  11.  2  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  11.2  Ibs. 
Cora,  9.6  Ibs. 

Trial  lasting  168  days 
Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  9.  2  Ibs. 
Corn.  18.  6  Ibs.  .. 

Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  4.  9  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  4.9  Ibs. 
Corn,  18.4  Ibs. 

1  Bui.  86.  "  Cattle  Feeding,  p.  245. 


Bui.  90. 


Buls.  90,  93, 100. 


348 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  above  table  shows  that  corn  stover  (husked  corn  fodder)  may 
advantageously  take  the  place  of  part  of  the  alfalfa  hay  in  the  ra- 
tion for  fattening  steers.  Incidentally  there  is  brought  out  the  in- 
teresting fact  that  the  short>fed  steers  required  less  than  500  Ibs.  of 
corn  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  while  the  long-fed  steers,  which  were  of 
course  much  better  fattened,  required  800  Ibs.  of  corn  for  100  Ibs.  of 
gain — 69  per  ct.  more  than  the  short-fed  steers.  (549) 

Burnett  and  Smith  of  the  Nebraska  Station1  report  that  field-cured 
corn  stalks  fed  with  corn  and  a  little  oil  meal  gave  large  and  cheap 
gains.  (218) 

546.  Clover  v.  timothy  hay. — At  the  Indiana  Station2  Skinner 
and  Cochel  divided  a  bunch  of  heavy,  fleshy  grade  steers  weighing 
about  1,000  Ibs.  into  lots  of  10  each.  Lot  1  was  fed  clover  hay  and 
shelled  corn,  while  Lot  II  received  timothy  hay  and  shelled  corn.  The 
results  of  the  6-months  trial  are  shown  in  the  table : 

Clover  hay  and  shelled  corn  compared  with  timothy  hay  and  shelled  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
grain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Eoug-hage 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Clover  hay,  8.3  Ibs. 

Shelled  corn,  19.5  Ibs.  

2.0 

363 

969 

411 

Lot  II 

Timothy  hay,  6.  9  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  16.5  Ibs.  _ 

1.6 

282 

1,054 

438 

The  table  shows  that  the  clover-fed  lot  ate  more  grain  and  rough- 
age than  the  timothy-fed  lot,  and  made  both  larger  and  more  econom- 
ical gains,  requiring  about  9  per  ct.  less  corn  for  a  given  increase. 
Thruout  the  experiment  the  clover-fed  steers  were  in  better  condi- 
tion, had  better  appetites,  and  were  more  regular  feeders.  The  tim- 
othy-fed steers  were  irregular  in  their  appetites,  and  even  when  eat- 
ing a  full  feed  seemed  unsatisfied.  At  the  close  of  the  6-months  feed- 
ing period  the  average  weight  of  the  clover-fed  steers  was  1,373  Ibs., 
and  that  of  the  timothy-fed  steers  1,281  Ibs.  Waters  of  the  Missouri 
Station3  found  that  corn  was  worth  about  8  cents  per  bushel  more 
when  fed  with  clover  or  cowpea  hay  to  fattening  steers  than  when 
fed  with  timothy  hay.  (224,  254) 

547.  Nitrogenous  supplements  in  corn  feeding. — Mumford  of  the 
Illinois  Station4  fed  3  lots  of  13  common  to  medium  quality  steers 
averaging  917  Ibs.  for  126  days  as  follows:  All  were  fed  ear  corn  at 


1  Bui.  85. 


Bui.  129. 


Bui.  76. 


Bui.  83. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


349 


first  and  later  corn-and-cob  meal.  Lots  II  and  III  were  fed  timothy 
hay  and  corn  stover  for  roughage.  Lot  I  was  fed  clover  hay,  a  nitrog- 
enous roughage,  and  Lot  III  gluten  meal,  a  nitrogenous  concentrate. 
During  the  trial  an  average  of  5.5  pigs,  averaging  131  Ibs.  each,  ran 
with  each  lot  of  13  steers.  The  ration  and  returns  are  given  in  the 
table : 

Value  of  nitrogenous  supplements  in  corn  feeding. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

gain 
per 
head 

Feed  per  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Total  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Rough- 
age 

Steers 

Pigs 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Clover  hay,  11.  6  Ibs. 

Corn  or 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  18.5  Ibs. 

2.5 

303 

768 

482 

3,945 

542 

Lot  II 

Timothy  hay,  6.6  Ibs. 

Corn  stover,  3.  9  Ibs. 

Corn  or 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  17.5  Ibs. 

1.9 

223 

987 

588 

2,900 

482 

Lot  III 

Timothy  hay,  7.3  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  3.  9  Ibs. 

Corn  or 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  13.  6  Ibs. 

Gluten  meal,  2.  6  Ibs. 

2.3 

274 

744 

514 

3,  556 

422 

The  table  shows  that  when  getting  substantially  the  same  allow- 
ance of  corn-and-cob  meal  the  steers  of  Lot  I,  receiving  clover  hay, 
made  a  daily  gain  of  2.5  Ibs.  each,  while  those  of  Lot  II,  given  tim- 
othy hay  and  corn  stover,  gained  only  1.9  Ibs.  daily,  or  0.6  Ib.  less 
per  steer.  The  13  steers  of  Lot  I,  getting  clover  hay,  gained  over 
1,000  Ibs.  more  than  those  of  Lot  II,  getting  timothy  hay  and  corn 
stover.  The  pigs  following  the  clover-fed  steers  also  gained  more 
from  the  droppings  than  those  following  the  steers  fed  timothy  hay 
and  corn  stover.  (554)  Comparing  Lots  II  and  III  we  learn  that  sub- 
stituting 2.6  Ibs.  of  protein-rich  gluten  meal  for  3.9  Ibs.  of  corn-and- 
cob  meal  caused  each  steer  in  Lot  III  to  gain  0.4  Ib.  more  daily,  with 
a  total  increased  gain  for  the  lot  of  over  600  Ibs. 

It  is  evident  from  this  and  the  preceding  trial  that  wiiere  carbo- 
hydrate-rich feeds,  like  corn,  timothy  hay,  and  corn  stover,  are  used, 
the  addition  of  a  nitrogenous  feed,  like  clover  hay,  gluten  meal,  or 
oil  meal,  materially  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  Mumford 
reports  that  when  slaughtered  the  steers  fed  timothy  hay  without 
a  protein-rich  supplement  showed  a  high  percentage  of  internal  fat, 
without  a  corresponding  percentage  of  dressed  beef — a  most  signifi- 


350 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


cant  and  possibly  fundamental  fact.  The  successful  use  of  farm- 
grown  clover  in  place  of  the  expensive  purchased  gluten  meal  should 
not  be  overlooked  in  studying  this  experiment. 

548.  Feeding  alfalfa  hay  only. — Vernon  and  Scott  of  the  New 
Mexico  Station,1  when  feeding  2-yr.-old  range  steers  averaging  550 
Ibs.  each  solely  on  alfalfa  hay,  secured  a  total  gain  of  205  Ibs.  per 
steer,  with  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.7  Ibs.,  1,100  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay 
being  eaten  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain.    The  marked  economy  of  alfalfa 
for  feeding  steers  for  the  local  markets  in  the  Western  alfalfa  dis- 
tricts is  here  shown.  (245) 

True  and  McConnell  of  the  Arizona  Station,2  after  6  feeding  trials, 
conclude  that,  where  no  concentrates  are  fed,  alfalfa  hay  alone  is 
about  equal  in  feeding  value  to  alfalfa  hay  combined  with  such  rough- 
ages as  corn,  kafir,  and  sweet  sorghum.  Where  water  is  abundant 
alfalfa  hay  is  cheaper  than  the  other  roughages,  but  where  it  is  in 
scant  supply  or  the  soil  is  excessively  alkaline,  kafir  and  the  sweet 
sorghums  form  economical  roughages  in  combination  with  alfalfa. 

549.  Alfalfa  hay  as  the  sole  roughage. — Erf,  Kinzer,  and  Wheeler 
of  the  Kansas   Station3   fed  2  lots,  each  of   10   high   grade  Angus 
steers  averaging  959  Ibs.,  for  a  period  of  143  days.     Both  lots  re- 
ceived the  same  allowance  of  concentrates,  the  roughages  varying  as 
shown  in  the  table: 

Alfalfa  hay  compared  with  mixed  roughages  for  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  12.9  Ibs. 
Corn,  19.  4  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.4  Ib.  

Lbs. 

2.8 

2.3 

Lbs. 
406 

333 

Lbs. 

578 

715 

Lbs. 
455 

743 

Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  10.  8  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  3.5  Ibs. 
Sorghum  and  kafir  stover,  2.  5  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  1.0  Ib. 
Corn,  19.4  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.4  Ib. 

It  is  shown  that  the  steers  getting  alfalfa  as  their  sole  roughage 
each  gained  half  a  Ib.  more  daily  than  those  fed  mixed  roughage  in- 
cluding alfalfa  hay.  While  all  gains  were  satisfactory,  they  were 
particularly  high  on  the  ration  in  which  alfalfa  was  the  sole  rough- 


1  Bui.  57. 


2  Bui.  50. 


3  Bui.  130. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


351 


age.  "Alfalfa  hay  and  corn-and-cob  meal  form  a  most  excellent  ra- 
tion for  fattening  steers,"  is  the  conclusion  reached  by  these  investi- 
gators. (545) 

Burtis  of  the  Oklahoma  Station1  reports  that  alfalfa-fed  steers 
made  about  16  per  ct.  faster  gain  and  required  from  one-fourth  to 
one-third  less  grain  for  a  given  gain  than  steers  fed  kafir  stover. 

550.  Alfalfa  hay  v.  prairie  hay. — At  the  Nebraska  Station2  Smith 
fed  2  lots,  each  of  ten  2-year-old  grade  Short-horn  steers  averaging 
932  Ibs.,  for  168  days  on  the  rations  shown  in  the  table: 

Alfalfa  hay  compared  with  prairie  hay. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  9.2  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  18.6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.3 

1.9 

Lbs. 

385 

315 

Lbs. 
814 

952 

Lbs. 
402 

519 

Lot  II 
Prairie  hay,  9.7  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  17.9  Ibs. 

By  the  table  we  are  shown  that  each  steer  receiving  alfalfa  hay 
and  shelled  corn  made  0.4  Ib.  more  gain  daily  and  required  14  per 
ct.  less  grain  for  a  given  gain  than  those  getting  prairie  hay.  In  a 
similar  trial  with  yearlings,3  it  was  found  that  27  per  ct.  less  grain 
was  required  when  alfalfa  hay  was  used  in  place  of  prairie  hay. 

551.  Alfalfa  v.  sorghum  and  kafir  hay. — At  the  Kansas  Station4 
Haney  found  in  trials  with  lots  of  8  steers  each  fed  152  days  that 
alfalfa  was  greatly  superior  to  either  sorghum  hay  or  kafir  hay  v/hen 
either  corn-and-cob  meal  or  kafir  meal  was  fed  as  the  concentrate. 
One  bushel   (70  Ibs.)   of  corn-and-cob  meal  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  as 
roughage  produced  11.8  Ibs.  of  gain,  while  with  sorghum  hay  it  gave 
only  6.3  Ibs.  gain,  and  with  kafir  hay  7.1  Ibs.  gain.  (222) 

552.  Alfalfa  hay  v.  linseed  oil  meal. — Smith  of  the  Nebraska  Sta- 
tion5 compared  alfalfa  hay  with  linseed  oil  meal  in  2  trials  conducted 
with  a  total  of  40  steers,  divided  into  2  lots  of  20  each.    He  concludes : 
li  A  relatively  small  quantity  of  alfalfa  hay  will  supply  sufficient  pro- 
tein to  insure  good  gains  on  2-yr.-old  steers,  and  this  can  be  produced 
on  the  farm  much  cheaper  than  it  can  be  purchased  on  the  market 
in  the  form  of  linseed  meal  or  some  other  protein  concentrate. ' ' 


1  Rpt.  1901. 

2  Bui.  90. 


8  Nebr.  Sta.,  Bui.  85. 
4  Bui.  132. 


Bui.  100. 


352 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


553.  Alfalfa  v.  various  roughages. — At  the  Nebraska  Station1 
Snyder  divided  a  bunch  of  100  good  grade  steer  calves  averaging 
about  425  Ibs.  into  5  lots  of  20  each.  Each  calf  was  fed  2  Ibs.  daily 
of  concentrates,  consisting  of  2  parts  corn  and  1  part  oats,  together 
with  roughage  as  shown  in  the  table,  the  trial  lasting  116  days : 

A  test  of  various  roughages  for  steer  calves. 


Average  ration 

Av 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  12.3  Ibs. 
Concentrates,  2  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

1.2 

1.2 

1.1 
0.7 
0.4 

Lbs. 
143 

140 

133 
7(3 
46 

Lbs. 

162 

165 

174 
305 
504 

Lbs. 
1,000 

1,416 

1,315 
1,676 
3,666 

Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  8.5  Ibs. 
Sorghum  hay,  8.5  Ibs. 
Concentrates,  2  Ibs. 

Lot  III 
Alfalfa  hay,  7.5  Ibs. 
Prairie  hay,  7.5  Ibs. 
Concentrates,  2  Ibs.      _          __ 

Lot  IV 
Prairie  hay,  10.9  Ibs. 
Concentrates,  2  Ibs. 

LotV 
Sorghum  hay,  14.3  Ibs. 
Concentrates,  2  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  the  best  returns  were  from  alfalfa  hay  and  the 
poorest  from  sorghum  hay,  while  a  combination  of  the  two  proved 
satisfactory.  The  gains  of  the  calves  on  the  rations  containing  alfalfa 
were  excellent,  and  100  Ibs.  of  increase  was  obtained  with  a  surpris- 
ingly small  amount  of  feed,  showing  that  alfalfa  hay  is  particularly 
useful  with  young,  growing  animals. 

554.  A  Missouri  comparison  of  roughages. — At  the  Missouri  Sta- 
tion2 Waters  fed  4  lots,  each  of  4  two-yr.-old  steers,  the  rations 
shown  on  the  next  page  for  105  days  to  compare  the  value  of  va- 
rious roughages  for  fattening  steers. 

It  is  shown  that  steers  fed  timothy  hay  produced  much  smaller 
and  less  economical  gains  than  those  receiving  either  clover  or  cow- 
pea  hay,  or  clover  hay  with  corn  stover.  The  steers  fed  the  legume 
hays  consumed  nearly  twice  as  much  hay  and  also  more  corn  than 
those  fed  timothy  hay,  but  22  per  ct.  of  the  corn  required  for  100  Ibs. 
of  gain  was  saved  by  using  a  legume  hay  in  place  of  timothy  hay. 
Waters  states  that  hogs  following  steers  getting  legume  hay  do  better 


Bui.  105. 


Bui.  7(1 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


353 


than  those  following  steers  fed  timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  or  corn 
stover.  He  concludes  that  the  advantages  of  feeding  legume  hay, 
such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea,  are:  Cheaper  and  more  rapid 
gains;  better  finish  and  better  selling  qualities  with  increased  hog 
gains;  and  manure  richer  in  nitrogen.  (546-7) 

Various  roughages  for  fattening  steers  compared. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Shelled 
corn 

Bough  age 

Lot  I 
Timothy  hay,  6.0  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  21.  Olbs. 

Lbs. 
1.9 

2.7 
2.7 

2.7 

Lbs. 
197 

284 
284 

285 

Lbs. 
1,118 

869 
865 

865 

Lbs. 
322 

420 
422 

293 

Lot  II 
Clover  hay,  11.  4  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  23.5  Ibs. 

Lot  III 
Cowpea  hay,  11.  4  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  23.4  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Clover  hay,  5.9  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  2.1  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  23.  5  Ibs. 

555.  Velvet  beans  in  the  pod  and  crab  grass. — At  the  Florida  Sta- 
tion1 Scott  fed  2  lots,  each  of  four  717-lb.  steers  from  native  cows  and 
sired  by  a  well-bred  Short-horn  bull,  the  rations  shown  below  for  84 
days.  Both  lots  received  corn,  Lot  I  being  fed  cotton-seed  meal  in 
addition  and  crab-grass  hay  for  roughage,  and  Lot  II  velvet  beans  in 
the  pod  and  cotton-seed  hulls  for  roughage. 

Crab  grass  and  velvet  beans  in  the  pod  for  roughage  with  Florida  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Crab-grass  hay,  13.0  Ibs. 
Corn,  9.9  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.5  Ibs.  _. 

Lbs. 
2.6 

2.9 

Lbs. 
217 

246 

Lbs. 
518 

258 

Lbs. 
503 

703 

Lot  II 
Velvet  beans,  11.2  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  9.4  Ibs. 
Corn,  7.5  Ibs  

It  is  seen  that  both  lots  of  steers  made  most  satisfactory  gains, 
those  getting  velvet  beans  in  the  pod  gaining  somewhat  more  than 
the  others.  (263) 


Bui.  96. 

24 


354: 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


556.  Roughages  with  cotton-seed  meal. — During  each  of  three 
years,  Duggar  and  Ward  of  the  Alabama  Station1  fed  4  lots  each  of 
5  grade  2-yr.-old  steers  for  84  days  on  the  rations  averaged  below: 

Comparison  of  roughages  fed  with  cotton-seed  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av. 
daily 
grain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5.6  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  19.5  Ibs.  

Lbs. 
734 

708 
698 

737 

Lbs. 
1.6 

1.2 

1.4 

1.7 

Lbs. 
366 

578 
423 

396 

Lbs. 
1,347 

1,847 
1,195 

1,191 

Lot  II 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5  .  5  Ibs. 
Shredded  corn  stover,  17.4  Ibs.  _.. 
Lot  III 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5.5  Ibs. 
Cut  sorghum  hay,  2  2  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  2.2  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  4.  3  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  19.4  Ibs. 

The  table  shows  that  the  steers  fed  cotton-seed  hulls  for  roughage 
made  larger  and  more  economical  gains  than  those  fed  either  shredded 
corn  stover  or  cut  sorghum  hay.  When  corn-and-cob  meal  was  sub- 
stituted for  one-third  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  with  steers  fed  cotton- 
seed hulls  for  roughage,  about  the  same  returns  were  secured  as  with 
cotton-seed  meal  alone. 

557.  Legume  hay  with  cotton-seed  meal. — Craig  and  Marshall  of 
the  Texas  Station2  fed  4  lots  of  5  yearling  steers  each  on  cotton-seed 
meal  and  rice  bran  with  peanut,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  or  cotton- 
seed hulls  for  roughage.  After  6  weeks  the  steers  getting  peanut  hay 
developed  looseness  of  the  bowels  and  showed  redness  of  the  eyes  and 
some  swelling  about  the  sheath;  when  changed  to  prairie  hay  the  un- 
favorable symptoms  disappeared  and  the  gains  increased.  (264)  Al- 
falfa hay  fed  with  a  large  allowance  of  cotton-seed  meal  likewise  pro- 
duced scours,  the  steers  gaining  only  1.9  Ibs.  each  daily.  When 
shelled  corn  replaced  a  part  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  they  gained  2.7 
Ibs.  each  daily.  When  fed  with  a  large  allowance  of  cotton-seed  meal, 
cowpea  hay  proved  more  satisfactory  than  either  alfalfa  or  peanut 
hay,  tho  slightly  less  valuable  than  cotton-seed  hulls.  (261)  Peanut, 
alfalfa,  and  cowpea  hay,  being  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  serve  their 
best  purpose  when  combined  with  carbohydrate-rich  concentrates 
such  as  corn,  kafir,  and  milo.  Where  heavy  nitrogenous  cotton-seed 


Bui.  103. 


2  Bui.  76. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


355 


meal  is  fed,  these  leguminous  roughages  should  only  be  fed  in  limited 
amount,  at  most,  along  with  such  carbohydrate-rich  feeds  as  corn, 
sorghum,  milo  forage,  or  cotton-seed  hulls. 

558.  Grazing  cowpeas  and  corn. — Bennett  of  the  Arkansas  Sta- 
tion1 sowed  cowpeas  in  a  five-acre  corn  field.    In  October,  after  gath- 
ering the  corn,  steers  were  turned  into  a  portion  of  the  field  to  graze 
on  the  corn  forage  and  cowpeas,  with  cotton  seed  accessible.     When 
one-third  of  the  field  was  grazed  off,  another  portion  was  set  aside, 
and  so  on  until  it  was  all  grazed  over.     Six  steers  averaging  770  Ibs. 
when  turned  into  the  field  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  2  Ibs.  each 
for  64  days,  consuming  250  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  in  that  time,  besides 
corn  forage  and  pea  vines  with  pods.    Bennett  states  that  allowing  for 
all  expenses  the  gains  made  by  the  steers  cost  but  $1.60  per  100  Ibs. 
Such  practice  tends  to  soil  improvement  as  well  as  cheap  meat  pro- 
duction. (261) 

IV.  SILAGE;  BOOTS. 

559.  Corn  silage  for  steer  calves. — Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Sta- 
tion2 divided  a  bunch  of  50  good,  thrifty  8-months-old  grade  Hereford 
and  Short-horn  steer  calves,  weighing  about  500  Ibs.  each,  into  2  lots 
of  25  each.    These  were  fed  88  days  in  the  following  manner:    Each 
calf  received  4  Ibs.  of  mixed  hay  and  2  Ibs.  of  oats  daily;  in  addi- 
tion, Lot  I  was  given  corn  silage  and  Lot  II  unhusked  shock  corn. 
The  corn  forage  used  was  from  the  same  field,   part  having  been 
placed  in  the  silo  and  the  remainder  cured  in  the  shock.     The  re- 
sults of  the  trial  are  presented  in  the  table.     Ten  shotes  averaging 
65  Ibs.  each  were  placed  with  each  lot  of  calves. 

Corn  silage  compared  with  shock  corn  for  grade  steer  calves. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily  gain 

Wt.of 
corn  for- 
age fed 

Area  of 
corn  for- 
age fed 

Total  gain  of 

Steers 

Pigs 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Tons 

Acres 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Silage,  26.1  Ibs. 

Mixed  hay,  4.6  Ibs.  Oats,  2  Ibs. 

1.7 

28.8 

3.7 

3,693 

87 

Lot  II 

Shock  corn,  13.  2  Ibs. 

Mixed  hay,  4.0  Ibs.  Oats,  2  Ibs. 

1.4 

14.6 

5.3 

3,133 

587 

The  table  shows  that  the  silage-fed  calves  gained  560  Ibs.  more  than 
those  getting  shock  corn.  Lot  I  consumed  28.8  tons  of  corn  silage, 
grown  on  3.7  acres.  In  the  same  time  Lot  II  consumed  14.6  tons  of 


Ept.  1899. 


2  Bui.  73. 


356 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


shock  corn,  grown  en  5.3  acres,  or  43  per  ct.  more  area  than  was  re- 
quired to  furnish  the  corn  silage.  The  silage-fed  calves  in  Lot  I 
gained  3,693  Ibs.  and  the  pigs  following  them  only  87  Ibs.  The  steers 
in  Lot  II,  getting  shock  corn,  gained  only  3,133  Ibs.,  but  the  pigs  fol- 
lowing them  gained  587  Ibs.  Combining  the  gains  of  calves  and  pigs, 
the  gross  returns  are  practically  equal  for  the  two  lots,  but,  measured 
by  the  area  of  land  required,  corn  silage  is  30  per  ct.  ahead  of  shock 
corn  in  feeding  value.  (363) 

560.  Corn  silage  v.  stover. — At  the  Ohio  Station1  Carmichael  fed 
2  lots  of  grade  Short-horn  steers  averaging  955  Ibs.  in  weight  to  de- 
termine the  value  of  corn  silage  when  substituted  for  about  half  the 
dry  roughage  in  the  ration.  The  lots,  containing  20  and  21  steers 
respectively,  were  fed  for  140  days  with  the  following  results : 

Corn  silage  for  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Silage 

Stover 

Hay 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Silage,  24.3  Ibs. 

Mixed  hay,  5.0  Ibs. 

Stover,  0.8  Ib. 
Shelled  corn,  14.9  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  1.7  Ibs  — 

2.3 

714 

1,043 

34 

215 

Lot  II 

Mixed  hay,  11.2  Ibs. 

Stover,  1.7  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  17.  8  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  1.7  Ibs  

2.3 

845 

72 

485 

The  average  daily  gain  per  steer  was  the  same  for  each  lot.  While 
the  dry-fed  steers  required  845  Ibs.  of  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  of 
gain,  those  fed  silage  required  only  714  Ibs.  In  this  trial  1  ton  of 
corn  silage  replaced  4.4  bushels  of  corn,  74  Ibs.  of  corn  stover,  and 
514  Ibs.  of  mixed  hay.  Each  pig  following  the  dry-fed  steers  gained 
0.16  Ib.  more  daily  than  those  following  the  silage-fed  steers.  Tho 
fed  the  full  silage  allowance  up  to  the  day  before  being  shipped,  the 
steers  so  fed  showed  no  greater  shrinkage  than  the  others. 

561.  Corn  silage  v.  clover  hay. — At  the  Indiana  Station2  Skinner 
and  Cochel  compared  corn  silage  and  clover  hay  as  roughages  for  fat- 
tening steers  getting  shelled  corn  and  cotton-seed  meal  for  concen- 
trates. Three  lots,  each  of  ten  2-yr.-old  grade  Angus  steers  averaging 


Bui.  193. 


2  Bui.  136. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


357 


964  Ibs.,  were  fed  for  180  days  with  the  results  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

Corn  silage  compared  with  clover  hay  for  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain. 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Cost  per 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Clover 
hay 

Corn 
silage 

Lot  I 
Clover  hay,  9.5  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  17.  4  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 
Lot  1  1 
Corn  silage,  15.  3  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  5.0  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  16.8  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.  0  Ibs. 
Lot  III 
Corn  silage,  29.  5  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  15.8  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
2.3 

2.3 

2.6 

Lbs. 
409 

421 

466 

Lbs. 
895 

848 

727 

Lbs. 
412 

212 

Lbs. 

Dollars 
11.44 

10.93 
9.39 

655 
1,139 

It  is  shown  that  Lot  III,  receiving  corn  silage  as  their  sole  rough- 
age, made  the  largest  and  most  economical  daily  gains,  requiring  19 
per  ct.  less  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  Lot  1,  fed  clover  hay. 
Lot  II,  fed  clover  hay  and  corn  silage,  made  slightly  larger  and  more 
economical  gains  than  Lot  I,  fed  only  clover  hay  as  roughage. 

The  silage-fed  steers  shed  their  winter  coats  earlier,  distributed 
the  fat  more  evenly  over  the  carcass,  obtained  a  higher  finish,  had  a 
higher  market  value,  and  returned  a  greater  profit  than  those  fed 
no  silage.  Practically  the  same  results  were  obtained  in  2  previous 
trials  at  the  same  Station.  From  these  trials  Skinner  concludes  that 
a  nitrogenous  concentrate,  such  as  linseed  or  cotton-seed  meal,  should 
be  fed  with  corn  silage. 

562.  The  finish  of  silage-fed  steers.— At  the  Virginia  Station1 
Soule  and  Fain  fed  6  lots,  each  of  10  steers  and  heifers  of  inferior 
quality,  to  compare  the  value  of  corn  silage,  timothy  hay,  and 
shredded  corn  stover,  when  fed  with  corn-and-cob  meal  and  either 
linseed  or  cotton-seed  meal.  During  180  days  the  cattle  fed  silage 
made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.5  Ibs. ;  those  fed  stover,  1.0  Ib. ;  and 
those  fed  timothy  hay,  1.1  Ibs.  The  silage-fed  cattle  finished  out  bet- 
ter than  those  that  were  dry-fed.  The  silage  was  eaten  with  great 
relish  and  no  loss,  whereas  12  per  ct.  of  the  stover  and  5  per  ct.  of  the 
hay  was  wasted. 

1  Bui.  157. 


358 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


In  another  trial1  40  grade  Short-horn  steers  of  fair  quality  were 
fed  149  days  on  an  average  ration  of  8.8  Ibs.  of  corn  and  cotton-seed 
meal,  2.1  Ibs.  of  hay  and  corn  stover,  and  38  Ibs.  of  corn  silage. 
These  steers  made  the  excellent  average  daily  gain  of  1.8  Ibs.  each. 
When  shipped  to  Jersey  City  they  shrank  no  more  than  dry-fed  cattle, 
and  dressed  57  per  ct.  The  meat  was  fully  equal  to  that  of  Western 
corn-fed  cattle,  being  of  superior  quality  with  good  color,  and  the 
fat  and  lean  being  well  blended.  These  investigators  conclude  that 
there  is  no  justification  for  opposition  to  silage  for  finishing  beef 
cattle.  Owing  to  the  laxative  nature  of  corn  silage  they  recommend 
feeding,  along  with  it,  2  or  3  Ibs.  daily  of  shredded  stover,  timothy 
hay,  or  some  other  dry  roughage,  larger  amounts  not  being  neces- 
sary where  good  silage  is  used.  (278) 

563.  Silage  v.  roots. — At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College2  Shaw 
fed  3  groups  of  2  grade  Short-horn  steers  each,  giving  corn  silage  to 
one  lot,  corn  silage  and  hay  to  a  second,  and  hay,  turnips,  and  man- 
gels to  a  third.  The  concentrates  for  all  lots  consisted  of  equal  parts 
of  ground  peas,  barley,  and  oats.  Mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay  was 
used. 

Corn  silage  compared  with  roots. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Hay 

Roots  or  silage 

Lot  I 
Silage,  57.  5  Ibs. 
Meal,  11.7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1.9 

1.5 

1.8 

Lbs. 

277 

224 

268 

Lbs. 
616 

740 
617 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
3,030 

2,067 
2,394 

Lot  II 
Silage,  30.  6  Ibs. 
Hay,  9.  3  Ibs. 
Meal,  11.1  Ibs. 

620 
622 

Lot  III 
Boots,  43.1  Ibs. 
Hay,  11.  2  Ibs. 
Meal,  11.  1  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  the  silage-fed  steers  made  slightly  better  daily 
gains  than  those  fed  roots  and  hay,  and  much  better  gains  than  those 
getting  both  silage  and  hay.  Day  of  the  same  College3  concludes 
from  2  trials  that  silage  has  a  somewhat  higher  feeding  value  than 
roots  with  fattening  steers,  the  difference  materially  favoring  silage 
when  cost  of  production  is  considered.  (351-3,  656) 

564.  Silage  v.  roots  in  Britain. — Ingle,  summarizing  201  trials 
with  fattening  steers  in  Great  Britain  in  all  but  16  of  which  roots 

1  Virginia  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  173.  2  Ept.  1891.  3  Epts.  1901, 1902. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


359 


were  fed,  compares  the  average  returns  from  all  the  trials  with  the 
gains  secured  in  6  trials  in  which  silage  was  fed  without  roots,  as 
follows : 


Average  daily 
gain 


Digestible  matter 
in  100  Ibs.  gain 


Average  of  all  trials 1.8  pounds       900  pounds 

Where  silage  was  fed 1.8  pounds        763  pounds 

In  the  201  trials  reported  the  fattening  animals  made  an  average 
daily  gain  of  1.8  Ibs.,  requiring  900  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter  for  100 
Ibs.  of  gain,  while  in  6  trials  where  silage  was  fed  the  daily  gain  was 
also  1.8  Ibs.,  but  only  763  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter  was  consumed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain.  Ingle  comments  thus :  *  *  This  is  high  testimony  to  the 
feeding  value  of  silage  compared  with  roots."  (567) 

565.  Cassava  and  sweet  potatoes. — At  the  Florida  Station1  Stock- 
bridge  fed  3  lots  of  4  steers  each  averaging  446  Ibs.  for  70  days  to 
test  the  value  of  sweet  potatoes  and  cassava  in  beef  production. 

Cassava  and  sweet  potatoes  for  fattening  steers. 


Average  ration  per  100  Ibs.  live  weight 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Rough- 
age 

Lot  I 
Sweet  potatoes,  35  Ibs. 
Pea-vine  hay,  10  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  4  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

1.8 

2.1 

1.9 

Lbs. 
124 

144 
136 

Lbs. 
226 

195 
517 

Lbs. 
2,541 

2,188 
1,033 

Lot  II 
Cassava,  35  Ibs. 
Pea-vine  hay,  10  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  4  Ibs.         

Lot  II 
Crab-grass  hay,  20  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  5  Ibs.  

It  is  shown  that  cassava  and  sweet  potatoes  are  satisfactory  in  beef 
production  when  combined  with  pea-vine  hay  and  cotton-seed 
meal.  The  steers  fed  crab-grass  hay  required  more  than  twice  as 
much  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  as  those  in  the  other 
lots.  (288-9) 

566.  Cotton-belt  v.  corn-belt  ration. — At  the  Texas  Station2  Craig 
and  Marshall  fed  2  lots  of  5  yearling  steers  each  on  the  following 
rations  for  100  days  to  compare  a  ration  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  cot- 


Ept.  1901. 


2  Bui.  76. 


360 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


ton-seed  hulls  with  one  composed  of  alfalfa  hay  and  corn-and-cob 
meal,  obtaining  the  results  shown  in  the  table: 

Cotton-seed  meal  and  hulls  compared  with  corn-and-cob  meal  and 

alfalfa  hay. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av.  gain 
per  head 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Roughage 

Lot  I 

Cotton-seed  meal,  5.7  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  22.4  Ibs.       

Lbs. 
2.2 

2.5 

Lbs. 
221 

253 

Lbs. 
259 

440 

Lbs. 
1,013 

669 

Lot  II 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  11.1  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  16.9  Ibs.            

Both  lots  made  excellent  gains,  the  alfalfa-fed  steers  averaging  0.3 
Ib.  more  per  head  daily  than  those  fed  cotton-seed  meal  and  cotton- 
seed hulls.  With  both  rations  the  amount  of  concentrates  for  100 
Ibs.  of  gain  was  surprisingly  small.  The  light-weight  cotton-seed 
hulls,  furnishing  mostly  carbohydrates,  admirably  supplemented  the 
heavy  nitrogenous  cotton-seed  meal.  In  the  other  ration,  corn-and- 
cob  meal,  furnishing  carbohydrates  and  fat,  served  as  the  concen- 
trate, while  the  alfalfa  hay  furnished  the  required  nitrogenous  matter. 
These  rations  should  be  regarded  as  standard  by  cattle  feeders  when- 
ever they  can  be  used. 

567.  British  feeding  trials.— Ingle1  has  collated  all  the  feeding 
trials  with  fattening  steers  reported  in  Great  Britain  between  the 
years  1835  and  1908 — 201  in  number.  From  this  extended  report  the 
typical  examples  given  on  the  next  page  are  chosen  as  broadly  illus- 
trating the  British  system  of  fattening  beef  cattle. 

The  average  weights  of  the  bullocks  given  in  the  table  is  the  mean 
of  their  weights  at  the  beginning  and  close  of  the  feeding  trial. 

The  American  cattle  feeder  who  critically  reviews  the  data  given 
will  be  impressed  first  of  all  with  the  surprisingly  small  amount  of 
concentrates  employed  in  the  ration.  In  the  201  trials  presented  by 
Ingle  the  largest  amount  of  concentrates  fed  to  any  steer  on  one  day 
was  13  Ibs.  In  a  few  cases  no  concentrates  were  fed,  but  usually  the 
allowance  for  each  bullock  was  6  or  7  Ibs.  per  day.  The  rich  nitroge- 
nous concentrates  such  as  linseed  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  dried  brew- 
ers' and  distillers'  grains,  and  peanut  cake  are  the  ones  commonly 
employed,  followed  by  barley  and  corn  meal  more  sparingly  used. 
Equally  striking  is  the  heavy  use  of  roots,  the  amount  fed  ranging 

1  Trans.  Highl.  and  Agr.  Soc.  of  Scotland,  1909. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs. 


361 


from  35  Ibs.  per  head  daily  to  above  150  Ibs.  in  extreme  cases.  (275) 
The  light  feeding  of  concentrates  and  the  heavy  feeding  of  roots  is 
accompanied  by  the  large  consumption  of  hay  and  straw,  which  the 
British  feeder  chaffs  or  cuts,  and  mixes  with  the  pulped  or  sliced 

Rations  used  by  British  farmers  in  beef  production. 


No. 
fed 

Age 

Breed 

Length 
of 
feed 

Average  ration 

Av. 

weight 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Years 

Days 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

10 

3 

Irish 

88 

Cotton-seed  cake,  2  8  Ibs. 

1,039 

3.7 

322 

Corn  meal,              2.8  Ibs. 

Pasture 

3 

2-3 

Gal. 

100 

Oat  straw,          7.0  Ibs. 

Swedes,           150.0  Ibs  

1,003 

1.4 

143 

6 

— 

Ab.- 
Angus 

112 

Cotton-seed  cake,  3.0  Ibs  

Oat  straw,         8.0  Ibs. 

1,054 

1.9 

211 

Mangels,         108.  8  Ibs. 

4 

2 

Irish 

133 

Linseed  cake,         8  7  Ibs. 

1,170 

2.1 

280 

Hay  and  straw,  8.0  Ibs. 

Roots,             112.0  Ibs. 

4 

2-5 

Sh't-h'n 

98 

Linseed  cake,  2  .  4  Ibs  

1,452 

3.0 

292 

Corn  meal,       2.0  Ibs. 

Straw,        14.0  Ibs. 

Swedes,    171.0  Ibs. 

10 

1 

Irish 

112 

Cotton-seed  cake,          3.6  Ibs. 

1,015 

1.3 

149 

Dried  brewers'  grains,  5.8  Ibs. 

Oat  straw,                8.  4  Ibs. 

Turnips,                  50.  0  Ibs. 

8 

3 

Sh't-h'n 

123 

Cotton-seed  cake,  5  .  0  Ibs  

1,326 

2.4 

294 

Linseed  cake,         3.0  Ibs. 

Barley,                    1.0  Ib. 

Hay,                  16.  2  Ibs. 

Swedes,             40  .  5  Ibs. 

4 



Her. 

107 

Peanut  cake,       2.7  Ibs. 

1,294 

2.2 

235 

Oats,                    2.7  Ibs. 

Barley,                 2.7  Ibs. 

Clover  hay,  14.  0  Ibs. 

Swedes,         45.0  Ibs. 

4 

3 

Her. 

112 

Bean  meal,   3.0  Ibs. 

1,261 

2.4 

263 

Oats,              3.0  Ibs. 

Barley,          3.0  Ibs. 

Straw,      4.1  Ibs. 

Hay,          6.9  Ibs. 
Swedes,  39.5  Ibs. 

5 



Sh't-h'n- 

112 

Linseed  cake,         1.4  Ibs  

1,315 

1.8 

197 

Irish 

Cotton-seed  cake,  2.4  Ibs. 

Dried  grains,          2.4  Ibs. 

Corn,                        4.  4  Ibs. 

Molasses,                 2.0  Ibs. 

Hay,                    7.0  Ibs. 

Oat  straw,          7.0  Ibs. 

362  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

roots  and  meal  before  feeding.  It  will  be  further  observed  that  the 
British  farmer  generally  feeds  quite  mature  bullocks,  and  that  the 
feeding  period  is  relatively  short,  ranging  from  80  to  120  days.  It  is 
probable  that  the  cattle  are  usually  in  good  flesh  when  the  feeding 
begins. 

In  studying  these  figures  we  should  remember  that  it  was  the 
British  farmer  who  originated  and  developed  all  the  valuable  breeds 
of  beef  cattle  now  scattered  over  the  globe,  and  his  ability  and  suc- 
cess in  producing  beef  of  high  quality  is  unquestioned.  We  are 
shown  that  in  Britain  beef  cattle  are  fattened  on  a  surprisingly  small 
allowance  of  rich  concentrates  combined  with  an  abundance  of  roots, 
hay,  and  straw.  This  attainment  of  the  British  feeder  should  stim- 
ulate the  experiment  stations  and  progressive  feeders  of  America  to 
see  if  the  large  daily  corn  allowance  now  universally  regarded  as 
necessary  in  fattening  cattle  in  this  country  may  not  be  reduced. 
With  the  steadily  increasing  cost  of  corn  there  must,  if  possible,  be 
a  material  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  this  grain  entering  into  the 
rations  of  our  fattening  cattle.  May  this  not  be  brought  about  thru 
the  wider  and  more  general  use  of  hay  from  the  legumes  and  succu- 
lent silage  from  the  luxuriant  Indian  corn  plant?  (768) 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

COUNSEL  IN  THE  FEED  LOT. 

Most  of  the  cattle  used  in  America  for  beef  production  are  grazed 
in  summer  on  lands  not  well  adapted  to  tillage,  thereby  utilizing 
grass  and  herbage  that  would  otherwise  be  largely  wasted.  In  win- 
ter they  run  in  the  stalk  fields  or  subsist  on  stover,  poor  hay,  straw, 
etc.,  materials  likewise  largely  unmarketable.  Then  there  is  the 
Great  Plains  region  stretching  from  Mexico  to  British  America, 
where  vast  numbers  of  cattle  are  carried  to  the  fattening  age.  Mum- 
ford  and  Hall  of  the  Illinois  Station1  tell  us  that  85  per  ct.  of  the 
cattle  that  reach  the  Chicago  market  are  not  raised  by  those  who 
finally  fatten  them.  This  indicates  a  most  natural  division  of  labor, 
for  cattle  are  fattened  mostly  on  corn,  and  where  corn  is  abundantly 
produced  there  is  little  waste  or  low-priced  grazing  land,  which  is 
essential  in  economically  producing  feeding  cattle. 

568.  Wintering  the  calf. — Calves  designed  for  beef  production 
should  be  carried  thru  the  first  winter  on  the  best  roughage  available, 
such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  etc.     During 
the  6  months  of  winter  they  should  gain  from  1  to  1.5  Ibs.  each  daily, 
requiring  the  addition  of  2  or  3  Ibs.  of  corn  and  a  little  bran  or  oil 
meal  to  the  ration.     It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  during  the 
first  winter  the  young  steer  gain  steadily,  enlarging  its  framework 
but  not  laying  on  fat.  (488) 

569.  The  yearling. — Yearlings  should  have  the  best  pasture  avail- 
able, in  order  that  they  gain  steadily  during  the  6  months  on  grass. 
Mumford  and  Hall  of  the  Illinois  Station2  found  that  yearlings  in- 
crease about  1.6  Ibs.  daily  during  the  pasture  season  of  six  months. 
Usually  no  grain  should  be  fed  during  this  period  since  such  cattle 
make  satisfactory  and  the  most  economical  gains  on  grass  alone. 

During  the  second  winter  the  coarser  roughages  may  be  advanta- 
geously used,  tho  there  should  always  be  liberal  provision  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay  since  these  render  the  other  less  palatable  roughages 
more  acceptable  and  efficient.  Feeding  corn  silage  containing  some 
grain  during  the  second  winter  will  greatly  tend  to  continuous  growth 
but  not  to  fattening.  (500-1)  Where  cattle  are  to  be  grazed  the 

1  Cir.  79.  2  Loc.  cit 

363 


364  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

second  summer  without  fattening,  the  effort  should  be  to  grow  as 
large  a  framework  as  possible  the  second  winter,  leaving  the  animal 
thin  but  thrifty.  Mumford  writes:1  "The  more  cattle  gain  on  con- 
centrated feeds  in  winter  the  less  they  will  gain  on  grass  in  summer. 
That  is  to  say,  if  corn  is  fed  liberally  during  the  winter  months  the 
cattle  will  not  make  as  large  gains  when  turned  to  grass  as  they 
would  were  they  wintered  on  roughage,  and  not  the  best  roughage 
at  that."  (502) 

Where  cattle  are  to  be  fattened  on  pasture  the  summer  following 
the  second  winter,  a  reasonable  storage  of  fat  toward  the  close  of 
winter  and  in  early  spring  will  helpfully  shorten  the  summer  feed- 
ing period.  In  such  cases  feed  liberally  during  the  last  of  winter 
and  in  early  spring  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  silage  rich  in  ear 
corn.  These  with  a  moderate  grain  allowance  will  warm  the  animals 
up,  start  fattening,  and  send  them  to  grass  in  prime  condition  to 
make  the  most  of  the  heavy  feeding  of  grain  which  follows. 

570.  The  fattening  ration. — It  is  well  to  avoid  an  excess  of  pro- 
tein with  the  fattening  animal.     Animals  in  thin  flesh  should  at  first 
be  liberally  supplied  with  protein  in  order  that  their  muscular  tissues 
may  develop.     For  such  animals,  Kellner2  holds  that  the  nutritive 
ratio  should  be  about  1 :  6,  with  from  12  to  15  Ibs.  of  digestible  nu- 
trients daily  per  1000  Ibs.  of  live  weight.   (142)     Experiments  have 
shown  that  mature  animals  can  be  successfully  fattened  on  much  less 
crude  protein  than  is  set  down  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards. 
Kellner3  found  that  the  gains  of  the  mature  ox  remained  unchanged 
whether  1  Ib.  of  protein  was  fed  with  4  or  with  16  Ibs.  of  carbohy- 
drates, the  total  quantity  of  nutrients  remaining  the  same.     In  such 
case  the  quantity  of  fat  formed  was  in  proportion  to  the  nutrients 
digested  in  excess  of  the  wants  of  the  body.     However,  where  less 
digestible  protein  is  fed  than  1  Ib.  to  8  or  10  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates, 
the  digestibility  of  the  ration  may  be  decreased.    Kellner  accordingly 
suggests  that  for  mature  fattening  cattle  the  nutritive  ratio  should 
not  be  wider  than  1 : 10  or  12.    In  regions  where  alfalfa  hay  or  other 
nitrogenous  feeds  are  abundant  and  low  in  price  and  the  carbohy- 
drates relatively  high  in  cost,  it  may  be  profitable  to  feed  a  ration 
with  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

571.  The   fattening   process. — Fat   is    concentrated   fuel    energy 
stored  as  surplus  in  the  animal's  body  against  the  time  of  need.    Im- 
pelled by  a  hearty  appetite,  under  liberal  feeding  the  steer  at  firs^ 
lays  on  fat  rapidly,  storing  it  everywhere  within  the  body — among 

1  Beef  Production,  p.  46.  8  Loc.  cit.,  p.  418. 

2  Ernahr.  landw.  Nutztiere,  1907,  p.  420. 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  365 

the  fibers  of  the  muscles,  within  the  bones,  the  body  cavity,  etc. 
After  a  few  weeks  on  liberal  feed  the  appetite  loses  its  edge,  and  the 
steer  shows  indifference  and  a  daintiness  in  taking  his  food  not  at 
first  noticed;  every  pound  of  increase  now  means  the  consumption  of 
more  food  than  formerly.  The  fattening  process  may  be  likened  to 
inflating  a  collapsed  football — the  operation,  easy  and  rapid  at  first, 
grows  more  and  more  difficult  until  the  limit  is  reached.  (510) 

The  increase  of  the  growing  animal  is  largely  water,  with  some 
protein,  some  fat,  and  a  little  mineral  matter ;  the  increase  of  the  fat- 
tening animal  is  nearly  all  fat,  with  a  little  water,  and  a  trace  of  pro- 
tein and  ash.  It  takes  far  more  food  for  a  given  increase  with  the 
fattening  than  with  the  growing  animal.  The  laying  on  of  fat  calls 
for  heavy  feeding  with  rich  feed  and  is  always  an  expensive  pro- 
cess. (23,  98-100) 

572.  Getting  cattle  on  feed. — Mumford1  recommends  that  cattle 
going  on  full  feed  be  given  all  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  they  will 
eat  without  waste.    In  addition  start  with  2  Ibs.  of  corn  per  steer  per 
day,  increasing  1  Ib.  daily  until  10  Ibs.  is  fed.     After  3  days  increase 
1  Ib.  daily  until  17  Ibs.  is  fed;  15  days  later  let  this  be  increased  to 
22  Ibs.  daily.     Cattle  getting  from  12  to  15  Ibs.  of  corn  daily  should 
have  about  12  Ibs.  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight; 
later  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  ration  should  be  roughage. 

Mumford  reports  successfully  getting  cattle  to  full  feed  by  mixing 
corn  meal  and  oil  meal  with  chaffed  clover  hay  in  the  self-feeder, 
where  it  was  accessible  to  the  cattle  at  all  times.  The  full  grain  allow- 
ance was  reached  by  gradually  increasing  the  proportion  of  corn  meal 
to  roughage.  This  system  saves  grain,  prevents  the  animals  from 
gorging  themselves,  and  gets  them  to  full  feed  a  couple  of  weeks 
sooner  than  the  ordinary  system.  Where  the  feeding  period  is  to 
cover  6  months,  from  30  days  to  6  weeks  should  elapse  before  the  cat- 
tle are  on  full  feed.  In  such  cases  proportionally  more  good  rough- 
age, such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  is  fed.  While  the  animals  so  managed 
do  not  make  such  rapid  gains  at  first,  near  the  close  of  the  feeding 
period  the  gains  are  as  large  as  ever  and  more  economical  and  satis- 
factory. 

573.  Feeding  corn. — Indian  corn  must  continue  to  be  the  great 
fattening  food  for  cattle  in  America.     While  we  cannot  vie  with 
England  in  the  luxuriance  of  her  pastures,  the  advantages  given  the 
American  farmer  by  the  corn  crop  cannot  be  surpassed  and  place 
us  in  the  very  forefront  in  beef  production.     No  other  concentrate  is 

1  Beef  Production. 


366  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

so  relished  by  cattle  as  Indian  corn,  which  is  toothsome  and  palatable 
to  a  degree  equaled  by  no  other  grain.  Not  only  is  corn  loaded  with 
starch  but  it  carries  much  oil  with  but  little  fiber  or  other  inert  mat- 
ter, the  whole  forming  the  best  concentrate  for  quickly  filling  the  tis- 
sues of  the  steer's  body  with  fat,  and  thereby  rendering  the  lean 
meat  tender,  juicy,  and  toothsome. 

"Whoever  studies  the  practices  of  successful  stockmen  in  the  corn 
belt  or  reviews  the  work  of  the  experiment  stations  will  be  convinced 
that  getting  corn  to  cattle  in  the  simplest  and  most  direct  manner 
and  with  the  least  preparation  and  handling  is,  after  all,  the  best  and 
most  economical  way.  Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station,1  interviewing 
hundreds  of  the  best  and  largest  cattle  feeders  of  Missouri,  Iowa,  and 
Illinois,  found  that  50  per  ct.  of  all  fed  husked  or  unhusked  ear  corn, 
about  25  per  ct.  fed  shelled  corn,  while  the  remainder  fed  crushed, 
soaked,  or  ground  corn.  Only  3  per  ct.  ground  corn  as  a  regular 
practice. 

Corn  is  never  so  acceptable  to  the  steers  as  when  given  unhusked 
on  the  stalk,  for  there  is  an  aroma  and  palatability  about  the  ear  in 
Nature's  own  wrappings  that  every  steer  recognizes  and  appreciates. 
Such  being  the  case,  wherever  possible  let  shock  corn  with  its  wealth 
of  ears  be  thrown  into  the  long  feed  racks  standing  in  the  open  lot 
or  under  the  shed  and  allow  the  steers  to  do  their  own  husking  and 
grinding.  Where  corn  cannot  be  fed  unhusked,  ear  corn  should  be 
given,  whole,  chopped,  or  split,  as  best  suits  the  animal.  Corn  long 
stored  in  the  crib  becomes  dry  and  hard,  losing  fragrance  and  aroma 
thru  exposure  to  air  and  vermin.  For  summer  feeding  such  grain 
should  be  specially  prepared  by  soaking  or  possibly  by  grinding. 
Where  necessary  corn  should  be  soaked  from  12  to  18  hours,  care 
being  taken  to  change  the  water  frequently  and  to  keep  the  feed 
boxes  clean  and  sweet.  Old  cattle  can  utilize  ear  corn,  stover,  and 
coarse  feed  in  general  more  advantageously  than  can  younger  ani- 
mals. (523) 

574.  Nitrogenous  supplements  to  corn. — Corn  is  the  richest  of  all 
available  feeds  in  carbohydrates  and  fat;  instead  of  specially  prepar- 
ing it  for  cattle  by  grinding  or  other  treatment,  it  is  usually  best  to 
feed  it  in  ear  form  or  shelled,  along  with  some  protein-rich  supple- 
ment in  order  to  bring  out  the  full  value  of  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat.  If  our  experiment  stations  had  taught  nothing  else,  they  would 
have  paid  for  themselves  many  times  in  showing  how  the  addition 
•of  a  nitrogenous  roughage  like  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  or  of  some 

1  Bui.  76, 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  367 

nitrogenous  concentrate  like  linseed  and  cotton-seed  meal,  not  only 
increases  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn  with  both  the  cattle  and  hogs 
which  follow,  but  keeps  the  animals  more  healthy,  shortens  the  feed- 
ing period,  and  gives  a  higher  finish  than  is  possible  with  corn  alone, 
no  matter  how  it  is  fed. 

Mumford1  points  out  a  case  at  the  Illinois  Station,  where  steers 
fed  clover  hay  in  addition  to  corn  brought  30  cents  more  per  cwt. 
than  others  fed  corn,  timothy  hay,  and  corn  stover.  At  the  Missouri 
Station,2  Waters  found  that  steers  fattened  on  corn  and  timothy 
hay  made  a  gain  of  5  Ibs.  from  a  bushel  of  corn,  while  those  fattened 
on  corn,  clover  hay,  and  corn  stover  gained  6.5  Ibs.,  a  gain  of  30 
per  ct. 

Waters3  points  out  that  where  cattle  are  being  fattened  on  corn, 
the  advantages  in  using  the  hay  of  some  legume,  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  cowpeas,  instead  of  timothy,  millet,  sorghum,  and  straw, 
are: 

1.  Increased  gains  by  the  cattle. 

2.  Increased  selling  price  of  the  cattle  due  to  extra  bloom. 

3.  Increased  gain  by  hogs  following  the  steers. 

4.  Increased  fertility  of  the  land  where  the  feeding  operations  are  con- 

ducted. 

The  better  condition  of  the  fields  on  which  the  leguminous  crops  are- 
grown.     (546-553) 

Where  the  feeder  cannot  provide  any  leguminous  roughage,  such 
as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  but  must  force  his  cattle  to  fatten  on  corn 
with  timothy,  sorghum,  or  kafir  hay  or  corn  stover  for  roughage,  then 
there  should  be  fed  daily  to  each  steer  not  less  than  2  or  3  Ibs.  of 
some  protein-rich  concentrate  like  linseed  or  cotton-seed  meal.  Where 
some  leguminous  hay  is  being  fed,  it  is  not  usually  best  to  feed  any 
protein-rich  concentrate  except  during  the  last  few  weeks  of  the 
feeding  period.  (535-539) 

Waters*  tells  us  that  10  years  of  experience  and  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  when  steers  running  on  good  pastures  are  being 
fattened  on  corn,  it  is  not  wise  to  feed  rich  supplements  such  as  lin- 
seed or  cotton-seed  meal  in  any  large  amounts  or  for  long  periods. 
Giving  2  or  3  Ibs.  daily  of  linseed  or  cotton-seed  meal  during  the  last 
60  or  70  days  of  feeding,  puts  on  a  bloom  and  finish  above  that  which 
corn  and  blue  grass  alone  can  supply,  thereby  yielding  profitable 
returns. 

575.  Corn  silage. — Because  of  the  unique  and  commanding  posi- 
tion of  the  corn  plant  in  America,  it  is  usually  unwise  for  the  Ameri- 

1  Beef  Production,  p.  70.  3  Loc.  cit. 

a  Bui.  76.  *  Mo.  Sta.,  Cir.  of  Information,  24. 


368  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

can  beef  producer  to  undertake  growing  roots  for  cattle  as  does  the 
English  farmer.  Let  him,  instead,  increase  the  corn  crop  and  turn  a 
portion  of  it  into  succulent  silage  which  serves  all  the  functions  of 
roots  for  growing  and  fattening  cattle,  at  but  a  fraction  of  the  cost 
of  roots.  The  time  is  at  hand  when  cattlemen  in  the  great  corn  belt 
of  America  should  recognize  the  great  possibilities,  importance,  and 
economy  of  corn  silage  from  heavily  eared  corn  for  growing  and  fat- 
tening beef  animals.  While  silage  is  highly  useful  in  wintering  beef 
cows  and  growing  cattle,  it  is  also  needed  in  the  feed-lot  because  it 
furnishes  a  most  palatable,  succulent  roughage,  greatly  relished  by 
cattle  subsisting  for  the  most  part  on  corn,  which  is  a  heavy  concen- 
trate that  needs  some  light  juicy  supplement  like  corn  silage  or  roots 
to  balance  it  up  and  lighten  it  in  the  digestive  tract.  Indian  corn, 
along  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  and  a  moderate  allowance  of  succu- 
lent corn  silage  furnish  a  combination  unequaled  by  any  other  for 
economy  of  production  and  the  quantity  of  flesh  it  will  build  and 
the  fat  it  will  lay  on.  For  growing  cattle  and  those  in  the  first 
stages  of  fattening  from  30  to  40  Ibs.  of  silage  may  be  profitably  fed 
to  each  1,000  Ibs.  of  steers.  As  fattening  animals  approach  maturity, 
the  silage  allowance  should  be  reduced  to  20  or  25  Ibs.  daily  per 
1,000  Ibs.  of  animal,  tho  some  feed  it  freely  till  the  steers  leave  the 
feed  lot.  (559-564) 

576.  Hogs  following  steers. — The  following  is  condensed  from 
Waters  r1  The  number  of  hogs  required  to  utilize  the  waste  per  steer 
will  vary  greatly  with  the  character  of  the  feed,  the  way  in  which  it 
is  prepared,  and  with  the  size  and  age  of  the  cattle  being  fed.  The 
range  is  from  2  to  3  hogs  per  steer  on  snapped  corn,  1.5  per  steer  on 
husked  ear  corn,  about  1  per  steer  on  shelled  corn,  and  1  hog  to  2  or 
3  steers  on  crushed  or  ground  corn. 

Whatever  favors  rapid  and  profitable  gains  with  cattle,  other  than 
the  preparation  of  the  feed,  also  favors  the  gains  of  the  hogs  follow- 
ing. For  example,  hogs  make  better  gains  following  corn-fed  steers 
getting  clover,  cowpea,  or  alfalfa  hay  than  they  do  when  the  rough- 
age is  timothy,  millet,  or  sorghum  forage.  Likewise  feeding  the  steers 
linseed  meal  benefits  the  hogs  that  follow.  It  is  almost  as  profitable 
to  feed  tankage  or  linseed  meal  to  hogs  following  cattle  as  to  those 
fattening  directly  on  grain;  this  is  especially  true  with  hogs  follow- 
ing cattle  fed  straight  corn  with  timothy  or  stover  for  roughage  in 
winter,  or  with  cattle  fattening  on  corn  and  blue  grass  or  timothy 
pasture  in  summer. 

1  Bui.  76,  Mo.  Expt.  Sta. 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  369 

Waters  strongly  recommends  separate  clover  or  alfalfa  pastures 
accessible  to  hogs  following  fattening  steers  in  summer;  on  this  the 
hogs  can  graze  at  will  after  having  cleaned  up  the  waste  from  the 
cattle,  instead  of  feeding  on  the  steer  pasture.  He  further  recom- 
mends providing  a  field  of  cowpeas  or  soybeans  on  which  the  hogs 
may  forage  early  in  fall  and  so  have  this  nitrogenous  grain  together 
with  the  corn  they  pick  up  from  the  steers.  Any  extra  grain  fed 
should  be  given  to  the  hogs  before  the  cattle  are  fed  so  that  the  hogs 
will  not  crowd  around  the  feed  troughs  or  under  the  wagon  and 
team.  In  the  best  practice  the  hogs  are  fed  in  a  near-by  pen  to  keep 
them  from  the  cattle  while  the  latter  are  feeding.  "Whenever  hogs 
begin  to  show  maturity  or  fatness  they  should  be  supplanted  by  fresh 
ones,  for  fat  hogs  are  unprofitable  for  following  steers.  The  best  hog 
for  following  cattle  is  of  good  bone,  thin  in  flesh,  weighing  from  100 
to  150  Ibs.  If  shotes  are  used  they  should  weigh  50-60  Ibs.  Sows 
in  pig  or  young  pigs  should  never  be  put  in  the  feed  lot. 

Because  of  the  narrow  margin  made  in  these  times  from  fattening 
cattle  on  grain  Waters  recommends  that  where  it  is  impossible  to 
provide  hogs  to  follows  the  steers  the  fattening  of  the  steers  be  de- 
layed until  hogs  can  follow  or  be  given  up  entirely.  This  advice 
does  not  apply  to  feeding  weanling  calves  for  baby  beef  because 
then  the  grain  should  be  ground  and  fed  with  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea 
hay,  etc.,  in  which  case  the  animals  utilize  their  feed  so  much  more 
closely  that  hogs  are  not  absolutely  necessary.  (506,  525) 

577.  Baby  beef. — The  following  is  condensed  from  Mumford:1 

Profitable  baby  beef  production  requires  experience,  judgment, 
and  skill  of  the  highest  order  in  the  feeder.  It  is  a  mistake  for  the 
inexperienced  to  dip  heavily  into  this  art.  To  fatten  young  animals 
profitably,  they  must  be  good,  they  must  be  fed  for  a  considerable 
time,  and  they  must  be  made  fat;  this  means  that  "tops"  must  be 
bought  or  bred.  The  most  successful  operators  try  to  retain  the 
"calf  fat"  or  bloom  of  the  young  calf.  The  calf  should  be  in  good 
condition  when  fattening  begins  and  should  be  induced  to  consume 
considerable  roughage  of  high  quality,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
and  silage,  during  winter  and  rich  pasture  grasses  in  summer.  Shelled, 
crushed,  or  sliced  corn  should  be  fed  together  with  linseed  meal,  cot- 
ton-seed meal,  or  other  protein-rich  concentrates.  If  the  corn  is  given 
whole,  hogs  may  profitably  follow.  Oats  are  one  of  the  best  of  feeds 
with  which  to  start  the  calf  on  its  way  to  fattening.  The  tendency 
of  the  calf  and  yearling  is  toward  growth  rather  than  fattening.  In 

1  Beef  Production,  pp.  76-82. 
25 


370  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

baby  beef  production  the  young  things  must  fatten  as  they  grow; 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  most  liberal  and  judicious  feed- 
ing, since  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  calves  and  yearlings  suffi- 
ciently fat  for  the  market  requirements.  Heifer  calves  mature  more 
quickly  and  may  be  marketed  earlier  than  steers.  It  is  seldom  pos- 
sible or  profitable  to  get  spring  calves  ready  for  the  baby  beef  mar- 
ket before  July  of  the  following  year;  more  frequently  they  are  not 
marketed  until  October,  November,  or  December  when  approximately 
18  months  old.  (508) 

578.  Practical    rations    for    fattening    cattle. — The    reader    who 
wishes  to  know  the  quantity  and  proportion  of  the  various  concen- 
trates and  roughages  in  well  balanced  rations  for  fattening  cattle 
will  find  his  wants  adequately  met  in  the  two  preceding  chapters, 
wherein  are  summarized  the  principal  feeding  trials  at  the  different 
experiment  stations,  covering  almost  every  form  of  concentrates  and 
roughages  in  the  list  of  feeding  stuffs.     Out  of  the  many  presented 
he  should  be  able  to  find  several  that  approximate  his  individual  con- 
ditions. 

579.  Spread  or  margin. — The  gains  made  by  cattle  while  fatten- 
ing cost  from  $6.00  to  $10.00  per  cwt.  for  the  feed  consumed.     As 
such  gains  cost  more  per  cwt.  than  the  cattle  will  sell  for  per  cwt., 
it  is  necessary  that  the  selling  price  of  cattle  per  cwt.  after  they  have 
been  fattened  be  higher  than  the  purchase  price  or  market  value  of 
the  same  cattle  before  the  fattening  process  began.     This  difference 
is  called  the  "spread"  or  "margin."     The  principle  of  the  spread 
may  be  illustrated  thus :     If  a  1000-lb.  steer  is  bought  by  the  feeder 
at  $4.00  per  cwt.,  its  cost  is  $40.00.     If  this  steer  during  fattening 
gains  400  Ibs.  at  a  cost  of  $30.00,  each  cwt.  of  gain  has  cost  $7.50. 
The  steer,  now  weighing  1,400  Ibs.,  has  cost  $70.00  and  must  bring 
$5.00  per  cwt.  to  even  the  transaction.     The  requisite  cost  of  feed 
spread  in  this  case  is  $1.00  per  cwt.,  which  is  the  sum  necessary  to 
break  even. 

As  Waters  of  the  Missouri  Station1  sets  forth,  the  margin  or  spread 
is  affected,  first  of  all,  by  the  length  of  the  feeding  period.  Cattle 
that  are  fed  for  long  periods  and  made  thoroly  fat  necessitate  a 
larger  spread  than  those  fed  for  but  a  brief  period  with  a  limited 
amount  of  costly  feed.  Calves  and  yearlings  fatten  with  less  feed 
than  older  cattle  and  so  make  cheaper  gains,  but  their  first  cost  is 
usually  more  per  cwt.  than  that  of  more  mature  cattle.  Plain  cattle 
require  a  larger  spread  than  those  of  high  quality.  Waters'  ex- 

1  Bui.  76. 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  371 

periments  show  that  the  summer  gains  of  fattening  cattle  cost  only 
about  four-fifths  as  much  as  winter  gains;  hence  a  smaller  margin 
is  necessary  with  summer-fed  cattle.  The  higher  the  price  of  the 
feeds  employed  in  fattening  the  greater  is  the  spread  required.  Thin 
fleshed  animals  require  less  margin  than  those  partially  fat  when 
feeding  begins. 

From  statistics  gathered  from  feeders  in  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Illi- 
nois, Waters1  found  that  an  average  spread  of  $1.02  is  required  to 
cover  the  entire  cost  of  fattening  cattle  in  summer — that  is,  they 
must  sell  for  $1.02  per  cwt.  above  the  purchase  price  to  break  even 
on  cost  of  production.  For  the  6  months  of  winter  feeding  with 
2-yr.-olds,  Waters  holds  that  a  spread  of  $1.50  per  cwt.  is  necessary. 
Skinner  and  Cochel  of  the  Indiana  Station2  found  that  with  Indiana 
cattlemen  it  cost  $4.80  per  cwt.  for  summer  gains  and  $7.20  per  cwt. 
for  winter  gains,  and  that  an  average  spread  of  $1.07  per  cwt.,  or  20 
cents  per  cwt.  per  month,  was  required.  (505) 

580.  Order  and  quiet. — On    these    important    points    Mumford3 
writes :     ' '  As  soon  as  the  fattening  process  begins,  the  cattle  should 
be  fed  at  certain  hours  and  in  the  same  way.     This  cannot  be  varied 
15  minutes  without  some  detriment  to  the  cattle.     The  extent  of  in- 
jury will  depend  upon  the  frequency  and  extent   of  irregularity. 
.  .  .  The  even-tempered  attendant  who  is  quiet  in  manner  and  move- 
ment invariably  proves  more  satisfactory  than  the  erratic,  bustling, 
noisy  one.     The  cattle  soon  learn  to  have  confidence  in  the  former 
and  welcome  his  coming  among  them,  while  they  are  always  suspi- 
cious of  the  latter,  never  feeling  quite  at  ease  when  he  is  in  sight. 
Under  the  management  of  the  former,  the  cattle  become  tame  and 
quiet,  even  tho  more  or  less  wild  at  the  outset;  while  under  the  lat- 
ter, wild  cattle  become  wilder  and  tame  cattle  become  timid.     The 
writer  has  observed  a  wide  difference  in  practice  among  feeders  as 
to  their  manner  of  approaching  fattening  steers.     Some  are  brusque 
in  manner,  rushing  up  to  the  steers  and  scaring  them  up  quickly, 
w^hile  other   (and  I  am  bound  to  say  more  successful)    feeders  ap- 
proach the  cattle  with  the  greatest  care  and  consideration,  getting 
the  cattle  up,  if  at  all,  as  quietly  as  possible.    Pastures  for  cattle  in 
quiet,  secluded  places  are  more  valuable  for  fattening  cattle  than  are 
those  adjacent  to  the  public  roads  or  adjoining  pastures  where  horses 
or  breeding  cattle  run."  (93) 

581.  The  eye  of  the  master.— The  ability  to  fatten  cattle  rapidly 
and  profitably  is  a  gift,  to  be  increased  and  strengthened  by  expe- 

1  Loc.  cit.  2  Cir.  No.  12.  3  Beef  Production,  pp.  92-3. 


372  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

rience  and  study.  The  ability  to  carry  a  steer  through  a  six  months' 
fattening  period  without  once  getting  him  "off  feed"  is  possessed  by 
many  a  stockman;  but  how  this  faculty  is  attained  is  something  he 
cannot  always  impart  to  others.  In  general,  when  the  steer  has 
reached  full  feed,  all  the  grain  he  will  readily  consume  should  be  sup- 
plied, but  any  left  in  the  feed  box,  to  be  breathed  over,  is  worse  than 
wasted. 

Scouring,  the  bane  of  the  stock  feeder,  should  be  carefully  avoided, 
since  a  single  day's  laxness  will  cut  off  a  week's  gain.  This  trouble 
is  generally  induced  by  over-feeding,  by  unwholesome  food,  or  by  a 
faulty  combination  in  the  ration.  Over-feeding  comes  from  a  desire 
of  the  attendant  to  push  his  cattle  to  better  gains,  or  from  careless- 
ness and  irregularity  in  measuring  out  the  feed  supply.  The  ideal 
stockman  has  a  quick  discernment  which  takes  in  every  animal  in  the 
feed  lot  at  a  glance,  and  a  quiet  judgment  which  guides  the  hand  in 
dealing  out  feed  ample  for  the  wants  of  all,  but  not  a  pound  excess. 
Cattle  of  the  same  age,  or  at  least  those  of  equal  size  and  strength, 
should  be  fed  in  the  same  enclosure.  Weak  animals,  and  those  un- 
able for  any  reason  to  crowd  to  the  feed  trough  and  get  their  share, 
should  be  placed  where  they  can  be  supplied  in  quiet. 

The  droppings  of  the  steer  are  an  excellent  index  of  the  progress 
of  fattening.  While  they  should  never  be  hard,  they  should  still  be 
thick  enough  to  "pile  up"  and  have  that  unctuous  appearance  which 
indicates  a  healthy  action  of  the  liver.  There  is  an  odor  from  the 
droppings  of  thrifty,  well-fed  steers  known  and  quickly  recognized 
by  every  good  feeder.  Thin  droppings  and  those  with  a  sour  smell 
indicate  something  wrong  in  the  feed  yard.  The  conduct  of  the  steer 
is  a  further  guide  in  marking  the  progress  of  fattening.  The  man- 
ner in  which  he  approaches  the  feed  box;  his  quiet  pose  while  rumi- 
nating and  audible  breathing  when  lying  down,  showing  the  lungs 
cramped  by  the  well-filled  paunch ;  the  quiet  eye  wrhich  stands  full 
from  the  fattening  socket;  the  oily  coat, — all  are  points  that  awaken 
the  interest,  admiration,  and  satisfaction  of  the  successful  feeder. 

582.  Frequency  of  feeding. — Mumf ord  writes  r1  1 1  The  majority  of 
cattle  feeders  prefer  feeding  their  cattle  grain  and  roughage  twice  a 
day  in  winter  and  grain  once  a  day  in  summer.  Feeding  once  a  day 
in  summer  is  practiced  largely  as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  not 
because  it  is  believed  to  be  better  for  the  cattle.  For  the  most  part 
the  same  reasons  that  make  it  desirable  to  feed  grain  twice  a  day  in 
winter  apply  in  summer  with  equal  force." 

1  Beef  Production,  pp.  93-4. 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  373 

583.  Water. — Fattening  cattle  should  not  only  have  an  abundant 
supply  of  uncontaminated  water  at  all  times,  but  it  should  be  easily 
accessible.     The  water  for  hogs  running  in  the  same  lot  should  be 
separate  and  so  set  off  that  the  steers  cannot  have  access  to  it,  nor 
should  hogs  drink  from  the  water  troughs  of  the  cattle.     While  it  is 
best  to  have  water  before  cattle  at  all  times,  they  readily  adapt  them- 
selves to   taking  a  fill  once   daily  and  thrive.    The  water  provision 
should  not  be  less  than  10  gallons  per  day  per  head  for  mature  cat- 
tle. (87,  452) 

584.  Salt. — Animals  fed  large  quantities  of  rich  nutritious  food, 
such  as  fattening  steers  receive,  show  a  strong  desire  for  salt,  and 
this  craving  should  be  reasonably  satisfied.     Kiihn1   recommends  1 
ounce  of  salt  per  day  for  a  steer  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fattening  period,  1.3  ounces  at  the  middle,  and  1.7  ounces  near 
the  close.     Whether  granular  or  rock  salt  be  supplied  is  merely  a 
matter  of  convenience.     Some  give  salt  once  or  twice  a  week,  others 
keep  salt  before  their  cattle  at  all  times.     As  in  other  matters  of 
feeding,  habit  rules,  and  a  plan  once  adopted  should  be  followed  with- 
out deviation. 

Mumford  and  Hall  of  the  Illinois  Station2  state  that  some  feeders 
report  favorably  on  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  salt  and  wood  ashes, 
which  the  steers  eat  slowly  and  with  seeming  benefit.  (91) 

585.  Labor  cost  of  fattening. — Mumford3  gives  the  following  in 
concise  form:     "For  the  purpose  of  securing  a  definite  basis  from 
which  to  work,  we  may  assume  what  has  been  repeatedly  accomplished 
in  practice,  that  one  man  and  team,  or  their  equivalent,  can  care  for 
and  feed  200  cattle  together  with  the  hogs  following.     This  includes 
not  only  feeding  the  grain,  but  also  hauling  hay  or  other  roughage 
to  the  feed  lot  from  nearby  stacks  or  mows,  providing  bedding,  at- 
tending to  water,  and  looking  after  the  wants  of  steers  affected  with 
injuries,  lump-jaw,  lice,  and  itch.     With  this  assumption  as  a  basis 
the  following  statement  is  possible: 

Man,  6  mo.  at  $40.00  (wages  $25,  board  $15) $240.00 

Team  and  wagon,  6  mo.  at  $40  (maintenance  $15,  feed  $25)]__.  240.00 

Total  cost  labor,  6  mo __$480.00 

Cost  per  steer 2.40" 

The  returns  of  hogs  following  steers  fed  whole  corn  will  under  fa- 
vorable conditions  usually  offset  the  labor  cost  of  caring  for  fatten- 
ing steers  and  the  hogs  following  them. 

1  Ernahr.  d.  Rindviehes,  9th  ed.,  p.  325.  3  Beef  Production,  pp.  33-4. 

2  Cir.  92. 


374  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

According  to  Mumford  the  manure  produced  by  steers  during  the 
6  months'  feeding  ranges  from  3  to  4  tons,  worth,  on  many  farms, 
from  $9.00  to  $18.00  per  steer.  These  factors  should  be  considered 
in  counting  the  cost  and  returns  of  fattening  steers. 

586.  Preparing  for  shipment. — Clay,1  than  whom  there  is  no  bet- 
ter authority,  writes:    "A  day  or  two  previous  to  shipping,  feed  the 
cattle  in  a  pen,  and  feed  hay  only.     The  secret  of  shipping  all  classes 
of  cattle  is  to  place  them  on  the  cars  full  of  food  but  with  as  little 
moisture  as  possible.     A  steer  full  of  water  is  apt  to  have  loose  bow- 
els and  show  up  badly  in  the  yards;  properly  handled  cattle  should 
arrive  in  the  sale  pens  dry  behind  and  ready  for  a  good  fill  of  water ; 
not  very  thirsty  but  in  good  condition  to  drink  freely.     Many  ship- 
pers think  that  by  salting  their  cattle  or  feeding  them  oats  they  can 
fool  the  buyers,  but  it  always  goes  against  them  to  use  unnatural 
amounts.     As  to  feed  on  the  road,  nothing  equals  good  sweet  hay, 
which  excels  corn  or  other  grains  because  it  is  easily  digested  and 
does  not  fever  the  animal.     Of  water  in  mid-summer,  care  must  be 
taken  to  supply  the  animal  wants,  whereas  in  winter  a  steer  can  go 
for  many  hours  without  a  drink.     Cattle  should  arrive  at  the  sale 
yards  at  from  5  to  8  A.  M.,  appearing  on  the  scene  as  near  the  latter 
hour  as  possible,  since  they  always  look  better  just  after  they  have 
been  fed  and  watered." 

587.  Shrinkage. — Mumford2  reports  that  130  choice  feeding  steers, 
averaging  1,006  Ibs.  each  when  shipped  from  the  Chicago  Stockyards 
to  Champaign,  111.,  128  miles,  shrank  on  the  average  53.3  Ibs.     These 
steers  were  fed  for  6  months  and  gained  480  Ibs.  each  on  the  aver- 
age; when  shipped  back  to  the  Chicago  Stockyards  they  showed  an 
average  shrink  of  22.5  Ibs. 

Carmichael  of  the  Ohio  Station,3  on  shipping  steers  from  Wooster. 
Ohio,  to  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  about  150  miles,  found  a  shrinkage  the 
second  day  of  3.5  per  ct.  for  silage-fed  and  4.9  per  ct.  for  dry-fed 
steers. 

Kennedy  and  Marshall  of  the  Iowa  Station,4  shipping  1300-lb.  steers 
which  had  been  about  90  days  in  the  feed  lot,  from  western  Iowa  to 
the  Chicago  Stockyards,  found  a  shrinkage  of  about  60  Ibs.  per  head 
for  those  fed  corn  and  hay,  and  90  Ibs.  for  those  fed  corn  on  grass. 

587a.  Production  cost  of  beef. — With  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century  America  witnessed  the  passing  of  the  range  steer  as  a  prime 
factor  in  the  low  cost  of  beef  production  which  had  down  to  that  time 

1  Live  Stock  Eeport,  Chicago,  Sept.  28, 1894.  3  Bui.  193. 

2  Beef  Production,  pp.  30-1.  4  Bui.  66. 


Counsel  in  the  Feed  Lot.  375 

prevailed.  In  these  latter  times,  raising  the  steer  in  summer  on  more 
or  less  expensive  pasture  lands,  and  fattening  him  in  winter  on  feed- 
ing stuff's  produced  by  expensive  labor  on  lands  of  high  selling  value, 
we  find  beef  high  in  price  compared  with  the  past,  and  the  price  is 
still  advancing.  That  this  must  continue  is  made  plain  by  a  study  of 
the  feed  cost  of  production  under  existing  conditions.  Elsewhere  are 
given  data  (102,  504,  590-1)  bearing  on  this  subject,  and  the  follow- 
ing is  presented  to  still  further  illustrate  and  accentuate  the  fact  that 
beef  especially  is  produced  only  by  and  thru  the  consumption  of  large 
quantities  of  feed,  much  of  which  is  now  expensive  in  character. 

To  ascertain  the  total  quantity  of  feed  which  is  required  to  grow 
and  fatten  a  steer  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College1  confined  an  ox 
from  birth  to  maturity  in  a  well-bedded  stall,  giving  exercise,  when 
required,  by  leading.  Account  was  kept  of  all  water  and  food  sup- 
plied, and  of  the  voidings,  with  the  following  results: 

Pounds 
Weight  of  steer  at  end  of  36  months 1,588 

Water  drank 42,449 

Milk  consumed 3, 862 

Roots  consumed 7,270 

Grain  consumed 5, 857 

Roughage  consumed 20, 957 

Excrement  voided 46, 560 

It  is  shown  that  at  the  end  of  36  months  the  steer  so  fed  weighed 
1,588  Ibs.  Such  a  steer  would  yield  about  1,000  Ibs.  of  dressed  car- 
cass. Accordingly,  each  pound  of  meat  as  sold  by  the  butcher  re- 
quired about  4  Ibs.  of  milk,  7  Ibs.  of  roots,  6  Ibs.  of  grain,  and  21 
Ibs.  of  roughage,  or  38  Ibs.  of  food  of  various  kinds  in  addition  to 
42  Ibs.  of  water  for  each  Ib.  of  gain. 

When  we  realize  that  all  this  food  must  be  grown,  harvested, 
housed,  and  fed  out  in  small  quantities  twice  daily  to  the  animal  dur- 
ing a  period  covering  3  years,  and  that  there  are  many  other  factors 
of  expense,  we  see  that  the  price  which  the  producer  now  gets  for 
the  live  steer  is  less  rather  than  more  than  it  should  be.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  any  other  article  of  universal  use  and  necessity  is  continuously 
sold  on  so  narrow  a  margin  over  cost,  if  any,  as  the  live  fatted  steer. 

1  Ept.  1893. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


THE  DAIKY  COW— SCIENTIFIC  FINDINGS. 
I.  STUDIES  OF  ANIMAL,  FEED,  AND  WATER. 

588,  Gestation  period. — Wing  of  the  New  York   (Cornell)   Sta- 
tion1 found  the  average  of  182  recorded  gestation  periods  for  the 
cow  to  be  280  days,  ranging  from  264  to  296  days.     About  an  equal 
number  of  births  occurred  on  each  day  from  the  274th  to  the  287th 
inclusive.     The  gestation  period  was  not  different  for  the  sexes. 

589.  Birth  weight   of  dairy   calves. — Beach  of   the   Connecticut 
(Storrs)  Station2  found  the  birth  weight  of  calves  from  mature  cows 
of  the  dairy  breeds  to  be  as  follows: 

Birth  weight  of  calves  of  the  dairy  breeds. 


Breed 

No.  of 
animals 

Av.  wt. 
of  dam 

Birth 
weight 

Wt.  of  calf 
to  dam 

Holstein 

4 

Lbs. 
1,190 

Lbs. 
107 

Per  cent 
9.0 

Ayrshire 

7 

965 

77 

8.0 

Guernsey 

8 

1,024 

79 

7.7 

Jersey                                           

11 

898 

67 

7.4 

590.  Economy  of  the  dairy  cow. — The  following  table,  adapted 
from  Lawes  and  Gilbert,3  compares  the  economy  of  the  cow  and  the 
ox  in  converting  the  products  of  the  fields  into  human  food : 

Relative  returns  by  the  cow  and  the  fattening  ox  in  one  week. 


Protein 

Fat 

Carbohy- 
drates 
(sugar) 

Mineral 
matter 

Total  dry 
matter 

Weekly  returns  from  cow  when  yielding: 
10  Ibs.  milk  daily  

Lbs. 
2.56 

Lbs. 
2.45 

Lbs. 
3.22 

Lbs. 
0.52 

Lbs. 

8.75 

20  Ibs.  milk  daily 

5.11 

4.90 

6.44 

1.05 

17.50 

30  Ibs.  milk  daily 

7.67 

7.35 

9.67 

1.57 

26.25 

40  Ibs.  milk  daily 

10.22 

9.80 

12.89 

2.09 

35.00 

50  Ibs.  milk  daily 

12.78 

12.25 

16.12 

2.61 

43.76 

Weekly  returns'  from  ox  when  gaining: 
10  Ibs.  weekly  _  .  _                

0.75 

6.35 

0.15 

7.25 

15  Ibs.  weekly 

1.13 

9.53 

0.22 

10.88 

Bui.  162. 


Ept.  1907. 


3  Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.,  Eng.,  1895. 


376 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings.  377 

We  learn  that  the  fattening  ox,  when  making  the  substantial  gain 
of  15  Ibs.  weekly,  produces  1.13  Ibs.  of  protein  or  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance, mostly  in  the  form  of  water-free  lean  meat.  In  the  same  time 
the  cow  yielding  30  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  produces  7.67  Ibs.  of  casein  and 
albumin,  or  nearly  6  times  as  much  nitrogenous  substance.  While 
the  ox  is  laying  on  9.53  Ibs.  of  fat,  the  cow  puts  7.35  Ibs.  of  fat  in 
her  milk.  She  also  secretes  9.67  Ibs.  of  milk  sugar,  against  which 
there  is  no  equivalent  substance  produced  by  the  ox.  Changing  this 
sugar  to  its  fat  equivalent,  (68,  131)  the  cow  is  shown  to  yield  some- 
what more  fat  or  fat  equivalent  than  the  ox.  The  ox  stores  0.22  Ib. 
of  ash  or  mineral  matter,  largely  in  his  bones,  while  the  cow  puts 
into  her  milk  1.57  Ibs.  of  ash,  or  over  6  times  as  much. 

We  have  shown  in  Art.  102  that  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  digestible  nu- 
trients consumed  the  cow  yields  about  6  times  as  much  edible  solids 
in  her  milk  as  the  sheep  or  steer  yields  in  its  carcass. 

591.  Cow  and  steer  compared. — Trowbridge  of  the  Missouri  Sta- 
tion analyzed  the  entire  body  of  a  1250-lb.  fat  steer  fed  at  that  Sta- 
tion. At  the  same  Station  a  Holstein  cow  gave  in  one  year  18,405 
Ibs.  of  milk.  The  following  table  by  Eckles1  shows  the  total  dry 
matter  found  in  the  body  of  the  steer  and  in  the  milk: 

Dry  matter  in          Dry  matter  in 
18,405  Ibs.  milk  1,250-lb.  steer 

Protein  substance 552  pounds  172  pounds 

Fat 618  pounds  333  pounds 

Sugar 920  pounds  None 

Mineral  matter 128  pounds  43  pounds 

Total 2,218  pounds       548  pounds 

The  steer's  body  contained  about  56  per  ct.  water,  leaving  548  Ibs. 
of  dry  matter,  which  included  not  only  all  the  edible  dry  lean  meat 
and  fat,  but  also  every  part  of  the  body — horns,  hoofs,  hair,  hide, 
bones,  tendons,  and  all  internal  organs.  In  one  year  the  cow  pro- 
duced 2,218  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  which  was  wholly  digestible  and  suit- 
able for  human  food.  In  that  time  she  produced  enough  protein  to 
build  the  bodies  of  3  such  steers,  fat  enough  for  nearly  2,  and  min- 
eral matter  enough  for  the  skeletons  of  3,  besides  920  Ibs.  of  milk 
{sugar  as  nutritious  and  useful  for  humans  as  the  same  weight  of 
cane  sugar. 

Eckles  writes:  " These  figures  show  the  remarkable  efficiency  of 
the  cow  as  a  producer  of  human  food.  It  is  because  of  this  economi- 
cal use  of  food  that  the  dairy  cow  and  not  the  steer  is  kept  on  high- 

1  Hoard 's  Dairyman,  Feb.  25, 1910. 


378  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

priced  land.  When  land  is  cheap  and  feed  abundant  the  meat- 
producing  animals  predominate,  but  when  the  land  becomes  higher 
in  value  and  feed  expensive,  the  farmer  turns  to  the  dairy  cow." 

592.  Disposition   of   food. — Jordan1    holds   that   a   typical    dairy 
cow,  weighing  870  Ibs.,  when  eating  15.5  Ibs.  of  digestible  matter 
daily  and  yielding  20  Ibs.  of  milk,  disposes  of  her  food  daily  as  fol- 
lows : 

Energy  required  to  maintain" the  body___  13  therms  43.3  per  ct. 
Energy  expended  in  '.manufacture  of  milk  9  therms  30. 0  per  ct. 
Energy  in  20  Ibs.  of  milk 8  therms  26.7  per  ct. 

Total    energy  in    15.5  Ibs.    digestible 

matter 30  therms      100.0  per  ct. 

It  is  shown  that  a  well  nourished  dairy  cow  uses  about  43  per  ct. 
of  the  food  she  consumes  to  support  her  body,  30  per  ct.  in  the  work 
of  converting  food  into  milk,  and  that  nearly  27  per  ct.  finally  ap- 
pears as  milk.  This  shows  the  cow  to  be  a  more  efficient  machine 
than  either  the  horse  or  the  steam  engine.  (112,  817) 

593.  Dairy  v.  beef  type. — The  following  from  Smith2  concisely 
covers  a  vital  point  for  the  advanced  dairyman :     '  l  Unlike  the  beef 
animal,  which  is  its  own  storehouse,  placing  its  product  within  its 
carcass,  the  dairy  cow  gives  up  each  day  that  which  she  produces. 
She  has  been  developed  along  lines  quite  opposite  from  those  of  the 
beef  animal.     In  her  development,  performance,  as  indicated  by  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  milk  given,  has  been  the  chief  guide  in  mak- 
ing selections.     The  most  perfect  beef  cows  are  not  economical  milk- 
ers, and  the  best  dairy  cows  are  not  satisfactory  beef  makers.     The 
two  functions  are  quite  different,   making  it  impossible  to  develop 
both  to  the  highest  degree  in  one  animal."  (686) 

594.  Fat  globules.— Collier  of  the  New  York   (Geneva)   Station3 
placed  the  average  secretion  of  milk  by  the  cows  of  the  station  herd 
at  0.7  lb.,  or  19.6  cubic  inches  per  hour.     He  found  that  the  one- 
thousandth  part  of  a  cubic  millimeter  of  average  milk  contained  152 
fat  globules,  and  accordingly  that  the  average  station  cow  secreted 
138,210,000  fat  globules  each  second  thruout  the  day  of  24  hours 
wrhile  giving  milk.     Babcock4  tells  us  that  a  quart  of  average  milk 
contains  not  less  than  2,000,000,000,000  fat  globules.     These  figures 
are  beyond  comprehension  and  should  intensify  our  interest  in  the 
marvelous  processes  of  life.     They  lead  us  to  ponder  on  the  infinite 
division  which  food  must  undergo  during  digestion. 

1  Eural  New  Yorker,  Sept.  9, 1899.  3  Ept.  1892. 

2  Profitable  Stock  Feeding,  p.  38.  4  Wis.  Expt.  Stav  Bui.  18. 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings. 


379 


595.  Composition  of  milk. — Wing1  presents  the  average  composi- 
tion of  cows'  milk  in  several  countries  as  given  by  standard  authori- 
ties: 


Water 87.17 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumin 

Sugar 

Ash  _, 


erican 

English 

German 

French 

bcock) 

(Oliver) 

(Fleischmann) 

(Cornevin) 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

*7.17 

87.60 

87.75 

87.75 

3.69 

3.25 

3.40 

3.30 

3.02 

3.40 

2.80 

3.00 

0.53 

0.45 

0.70 

4.88 

4.55 

4.60 

4~80 

0.71 

0.75 

0.75 

0.75 

100.00        100.00 


100.00 


99.60 


596.  Milk  of  the  various  breeds. — Wing,2  gathering  data  from  va- 
rious American  experiment  stations,  presents  the  following  average 
composition  of  the  milk  of  the  several  breeds  of  cows: 

Breed  Solids  Fat 

Perct.  Perct. 

Jersey 14.70  5.35 

Guernsey 14. 71  5. 16 

Devon 14.50  4.60 

Short-horn 13.38  4.05 

Ayrshire 12.61  3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11.85  3.42 

It  is  shown  that  the  Jersey  and  the  Guernsey  give  the  richest  and 
the  Ayrshire  and  the  Holstein-Friesian  the  poorest  milk.  The  quan- 
tity of  milk  given  by  cows  of  the  different  breeds  is  almost  inversely 
proportional  to  the  fat  content,  so  that  the  total  quantity  of  solids 
and  fat  is  nearly  the  same  for  all  dairy  breeds. 

597.  First  and  last  drawn  milk.— At  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Sta- 
tion3 Van  Slyke  analyzed  the  successive  portions  of  milk  drawn  from 
a  Guernsey  cow  with  the  following  results: 

Composition  of  the  successive  portions  of  milk  as  drawn. 


Weight  of  milk 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumin 

First  portion  

Lbs. 
3.2 

Per  cent 
0.76 

Per  cent 
2.67 

Per  cent 
0.62 

Second  portion  .     

4.1 

2.60 

2.57 

0.64 

Third  portion  _  _  

4.6 

5.35 

2.49 

0.61 

Fourth  portion 

5.8 

9.80 

2.39 

0.58 

We  learn  that  the  first  milk  drawn  is  very  poor  in  fat,  each  suc- 
ceeding portion  increasing  in  richness  of  fat,  while  the  casein  and 


1  Milk  and  Its  Products,  p.  17. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  33. 


3  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc..  30.  p.  1173. 


380 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


albumin  show  little  change.  Those  who  let  the  calf  have  the  first 
milk  drawn  and  reserve  the  strippings  keep  the  richest  milk.  (299) 
598.  Effects  of  age. — Wing  of  the  Cornell  Station1  recorded  the 
following  yields  of  8  cows  beginning  as  2-yr.-olds  and  extending  thru 
their  fourth  lactation  period: 

Effects  of  age  on  the  yield  and  composition  of  milk. 


Age  at  beginning 
of  lactation  period 

Av.  milk 
yield  per 
year 

Ratio  to 
maximum 
milk  yield 

Yield  of 
fat  pei- 
year 

Ratio  to 
maximum 
fat  yield 

Av.  fat 
in  milk 

Years 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

2 

6,022 

76 

215 

81 

3.57 

3 

6,767 

86 

238 

90 

3.52 

4 

7,710 

98 

264 

100 

3.42 

5 

7,895 

100 

265 

100 

3.35 

The  average  yield  of  the  2-yr.-old  heifers  in  their  first  lactation 
period  was  6,022  Ibs.  of  milk  and  215  Ibs.  of  fat.  With  succeeding 
years  up  to  the  fifth  there  was  an  increase  of  both  milk  and  fat,  the 
increase  being  small  after  the  third  lactation  period.  Ranking  the 
fourth  lactation  period  at  100,  the  milk  yield  for  the  heifer  period 
was  76  per  ct. 

Thorne  of  the  Ohio  Station2  found  the  cow  the  most  economical 
producer  at  7  years  of  age,  slowly  declining  thereafter.  Beach  of 
the  Connecticut  Station3  places  the  yield  of  heifers  at  70  per  ct.  of 
that  of  mature  cows.  Dairymen  usually  rate  2  heifers  equal  to  1 
cow,  which  is  reasonable  because  of  the  extra  expense  of  care  and 
keep.  The  milk  of  the  heifer  is  usually  slightly  richer  than  when 
she  becomes  a  mature  cow,  but  because  of  the  greater  quantity  the 
mature  cow  yields  more  fat. 

599.  Effect  of  advancing  lactation. — Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion* has  condensed,  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  the  findings  of  the 
New  York  (Geneva)  Station  with  14  cows  of  6  breeds,  giving  the 
dry  matter  consumed  and  the  yields  of  milk  and  fat,  month  by 
month,  from  freshening  until  the  cows  went  dry. 

The  table  shows  that  immediately  after  freshening  the  cow  gives 
richer  milk  than  later.  It  then  grows  poorer  for  a  month  or  two, 
and  after  that  slowly  increases  in  richness  until  she  becomes  dry. 
We  further  learn  that  during  the  first  month  after  a  cow  freshens  a 
given  quantity  of  feed  gives  greater  returns  in  milk  product  than 


Bui.  169. 


Rpt.  1893. 


Bui.  29. 


Bui.  116. 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings. 


381 


later,  and  that  as  a  rule  the  further  advanced  a  cow  is  in  lactation 
the  more  food  she  requires  for  a  given  quantity  of  milk.  When 
first  fresh  the  cow  usually  draws  on  her  own  body  substance  for  nu- 
trients used  in  milk  production,  and  later  she  is  nurturing  an  un- 
born calf. 

Effect  of  advancing  lactation  on  economy  of  production. 


Month 

Daily  yield 

Fat 

Dry  matter 
eaten  daily 

Dry  m  atter  eaten  to  produce: 

Milk 

Fat 

100  Ibs. 
milk 

lib. 

solids 

lib. 
fat 

First  month  

Lbs. 
25.1 
26.0 
23.8 
21.2 
19.6 
19.8 
19.0 
16.0 
12.5 
9.4 
5.6 

Lbs. 
0.98 
0.95 
0.84 
0.79 
0.73 
0.75 
0.72 
0.60 
0.48 
0.41 
0.26 

Per  cent 
4.02 
3.74 
3.71 
3.84 
3.87 
3.90 
3.94 
3.89 
3.92 
4.19 
4.58 

Lbs. 
23.6 
27.0 
28.9 
29.0 
28.5 
29.3 
28.5 
28.0 
28.0 
26.5 
24.3 

Lbs. 
94 
104 
122 
137 
146 
148 
150 
175 
224 
282 
436 

Lbs. 
7.1 
8.2 
9.5 
10.5 
11.1 
11.2 
11.2 
13.0 
16.1 
19.4 
28.1 

Lbs. 
24.1 
28.6 
34.4 
36.8 
39.3 
39.4 
39.7 
46.5 
58.3 
65.3 
95.5 

Second  month  
Third  month    

Fourth  month  
Fifth  month  

Sixth  month.  

Seventh  month  _  .  _ 
Eighth  month  
Ninth  month  
Tenth  month 

Eleventh  month  _  . 

The  combined  studies  of  Carlyle  and  Woll  at  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion,1 Beach  at  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Station,2  and  Linfield  of 
the  Utah  Station3  on  the  normal  monthly  decrease  in  the  milk  flow 
are  averaged  in  the  following  table: 


Period  Per  cent 

First  month ... 

Second  month 5.8 

Third  month 8.4 

Fourth  month 7.3 

Fifth  month..  6.7 


Period  Per  cent 

Sixth  month 6.1 

Seventh  month 8.5 

Eighth  month 10.9 

Ninth  month 12.3 

Tenth  month  . .  11 . 9 


It  is  shown  that  the  monthly  decrease  in  milk  flow  ranges  from 
about  6  to  9  per  ct.  up  to  the  eighth  month.  The  decrease  then  rapidly 
becomes  larger  until  it  amounts  to  about  12  per  ct.  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  months,  after  which  the  cows  are  generally  dried  off.  This  table 
enables  one  to  calculate  the  probable  yield  of  a  cow  during  any 
month  she  is  giving  milk. 

600.  Period  of  greatest  yield. — Haecker  of  the  Nebraska  Station4 
studied  239  lactation  periods  with  cows  at  the  Nebraska  and  Minne- 
sota Stations,  the  records  beginning  4  days  after  calving.  He  found 
that  90  per  ct.  of  the  cows  made  their  best  records  during  the  first 
10  weeks  of  lactation,  and  over  one-half  during  the  first  month.  The 


1  Bui.  102. 


Bui.  29. 


3  Bui.  68. 


Bui.  76. 


382  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

greatest  number  gave  the  most  milk  during  the  third  and  the  most 
fat  during  the  second  week  after  calving. 

601.  Loss  in  weight. — Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station1  found 
that  during  the  early  stages  of  lactation  cows  lose  rapidly  in  weight. 
In  one  case  the  average  decrease  for  15  COWTS  was  49  Ibs.  per  cow  for 
the  first  week,  with  an  average  daily  loss  per  cow  of  2  Ibs.  for  the 
first  7  weeks.    During  this  time  the  cows  yielded  products  in  excess 
of  what  the  food  furnished — in  some  instances  twice  as  much.    Such 
excess  of  yield  gradually  decreased  until  the  eleventh  week,  when 
cows  of  pronounced  dairy  temperament  reached  equilibrium  between 
the  food  nutrients  consumed  and  dairy  products  yielded,  while  others 
required  a  longer  time  to  reach  equilibrium. 

602.  Meager  and  liberal  feeding. — For  a  full  year   Wing  and 
Foord  of  the  Cornell  Station2  recorded  the  milk  and  fat  yield  of  a 
herd  of  poorly  nourished  cows  as  kept  by  a  farmer  on  a  New  York 
farm.     The  herd  was  then  moved  to  the  Station  where  it  was  liber- 
ally fed  for  2  years;  then  it  was  returned  to  the  farmer  who  fed 
them  poorly  as  before.     Below  appear  the  average  returns  of  7  cows 
so  studied: 

First  and  fourth       Second  and  third 
years  on  farm          years  at  Station 

Average  weekly  yield  of  milk  per  cow_    109  pounds  155  pounds 

Average  weekly  yield  of  fat  per  cow  __    4. 7  pounds  7.1  pounds 

Average  fat  in  milk 4.45  per  ct.         ,4. 70  per  ct. 

Here  is  an  increase  thru  good  feed  and  care  of  42  per  ct.  in  the 
quantity  of  milk  and  51  per  ct.  in  the  quantity  of  fat  over  that  ob- 
tained by  the  farmer.  Under  improved  conditions  the  fat  in  the 
milk  of  these  cows  increased  0.25  of  1  per  ct.,  or  5.6  per  ct.  quanti- 
tatively. When  again  subjected  to  the  hard  conditions  enforced  upon 
them  by  the  poor  farmer,  the  cows  fell  back  to  their  old  record.  (704) 

603.  Excessive  v.  low  feeding. — Eckles  of  the  Missouri  Station3 
fed  one  heifer  liberally  on  rich  rations  from  birth  until  she  calved, 
while  another  was  kept  poor  and  thin.     After  calving,  the  milk  of 
the  well-fed  heifer  tested  over  4  per  ct.  fat  and  that  of  the  thin  one 
about  3  per  ct.     For  several  weeks  after  calving  the  fat  heifer  de- 
clined in  weight,  the  fat  percentage  remaining  constant.     When  at 
length  her  weight  became  stationary  the  percentage  of  fat  declined 
somewhat.     The  thin  heifer  did  not  lose  in  weight  after  calving,  and 
the  fat  in  her  milk  did  not  decrease.    When  she  began  to  gain  on  lib- 
eral feeding,  the  fat  percentage  of  her  milk  slightly  increased.    In  the 
end  the  milk  of  the  two  heifers  was  about  equally  rich. 

1  Bui.  79.  2  Bui.  222.  3  Hoard  's  Dairyman,  July  9,  1909. 


The  Dairy  Coiv — Scientific  Findings.  383 

In  another  case  a  mature  cow  so  fed  as  to  be  excessively  fat  at 
calving  was  for  a  time  thereafter  given  food  only  sufficient  for  a  dry 
cow.  Beginning  with  21  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  she  was  giving  19.5  Ibs. 
at  the  end  of  30  days  of  poor  feeding,  during  which  time  she  lost 
115  Ibs.  in  weight.  Eckles  estimates  that  the  43  Ibs.  of  fat  and  53 
Ibs.  of  other  solids  yielded  in  the  milk  during  this  time  must  have 
come  from  her  body  tissues.  During  this  period  her  milk  averaged 
6.9  per  ct.  fat.  Within  48  hours  after  her  feed  was  later  increased 
it  declined  about  2  per  ct. 

604.  Withholding  lime.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Hart,  McCol- 
lum,   and  Humphrey  fed  an   1150-lb.  cow  producing  about  30  Ibs. 
of  milk  daily  a  liberal  ration  save  that  it  lacked  lime.     It  wTas  found 
that  there  went  into  the  milk  daily  about  20  grams  of  lime  (CaO) 
and   into   the   solid   excrement   and   urine,    principally   the   former, 
about  30  grams,   the  latter  loss  being  due  to  the  normal  changes 
(metabolism)   taking  place  in  the  body.     In  all  about  50  grams,  or 
nearly  2  ounces,   of  lime  disappeared  daily  from  the  body  of  this 
cow,  only  one-half  of  wilich  could  have  been  furnished  by  the  lime 
in  the  food.     During  the  trial,  which  lasted  110  days,  this  cow  main- 
tained a  good  flow  of  milk  and  continued  to  put  the  normal  amount 
of  lime  into  it.     It  was  calculated  that  during  the  trial  she  gave  off 
in  milk  and  excrement  5.5  Ibs.  more  lime  than  she  received  in  her 
food.     It  was  estimated  that  her  skeleton  contained  about  24.2  Ibs. 
of  lime  at  the  start,  and  this  being  true,  this  cow  gave  up  in  110  days 
about  25  per  ct.  of  all  the  lime  in  her  skeleton!     Here  is  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  overpowering  force  of  maternity.   (89) 

605.  Protein-rich  rations. — The  extensive  experiments  of  the  Co- 
penhagen  Station,2   covering  observations  with  about  2,000  Danish 
cows  and  extending  over  10  years,  appear  to  show  that  the  normal  fat 
percentage  of  the  milk  was  raised  possibly  as  much  as  0.1  per  ct.  thru 
the  influence  of  the  highly  nitrogenous  rations  fed.     While  such  an 
increase  is  too  small  to  be  recognized  by  the  dairyman  in  his  practical 
work,  it  is  possibly  of  deep  significance  and  far-reaching  importance 
for  the  student  and  breeder  looking  to  the  permanent  enrichment  of 
the  milk  of  a  strain  or  breed  of  dairy  cattle. 

606.  Feeding  fat.— In  2  trials  at  the  Cornell  Station,3  Wing  fed 
tallow  to  10  cows  while  on  pasture  or  on  winter  feed.    Beginning  with 
a   small   amount,   the   allowance   of  tallow   was   gradually  increased 

1  Eesearch  Bui.  5.  3  Bui.  92. 

2  Ept.  45 ;  Woll,  Wis.  Sta.,  Bui.  116. 


384 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


until  each  cow  was  consuming  about  2  Ibs.  daily,  this  allowance  being 
continued  for  several  weeks.    The  table  gives  the  results  with  1  cow : 

Effect  of  feeding  tallow  on  milk  and  fat  production. 


Tallow 
fed  daily 

Av.  daily 
milk  yield 

Fat  in  milk 

Av.  daily 
fat  yield 

Preliminary  week 

Oz. 

Lbs. 
25.9 

Per  cent 
4.4 

Lbs. 
1.14 

First  week 

7 

27.3 

4.7 

1.29 

Second  week 

13 

26.3 

4.8 

1.25 

Third  week 

20 

24.6 

4.9 

1.19 

Fourth  week 

27 

23.6 

5.0 

1.19 

Fifth  week  . 

30 

21.8 

4.8 

1.04 

Sixth  week.            _  __      

32 

21.2 

4.9 

1.03 

Seventh  week  _  . 

30 

20.3 

5.0 

1.01 

Eighth  week  _      _      _  

32 

23.4 

4.7 

1.10 

Ninth  week  _  

32 

22.6 

4.6 

1.03 

Tenth  week  _    _ 

32 

19.8 

4.5 

0.89 

Eleventh  week 

21.9 

4.2 

0.91 

Twelfth  week 

21.3 

4.3 

0.90 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  effect  of  feeding  tallow  to  the  cow  was 
to  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  so  that  it  was  richer  by 
0.6  of  1  per  ct.  on  the  fourth  week  of  the  trial.  There  was  a  smaller 
flow  of  milk,  however,  so  the  total  increase  of  fat  was  insignificant. 
With  some  of  the  cows  there  was  practically  no  change. 

After  feeding  stearin  and  cotton-seed-,  palm-,  corn-,  cocoanut-,  and 
oleo-oil  to  cows,  Woods  of  the  New  Hampshire  Station  concluded 
that  the  first  effect  of  such  feeding  is  to  increase  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  the  milk,  but  on  continuing  such  feeding  the  milk  tends  to  re- 
turn to  its  normal  condition.  Woods  holds  that  the  increase  in  fat 
is  not  due  to  the  oils,  but  to  the  unnatural  character  of  the  food. 
Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station1  found  oil  emulsions,  at  best,  no  more 
effective  than  unemulsified  oils. 

607.  Effects  of  drought.— Van  Slyke  of  the  New  York  (Geneva) 
Station,2   studying   the   milk   supply   of   cheese    factories   during   a 
drought,  found  that  the  general  effect  was  to  rapidly  diminish  the 
flow  of  milk.     The  fat  increased,  while  the  casein,  and  especially  the 
albumin,  diminished.     Tho  percentagely  small,  the  changes  were  in 
the   direction  of   giving  the  milk  the   appearance   of  having  been 
watered — a  point  of  importance  with  milk  inspectors. 

608.  Turning  to  pasture. — The  Copenhagen    (Denmark)    Station3 
for  10  successive  years  studied  the  changes  in  milk  when  turning  cows 
from  winter  stables  to  spring  pastures.    In  all  1,961  fall-calving  cows 


1  Kpt.  1899. 


2  Bui.  68. 


Rpt.  45;  Woll,  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  116. 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings. 


385 


on  8  different  farms  were  used.  The  yield  and  composition  of  the 
milk  for  ten-day  periods  preceding  and  following  the  turning  to 
pasture  are  reported  below: 

Yield  and  composition  of  milk  before  and  after  turning  to  pasture. 


In  stable  in  winter 

On  pasture  in  spring 

Per.  I 

Per.  II 

Per.  Ill 

Per.  IV 

Per.  V 

Per.  VI 

Av.  daily  milk  yield,  pounds 
Av.  per  ct.  fat 

21  2 
3^15 

8.72 

20.7 
3.18 

8.73 

20.2 
3.21 

8.74 

21.7 
3.47 

8.90 

21.7 
3.34 
8.93 

20.3 
3.30 

8.93 

Av.  perct.  solids  not  fat  ___ 

We  note  that  the  effect  of  turning  from  winter  stables  to  spring 
pastures  was  to  increase  at  once  the  milk  flow  by  over  7  per  ct.,  the 
percentage  of  fat  by  about  8  per  ct.,  and  that  of  the  other  solids  by 
nearly  2  per  ct.  While  the  increased  milk  flow  was  maintained,  the 
percentage  of  fat  fell  back  to  normal  after  the  cows  had  been  about 
20  days  on  grass.  The  small  increase  in  solids  not  fat  seems  to  have 
been  more  permanent. 

Linfield  of  the  Utah  Station1  observed  that  cows  turned  on  pasture 
early  in  the  season  while  the  grass  was  soft  and  lush  lost  in  weight 
for  a  short  time,  due  probably  to  the  extreme  flushing  of  the  system. 
This  result,  however,  had  no  effect  on  the  milk  production.  Where 
the  grasses  were  more  mature  when  the  cows  were  first  turned  on 
them  no  material  loss  in  live  weight  was  noted. 

609.  Work. — Dolgich2  found  that  moderate  exercise  tended  to  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  milk  and  all  the  constituents  except  casein, 
which    was    slightly    decreased,    while    excessive    exercise    decreased 
nearly  all  the  constituents.     Light  work  decreased  the  quantity  of 
both  milk  and  milk  solids,  while  excessive  work  decidedly  decreased 
the  flow  and  injured  the  quality,  the  casein  not  coagulating  and  some 
of  the  food-fat  appearing  unaltered  in  the  milk.  (392) 

610.  Feeding  concentrates  on  pasture. — Shelton  and  Cottrell  of 
the  Kansas  Station3  found  that  feeding  grain  to  cows  on  pasture  did 
not  directly  pay,  even  tho  the  yield  of  milk  was  increased  as  much 
as  31  per  ct.    Moore  of  the  Mississippi  Station,4  on  feeding  3  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  and  4  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  daily  per  cow  to  a  dairy 
herd  on  pasture,  found  that  the  increased  milk  flow  did  not  justify 
the  expense,  tho  the  firmness  of  the  butter  was  greatly  improved  by 


1  Bui.  68. 

2  Molkerei  Zeitung,  17, 1903,  p.  191. 


3  Rpt.  1888. 
*  Bui.  70. 


386  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

feeding  the  cotton-seed  meal.  At  the  Utah  Station1  Linfield  found 
that  cows  getting  some  concentrates  while  on  pasture,  at  first  showed 
no  great  advantage  therefrom;  later  the  effects  of  such  feed  became 
apparent,  the  difference  being  very  marked  by  the  following  winter. 
Roberts  of  the  Cornell  Station2  found  that  cows  fed  concentrates 
while  on  luxuriant  pasture  gave  less  milk  and  no  more  fat  than 
those  on  grass  alone.  With  luxuriant  pasture  except  for  a  short 
period,  both  lots  did  equally  well.  Grain-fed  cows  that  were  fed 
grass  for  soilage  gave  just  enough  more  milk  than  others  fed  no 
grain  to  pay  for  the  concentrates  fed.  The  study  was  transferred 
to  a  nearby  dairy  farm.  A  herd  of  16  cows  lightly  fed  the  previous 
winter  was  divided  into  2  lots  of  8  cows  each,  all  grazing  on  the 
same  pasture.  Each  cow  in  Lot  I  was  given  4  quarts  daily  of  rich 
concentrates,  while  those  in  Lot  II  received  none.  When  the  grass 
began  to  fail  in  August  soilage  was  fed.  The  returns  for  22  weeks 
are  as  follows : 

Lot  I  Lot  II 

Pasture  with       Pasture  without 
concentrates  concentrates 

Concentrates  fed,  pounds _.  5,200              

Milk  yield,  pounds 22,629  17,698 

Excess  of  milk  in  favor  of  Lot  I,  pounds 4,931               

Gain  in  weight  per  cow,  pounds 166  113 

Average  per  cent  fat  in  milk 4.67  4.70 

Average  per  cent  total  solids 14.08  14.19 

In  this  trial  the  pastured  cows  getting  concentrates  gave  28  per  ct. 
more  milk  than  those  getting  no  concentrates,  and  each  pound  of 
concentrates  fed  returned  about  1  Ib.  of  milk. 

The  following  year  no  concentrates  were  fed  to  either  lot  while 
on  pasture.  The  6-months  yield  from  6  cows  that  remained  in  each 
lot  was  as  follows: 

Lot  I  Lot  II 

Fed  concentrates         Fed  no  concentrates 
previous  year  previous  year 

Average  yield  per  cow,  6  months,  Ibs.    3, 440  2, 960 

In  favor  of  Lot  I,  Ibs 480 

Tho  getting  no  concentrates,  Lot  I  returned  480  Ibs.,  or  16  per  ct, 
more  milk  than  Lot  II.  Roberts  holds  that  this  was  due  to  feeding 
concentrates  the  preceding  year.  The  benefits  were  especially  marked 
in  the  case  of  the  heifers,  the  2-  and  3-yr.-olds  fed  concentrates  the 
year  before  developing  into  better  animals  than  their  mates  which 
had  been  fed  no  concentrates  the  previous  year  while  on  pasture. 

We  may  conclude  that  there  are  no  immediate  advantages  in  feed- 
ing concentrates  when  the  pastures  are  ample,  while  if  they  are  poor 

1  Bui.  68.  2  Buls.  13,  22,  36,  49. 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings.  387 

or  scant  the  increased  milk  flow  will  fully  and  directly  compensate 
for  the  concentrates  or  soilage  fed.  The  residual  effects  from  con- 
centrate-feeding on  pastures,  as  pointed  out  by  Roberts  and  Linfield, 
are  most  important  and  should  not  be  overlooked.  Where  the  pas- 
tures are  short,  unless  soilage  crops  or  concentrates  are  fed,  the 
milk  flow  will  surely  decrease,  and,  even  should  the  pastures  improve 
later,  the  cows  cannot  be  brought  back  to  their  normal  milk  flow.  The 
greater  value  to  the  pastures  of  the  droppings  from  concentrate- 
fed  cows  will  often  prove  the  deciding  factor  with  thoughtful  dairy- 
men. 

611.  The   proper  concentrate   allowance. — A  knowledge    of   the 
proper  amount  of  concentrates  or  grain  which  should  be  fed  the  cow 
is  of   great  economic   importance.     Linfield  of  the   Utah   Station,1 
where  alfalfa  hay  is  largely  fed  for  roughage,  states  that  any  excess 
over  6  Ibs.  of  concentrates  in  the  ration  usually  increases  the  cost 
of  production.     Stewart  and  Atwood  of  the  West  Virginia  Station,2 
feeding  timothy  hay  and  corn  silage  for  roughage,  found  that  any 
increase  in  concentrates  beyond  5  or  6  Ibs.  per  cow  daily  did  not 
bring  corresponding  returns.     Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station,3  after 
years  of  study  of  rations  in  which  mixed  hay  and  corn  silage  usually 
formed  the  roughage,  concludes  that  it  does  not  pay  to  feed  the 
dairy  cow  less  than  4  nor  over  8  Ibs.  of  concentrates  daily.     Woll 
and  Carlyle  in  2  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station4  found  when  mixed 
hay  and  corn  silage  formed  the  roughage  that  8  Ibs.  of  concentrates 
gave  as  good  returns  in  milk  and  fat  as  12  Ibs. 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  comparatively  small  allowance  of  con- 
centrates recommended  by  the  various  investigators.  The  reader 
should  not  fail  to  note  that  where  small  allowances  of  concentrates 
proved  the  most  economical  the  roughage  fed  was  always  ample  in 
quantity  and  desirable  in  quality,  corn  silage  carrying  more  or  less 
grain,  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  usually  being  employed.  Where 
the  roughage  allowance  is  meager  or  of  poor  quality,  more  concen- 
trates should  be  fed.  (706,  714) 

612.  Water. — At  the  Pennsylvania  Station5  Armsby  found  that 
cows  averaging  about  750  Ibs.,  fed  fresh  grass  in  stalls  where  the 
temperature  averaged  70°    F.,   drank  about  60  Ibs.  of  water  each 
daily.     Others  fed  dry  grass  where  a  temperature  of  73°   F.  pre- 
vailed drank  107  Ibs.    When  at  the  Wisconsin  Station6  the  same  in- 
vestigator found  that  cows  drank  more  water  on  protein-rich  than 

1  Bui.  43.  3  Rpts.  1900-1905.  5  Rpt  1888. 

8  Bui.  106.  *  Epts.  1899-1900.  •  Rpt.  1886. 


388  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

on  protein-poor  rations.  Collier  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Sta- 
tion1 found  that  cows  obtained  4.6  Ibs.  of  water  in  feed  and  drink 
for  every  pound  of  milk  they  yielded,  and  that  dry  cows  drank  but 
65  per  ct.  as  much  as  those  giving  milk.  In  general  the  water  pro- 
vision for  dairy  cows  should  be  about  100  Ibs.,  or  12.5  gallons,  per 
head  per  day. 

Hayward  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station2  and  Hills  of  the  Vermont 
Station3  found  no  advantage  in  keeping  water  continuously  before 
cows  instead  of  allowing  them  to  drink  once  daily.  Hills  of  the  Ver- 
mont Station*  found  no  benefit  from  warming  the  water  when  the 
cows  were  comfortably  housed.  (87,  452) 

613.  Effects   of   dehorning   and   tuberculin   testing. — Woll   and 
Humphrey  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,5  studying  the  results  at  11  ex- 
periment stations,  conclude  that  dehorning  dairy  cows  causes  a  tem- 
porary loss  of  about  8  per  ct.  in  yield  of  milk  and  an  insignificant 
loss  in  yield  of  butter  fat.     Beach  of  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)   Sta- 
tion,6 after  dehorning  the  Station  herd,  writes:     ''The  worry,  pain, 
and  cruelty  of  animals  to  their  mates  is  eliminated  when  these  in- 
struments of  torture  are   removed,   and  the  lack  of   fear  and  the 
quiet  contentment  of  the  individuals  of  the  herd  are  at  once  notice- 
able.   The  benefits  from  dehorning  dairy  cattle  cannot  be  accurately 
measured,  but  there  is  an  almost  unanimous  opinion  in  its  favor 
among  those  who  have  practiced  it  in  their  herds." 

Studies  at  the  Wisconsin  Station7  show  that  subjecting  cows  to  the 
tuberculin  test  has  practically  no  effect  on  the  yield  of  milk  and 
butter  fat. 

614.  Spaying. — Nicolas,8  after  continued  experiments  with  spayed 
and  unspayed  cows,  concludes  that  such  practice  is  not  warranted 
by  the  results.     The  quality  of  the  milk  from  spayed  cows  is  better 
than  that  of  the  cow  not  pregnant,  but  poorer  than  that  of  the  preg- 
nant cows.     Spaying  results  in  richer  milk,  tho  the  quantity  is  not 
increased.     Others  have  held  not  only  that  the  milk  of  spayed  cows 
was  richer,  but  that  by  spaying  the  lactation  period  was  lengthened 
by  from  12  to  15  months. 

615.  Minor  points. — Lane  of  the  New  Jersey  Station9  found  that 
cows  getting  3  feeds  daily  consumed  more  roughage  and  gave  slightly 
more  milk  than  those  getting  2  daily,  but  the  increase  barely  paid  for 

1  Proc.  of  < '  New  York  Farmers, '  >  1893-3.  a  Rpt.  1902. 

2  Bui.  56.  7  Ept.  1905. 

3  Rpt.  1907.  8  Soc.  de  L  'Aliment.  Rationelle  du 

4  Loc.  cit.  Betail,  1898. 
6  Rpt.  1905.  '  Rpt.  1900. 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings.  389 

the  extra  labor  and  feed.  Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1 
found  2  feeds  as  effective  as  3  in  maintaining  the  milk  flow.  It  is 
reasonable  to  hold  that  2  generous  feeds  daily  are  sufficient  for  the 
dairy  cow  with  her  roomy  digestive  apparatus.  (701) 

On  feeding  dairy  cows  wet  and  dry  concentrates,  Grisdale2  found 
a  small  difference  in  favor  of  the  dry  feed. 

Carlyle  of  the  Wisconsin  Station3  found  that  changing  milkers  had 
no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  yield  of  milk  or  fat.  Linfield4  con- 
cludes that  any  change  in  milk  yield  is  due  to  the  individuality  of  the 
milker,  not  to  the  mere  change  of  the  milkers.  Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa 
Experimental  Farms5  found  that  irregularity  in  the  intervals  be- 
tween milking  slightly  reduced  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk. 
The  quantity  of  milk  drawn  after  the  longer  interval  was  greater, 
but  its  fat  percentage  lower  than  that  of  the  milk  drawn  after  the 
shorter  interval.  The  conclusion  was  reached  that,  were  the  changes 
not  sudden,  the  effect  due  to  the  difference  in  the  length  of  the  inter- 
vals between  the  milkings  was  negligible. 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station0  found  that  cows  milked  thrice  daily 
gave  the  most  and  poorest  milk  in  the  morning,  less  and  the  richest 
milk  at  noon,  and  the  least  milk  and  of  medium  quality  at  night. 
He  states  that  usually  it  will  not  pay  to  milk  cows  thrice  daily,  tho 
a  temporary  increase  in  the  flow  of  milk  is  produced  thereby.  Dean 
of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College7  concludes  that  milking  thrice 
daily  is  unprofitable  with  cows  giving  a  good  flow,  while  it  might  be 
profitable  with  very  heavy  milkers. 

The  "Hegelund  method"  consists  in  so  manipulating  the  cow's 
udder  after  milking  as  to  bring  down  all  remaining  traces  of  milk. 
By  this  system,  Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station8  found  that  the  daily 
milk  yield  of  a  herd  of  24  cows  was  increased  4.5  per  ct.  and  the  fat 
yield  9.2  per  ct.  The  average  daily  gain  per  cow  was  1  Ib.  of  milk 
and  nearly  0.1  Ib.  of  fat,  and  these  gains  seemed  to  be  maintained 
thruout  the  whole  lactation  period. 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station9  as  the  result  of  2  tests  concludes 
that  there  is  no  benefit  from  grooming  cows  so  far  as  milk  yield  is 
concerned,  tho  it  may  lessen  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk. 

II.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FEED  ON  MILK. 

616.  Feed  and  milk  yield.— The  quantity  of  milk  the  cow  yields 
depends  indirectly  on  the  inherent  tendency  or  constitution  of  the 

1  Ept.  1904.  *  Bnl.  68.  7  Rpt.  1898. 

2  Ottawa  Expt,  Farms,  Rpt.  1901.     5  Rpts.  1901, 1902.         8  Ept.  1902. 

3  Rpt.  1903.  '  Rpt.  1907.  9  Rpt.  1900. 


390  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

individual  as  fixed  by  breed  and  selection,  and  directly  on  feed,  care, 
and  environment.  In  the  state  of  nature  the  cow  provides  only  suffi- 
cient milk  for  the  nourishment  of  her  young,  even  tho  her  feed  be 
abundant.  When  she  is  liberally  fed,  the  modern  dairy  cow,  pro- 
duced thru  long-time  selection  and  breeding,  secretes  far  more  milk 
than  her  calf  can  utilize.  So  generous  is  the  dairy  cow  that  few 
dairymen  feed  to  the  limit  of  profitable  production.  Within  wide 
limits,  then,  the  quantity  of  milk  a  dairy  cow  yields  is  directly  de- 
pendent on  the  feed  and  care  she  receives.  (602) 

617.  Feed  and  richness. — Down  to  the  most  recent  times  it  was 
universally  held  that  milk  varied  in  richness,  or  percentage  of  fat, 
from  milking  to  milking,  according  to  the  feed  and  care  the  cow 
received.     We  have  now  come  to  know  that  the  milk  of  each  cow 
possesses  a  fixed  inherent  composition,  and  that  normally  the  rich- 
ness of  milk  is  not  the  immediate  sequence  of  feed  and  care.     No 
longer  does  the  man  whose  milk  falls  below  standard  some  morning 
at  the  factory  hide  behind  the  statement  that  he  "forgot  to  give  the 
cows  their  grain  last  night."     The  Babcock  milk  test  has  silently 
but  effectually  dispelled  this  illusion  so  long  held  by  dairymen.    In 
confirmation  of  this  view  the  following  is  offered : 

The  Jersey  cow  gives  milk  which  is  relatively  rich  in  fat,  and  the 
Holstein  milk  that  is  relatively  low  in  fat.  No  kind  of  feed  or  care 
will  cause  the  Jersey  to  give  milk  like  that  of  the  Holstein  or  the  re- 
verse. Were  a  piece  of  skin,  clothed  with  yellow  hair,  taken  from  the 
body  of  a  Jersey  cow  and  grafted  on  to  the  body  of  a  Holstein  cow, 
we  should  expect  the  grafted  portion  to  continue  growing  yellow 
Jersey-like  hair.  In  the  same  way,  were  it  possible  to  graft  the  udder 
of  a  Jersey  cow  on  to  the  body  of  a  Holstein,  we  would  expect  the 
Holstein  to  then  give  Jersey-like  milk.  It  is  not  the  body  of  the  cow 
or  the  digestive  tract,  but  the  glands  of  the  udder  that  determine 
the  characteristics  of  the  milk  yielded  by  each  individual  cow.  After 
all,  this  is  what  we  should  expect,  for  if  milk  varied  with  every 
slight  change  of  food  and  condition,  the  life  of  the  young,  depend- 
ent on  such  milk,  would  always  be  in  jeopardy.  (602-3,  606-9) 

618.  Fat  variations.— Accepting  the  fact  that  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  milk  is  relatively  constant,  there  are  nevertheless  many  com- 
paratively small  variations  from  the  normal,  among  which  are  the 
following :  The  milk  of  the  heifer  is  usually  slightly  richer  than  that 
of  the  cow  when  mature;  (598)  immediately  after  freshening,  espe- 
cially if  the  cow  is  in  high  condition,  (599)  and  again  when  drying 
off,  the  milk  is  richer  than  normal.    The  cow  in  very  poor  condition 


The  Dairy  Cow — Scientific  Findings.  391 

may  give  milk  below  or  above  the  normal  in  richness;  (602)  defective, 
unusual,  or  scant  feed  may  force  the  cow  to  give  abnormally  rich  or 
poor  milk;  (603)  feeding  large  quantities  of  fat  may  temporarily  in- 
crease the  fat  in  milk;  (606)  excitement  or  work  may  cause  the  milk 
to  be  richer  or  poorer  than  normal;  (609)  the  shorter  the  period  be- 
tween milkings,  the  richer  the  milk;  (615)  morning's  milk  is  usually 
richer  than  night's  milk;  the  first  drawn  milk  is  the  poorest  and  the 
last  drawn  the  richest.  (597)  In  general,  all  changes  in  environment, 
care,  or  food  which  affect  the  cow  are  mainly  reflected  in  the  quan- 
tity and,  in  some  degree,  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  she  yields.  Often 
when  the  percentage  of  fat  increases,  the  quantity  of  the  milk  de- 
creases so  that  the  total  yield  of  fat  is  not  increased.  (596-9) 

619.  Effects  of  feed  on  fat  composition. — The  fat  of  milk  is  a 
composite  of  many  kinds  of  fat,  such  as  palmitin,  olein,  stearin,  buty- 
rin,  etc.     While  the  kind  of  feed  given  the  cow  does  not  materially 
change  the  total  per  cent  of  fat  in  her  milk,  it  does  in  some  cases 
seem  to  alter  the  relative  proportion  of  the  several  component  fats 
or  in  some  way  change  the  composition  of  the  fat,  as  shown  by  the  re- 
sultant butter.    We  know  that  butter  produced  from  cows  fed  cotton- 
seed meal  is  hard  and  tallowy,  with  a  high  melting  point,  while  lin- 
seed meal  and  soybeans  tend  to  produce  a  soft  butter  with  a  low 
melting  point. 

Many  years  ago  investigators  began  diligently  to  study  the  influ- 
ence of  feed  on  the  composition  of  the  fat  of  milk,  and  their  work 
is  still  in  progress.  No  basic  conclusions  have  yet  been  reached,  and 
we  are  forced  to  agree  with  Frear,1  who  years  ago,  after  reviewing 
all  available  data,  wrote:  "They  (the  data)  do  not,  however,  suffice 
either  for  the  framing  of  a  theory  as  to  the  relation  of  the  several 
food  constituents  to  the  fats  of  milk,  or  for  the  quantitative  meas- 
ure of  the  influence  of  a  given  food."  (605-6,  643) 

620.  Flavor,  odor,  and  color. — Milk  and  its  products  possess  qual- 
ities cognizable  only  to  sight,  taste,  and  smell.     The  Guernsey  breed 
excels  in  producing  a  milk  with  a  yellow  fat.    The  grain  of  corn,  pas- 
ture grass,  carrots,  and  some  other  feeding  stuffs  impart  a  yellowish 
tinge  to  milk  fat.    Due  to  minute  quantities  of  volatile  oils  they  con- 
tain, onions,  leeks,  turnips,  rape,  etc.,  impart  an  objectionable  flavor 
to  milk,  possibly  apparent  to  all  people,  while  the  flavors  imparted 
by  green  rye  or  corn  silage  are  detected  by  some  but  pass  unnoticed 
.by  many.  (362)     When  cows  are  first  turned  to  pasture,  we  at  once 
observe  a  grass  flavor  in  the  milk  and  butter,  tho  it  soon  disappears; 

1  Agr.  Science,  1893. 


392  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

but  whether  it  has  really  disappeared  or  we  only  fail  to  notice  it,  we 
do  not  know.  It  is  possible  that  after  a  time  the  cow  more  completely 
eliminates  such  volatile  oils  than  at  first.  Bad  flavors  can  be  largely 
avoided  by  feeding  whatever  causes  them  immediately  after  milking 
so  that  the  volatile  oils  they  furnish,  which  are  the  source  of  the 
trouble,  can  the  more  completely  escape  from  the  body  before  the  next 
milking. 

It  is  possible  that  the  facility  with  which  flavors  and  odors  pass 
from  feed  to  milk  or  are  eliminated  from  the  body  when  once  within 
it  varies  with  different  cows.  The  flavors  and  aroma  of  butter  are 
mostly  due  to  fermentation  of  milk  sugar,  so  that  this  matter  rests 
only  in  part  on  feeding. 

Sometimes,  long  after  a  cow  has  freshened,  her  milk  grows  bitter 
and  distasteful  thru  no  influence  of  feed.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  prog- 
eny of  such  cows  should  be  reared. 

It  is  probable  that  the  milk  of  every  cow,  aside  from  the  influence 
of  feed,  possesses  a  distinctly  individual  flavor  too  delicately  fine  to 
be  observed  by  most  humans.  It  may  be  that  in  the  future,  when  the 
grosser  problems  now  perplexing  dairymen  have  been  solved,  it  will 
be  found  that  certain  cows  yield  a  peculiarly  palatable  milk.  If  this 
should  prove  to  be  the  case,  then  thru  selection  there  may  be  estab- 
lished breeds  or  families  possessing  this  ultra-refined  and  most  desir- 
able quality. 

The  whole  subject  of  odors  and  flavors  in  milk  and  dairy  products 
generally  is  greatly  complicated  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  wide 
range  in  the  ability  of  individuals  to  detect  and  distinguish  them. 
Flavors  or  odors  plainly  evident  to  one  person  are  unnoticed  by 
another.  Often  odors  and  flavors  charged  to  feed  or  cow  are  due 
to  stable  contamination  of  milk  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

STATION  TESTS  WITH  FEEDING  STUFFS  FOE  DAIRY  COWS. 
I.  VALUE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  GRAINS  FOR  Cows. 

621.  Ear  corn  v.  corn-and-cob  meal. — Lane  of  the  New  Jersey 
Station1  compared  broken  ear  corn  with  an  equal  weight  of  corn- 
and-cob  meal  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table: 

Ear  corn  compared  with  corn-and-cob  meal. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk             Fat 

Lot  I 
Ear  corn,  6  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  6  Ibs. 

Corn  stover,  10  Ibs. 
Hay,  9.41bs.  

Lbs.              Lbs. 
20.2           0.89 

Lot  1  1 
Corn-and-cob  meal, 
Wheat  bran,  6  Ibs. 

6  Ibs.     Corn  stover,  10  Ibs. 
Hay,  9.4  Ibs. 

22.1          0.93 

The  table  shows  that  the  returns  from  corn-and-cob  meal  exceed 
those  from  ear  corn  by  9.4  per  ct.  for  milk  flow  and  4.5  per  ct.  in  the 
yield  of  fat.  These  returns  in  favor  of  grinding  corn  are  not  mate- 
rially different  from  those  secured  with  fattening  steers  and 
swine.  (157) 

622.  Corn  meal  as  the  sole  concentrate. — At  the  Maryland  Sta- 
tion2 Patterson  fed  cows  on  corn  meal  as  the  sole  concentrate  during 
the  entire  lactation  period,  while  others  were  given  a  mixture  of  corn 
meal,  gluten  feed,  and  wheat  bran  in  such  quantity  as  to  form  with 
the  roughage,  chiefly  dry  fodder  and  soilage  corn,  a  balanced  ration. 
The  next  year  the  rations  were  reversed  so  that  each  cow  was  on  both 
sides  of  the  trial.  The  average  yearly  returns  were  as  follows : 

Yield  per  cow 
Milk  Butter 


When  corn  meal  only  was  fed ... 3, 150  pounds 

When  mixed  grains  were  fed 4, 195  pounds 


152  pounds 
221  pounds 


It  is  shown  that  the  returns  were  about  45  per  ct.  greater  when 
feeding  a  balanced  ration  of  mixed  grains  than  with  corn  meal  as  the 
exclusive  concentrate.  Only  when  the  roughage  is  rich  in  crude  pro- 
tein should  corn  constitute  the  sole  concentrate  in  the  ration  of  the 
dairy  cow,  and  even  then  more  variety  would  be  better.  (156) 


Kpt.  1898. 


Bui.  84. 


893 


394 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


623.  Wheat  meal  v.  corn  meal. — At  the  Maine  Station1  Bartlett 
fed  6  cows  for  three  21-day  periods,  giving  to  each  for  concentrates 
2  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal  and  either  5  Ibs.  wheat  meal  or  5  Ibs.  corn 
meal  daily.     The  returns  in  milk  and  fat  were  practically  the  same 
for  both  rations,  showing  that  wheat  meal  and  corn  meal  are  equal 
in  feeding  value  for  the  dairy  cow.  (161) 

624.  Wheat  v.  barley  and  oats.— At  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark) 
Station2  Friis  compared  ground  wheat  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  ground  barley  and  oats  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows.     The  herds  on  6 
estates  were  divided  into  3  equal  lots.     Each  cow  was  given  a  basal 
ration  of  3.3  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  1.8  Ibs.  oil  cake,  30  Ibs.  mangels,  10 
Ibs.  hay  per  day,  and  straw  without  limit.     In  addition.  Lot  I  was 
fed  5.2  Ibs.  of  the  barley-oats  mixture;  Lot  II  was  fed  2.6  Ibs.  of  the 
barley-oats  mixture  and  2.6  Ibs.  of  wheat;  and  Lot  III  5.2  Ibs.  of 
wheat.     The  average  daily  milk  yield  per  cow  is  shown  in  the  table : 

Wheat  compared  with  a  mixture  of  oats  and  ~barley  for  cows. 


Lot  I 

Lot  II 

Lot  III 

Grain 
mixture 
only 

Half  grain 
mixture, 
half  wheat 

Wheat 
only 

Milk  yield,  preliminary  period          __        ._  . 

Lbs. 
26.3 

Lbs. 
26.3 

Lbs. 
26.4 

Milk  yield,  experimental  period      

23.0 

22.8 

23.2 

Milk  yield,  post-experimental  period  _. 

21.0 

21.0 

22  0 

It  will  be  seen  that,  when  fed  alone,  ground  wheat  had  practically 
the  same  value  as  equal  parts  of  ground  barley  and  oats.  (161,  171) 

625.  Rye  meal  v.  corn  meal. — Hayward  of  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion,3 in  a  feeding  trial  with  3  cows  during  3  periods  of  35  days  each, 
compared  rye  meal  with  corn  meal,  obtaining  the  results  shown  in  the 
table: 

Rye  meal  compared  with  corn  meal  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lotl 
Rye  meal,  3.  5  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  2.  5  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal  2  0  Ibs.            Timothy  hay,  12  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

16.7 
17.3 

Lbs. 
0.73 

0.77 

Lot  II 
Corn  meal,  3.5  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  2.5  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,  2  0  Ibs.            Timothy  hay,  12  Ibs..  

1  Bpt.  1895. 


34th  Rpt.,  1895. 


3  Bui.  52. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


395 


The  table  shows  that  when  3.5  Ibs.  of  rye  meal  was  substituted  for 
an  equal  weight  of  corn  meal  in  the  ration  the  milk  flow  and  fat 
yield  decreased.  We  may  conclude  that  rye  meal  is  somewhat  less 
valuable  than  corn  meal  for  the  dairy  cow.  (177) 

626.  Oats  v.  wheat  bran. — Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station1  com- 
pared ground  oats  with  wheat  bran  in  a  feeding  trial  with  4  cows 
lasting  47  days  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table : 

Ground  oats  compared  with  wheat  bran. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk              Fat 

Lot  I 

Ground  oats,  10  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  2  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Wheat  bran,  10  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  2  Ibs. 

Clover  hay,  6  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  without  limit  _  -  . 

Clover  hay,  6  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  without  limit-.. 

Lbs.             Lbs. 
23.3          1.03 

20.8          0.93 

The  table  shows  a  return  of  about  11  per  ct.  more  milk  and  fat 
from  ground  oats  than  from  wheat  bran.  The  high  feeding  value 
of  oats  for  the  dairy  cow  is  well  illustrated  in  this  trial.  However, 
because  of  the  high  price  this  grain  now  commands,  most  dairymen 
cannot  afford  to  use  it  in  any  large  way. 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station2  found  that  oat  feed  was  about  as 
valuable  as  equal  parts  of  bran  and  corn  meal  for  dairy  cows.  (169) 

627.  Emmer. — Wilson  and  Skinner  of  the  South  Dakota  Station,3 
when  feeding  brome  hay  and  corn  silage  for  roughage,  found  that 
cows  produced  1  Ib.  of  butter  fat  for  each  15.5  Ibs.  of  corn  or  barley 
meal  fed,  while  17.5  Ibs.  of  ground  emmer  (speltz)  were  required,  a 
difference  of  13  per  ct.  in  favor  of  barley  or  corn  meal.  (178) 

628.  Kafir  meal. — In  a  trial  with  18  cows  for  7  weeks,  Cottrell 
and  Skinner  of  the  Kansas  Station4  found  that  8  Ibs.  of  kafir  meal  and 
20  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  made  the  cheapest  dairy  ration  for  Kansas  con- 
ditions.    When  fed  with  prairie,  timothy,  or  sorghum  hay  or  corn 
fodder,  kafir  tends  to  dry  up  the  cows,  and  if  fed  abundantly  to 
fatten  them.  (183) 

629.  Sorghum  meal.— During  three  20-day  periods  Cook  of  the 
New  Jersey  Station5  fed  cows  rations  composed  of  5  Ibs.  corn  stover, 
20  Ibs.  brewers'  grains,  5  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  and  9  Ibs.  of  either  sorghum 


1  Rpt.  1890. 

2  Rpt.  1907. 


3  Bui.  81. 

4  Bui.  93. 


5  Rpt.  1882. 


396 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


meal  or  corn  meal  for  each  1.000  Ibs.  of  live  weight,  with  the  follow- 
ing average  returns: 

Daily  milk  yield 
.  per  cow 

Period      I,  Ration  containing  corn  meal 28.1  pounds 

Period    II,  Ration  containing  sorghum-seed  meal 24. 6  pounds 

Period  III,  Ration  containing  corn  meal _    27.0  pounds 

It  is  shown  that  when  the  full  sorghum-seed  meal  ration  was  fed 
the  yield  of  milk  dropped,  while  on  changing  from  sorghum-seed 
meal  back  to  corn  meal  there  was  an  increased  milk  flow.  These 
trials  show  that  sorghum-seed  meal  is  at  least  10  per  ct.  less  valuable 
than  corn  meal  for  milk  production.  (181) 

630.  Soybean  v.  cotton-seed  meal. — At  the  Tennessee  Station1 
Price  compared  ground  soybeans  with  cotton-seed  meal  for  milk  pro- 
duction with  2  lots  each  of  four  2-  and  3-yr.-old  heifers,  fed  the  fol- 
lowing rations  alternately  during  3  periods  of  30  days  each: 

Ground  soybeans  v.  cotton-seed  meal. 


Average  ration 


Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 


Milk 


Fat 


Lot  I 

Ground  soybeans,     2.3  Ibs. 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  2.3  Ibs. 
Lot  II 

Cotton-seed  meal,     2 . 3  Ibs. 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  2 . 3  Ibs. 


Corn  silage,  24.7  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10.3  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  23. 5  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10.0  Ibs. 


Lbs. 
14.4 

13.6 


Lbs. 
0.81 

0.77 


It  is  shown  that  ground  soybeans  gave  slightly  better  results  than 
cotton-seed  meal. 

At  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Station2  2  lots  of  4  cows  each  were 
fed  6  weeks  by  the  reversal  method.  To  a  basal  ration  of  hay,  silage, 
and  bran,  an  allowance  of  either  ground  soybeans  or  cotton-seed 
meal  was  added  in  practically  equal  amounts.  The  ground  soybeans 
proved  slightly  superior  to  the  cotton-seed  meal  as  a  milk  and  fat 
producer,  and  the  butter  was  of  better  quality. 

Otis  of  the  Kansas  Station3  found  that,  when  soybeans  formed  one- 
half  the  concentrates,  the  butter  from  such  feeding  was  so  soft  that 
it  was  impossible  to  work  it  satisfactorily  even  tho  chilled  with  ice 
water.  Since  cotton-seed  meal  produces  a  hard  butter  and  soybeans 
a  soft  butter,  the  two  in  combination  should  form  a  most  useful  and 
exceedingly  rich  nitrogenous  concentrate  for  dairy  cows.  (201,  643) 


Bui.  80. 


Rpt.  1894. 


» Bui.  125. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


397 


631.  Velvet  bean. — Scott  of  the  Florida  Station,1  during  a  feed- 
ing trial  extending  from  January  to  April  in  which  either  velvet 
beans  in  the  pod  or  cotton-seed  meal  was  fed  to  cows  along  with  a 
basal  ration  of  wheat  bran  and  sorghum  silage,  secured  the  follow- 
ing returns: 

268  Ibs.  velvet  beans  in  the  pod,  with  bran  and  silage,  produced  935  Ibs.  milk 
95  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal,  with  bran  and  silage,  produced  937  Ibs.  milk 

It  will  be  seen  that,  fed  with  bran  and  silage,  268  Ibs.  of  velvet 
beans  in  the  pod  produced  substantially  as  much  milk  as  95  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal.  Scott  reports  that  the  Florida  farmer  can  produce 
5  tons  of  velvet  beans  for  the  cost  of  1  ton  of  cotton-seed  meal.  (263) 

II.  BY-PRODUCTS  OF  THE  FLOUR  MILLS;  GLUCOSE,  OIL,  AND  SUGAR 
FACTORIES;  DISTILLERIES;  AND  BREWERIES. 

632.  Wheat  bran. — The  Copenhagen  Station2  conducted  feeding 
trials  with  447  cows  on  several  Danish  farms  as  follows:    To  one  lot 
was  fed  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ground  barley  and  oats ;  to  a  sec- 
ond a  mixture  of  half  wheat  bran  and  half  mixed  grains;  and  to  a 
third  wheat  bran  alone.    The  results  are  summarized  below:. 

Wheat  bran  compared  with  a  mixture  of  ground  oats  and  barley. 


When  the  ration  contained— 

Mixed 
grains 

Half  grains, 
half  bran 

Wheat  bran 
only 

Average  daily  milk  yield  per  cow,  Ibs. 

21.9 
11.7 
3.0 

22.1 
11.8 
3.1 

22.1 
11.8 
3.1 

Average  solids  in  milk,  per  ct. 

Average  fat  in  milk,  per  ct. 

The  results  show  that  wheat  bran  fed  alone  is  fully  as  valuable  as 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ground  barley  and  oats.  Bran,  however, 
should  rarely  be  so  fed,  but  always  in  combination  with  some  feed  rich 
in  starch,  such  as  corn,  rye,  barley,  etc.,  and  with  some  legume  rough- 
age to  furnish  lime,  which  it  lacks.  (165) 

633.  Wheat  shorts  v.  wheat  bran.— The  Copenhagen  Station3  con- 
ducted trials  with  240  cows  on  several  farms  in  which  wheat  shorts 
(presumably  of  good  quality)  was  fed  in  comparison  with  wheat  bran. 
The  shorts  gave  slightly  larger  returns,  tho  the  difference  was  small. 
Combining  the  results  of  this  trial  with  those  in  the  preceding  ar- 
ticle, we  may  conclude  that  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  and  good 


1  Bui.  102. 


29th  Ept.,  1894. 


3  Loc.  cit. 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


wheat  shorts  are  of  equal  feeding  value  for  the  dairy  cow,  and  prac- 
tically equal  to  a  mixture  of  ground  barley  and  oats.  (166) 

634.  Buckwheat  middlings. — Hills   of   the   Vermont   Station1   re- 
ports that  buckwheat  middlings  in  the  ration  produced  from  8  to  11 
per  ct.  more  milk  than  did  an  equal  allowance  of  half  corn  and  half 
wheat  bran.     At  ruling  prices  buckwheat  middlings  made  cheaper 
milk  and  butter  than  did  linseed  and  cotton-seed  meal  or  corn  meal 
and  bran.     Buckwheat  middlings  seemed  to  increase  the  quantity 
of  fat  in  the  milk,  tho  the  quality  of  the  butter  was  somewhat  im- 
paired when  the  middlings  were  fed  in  large  quantities.     Hayward 
and  Weld  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station2  found  that,  for  milk  and 
butter  production,  buckwheat  middlings,  dried  brewers'  grains,  and 
cerealine  are  equally  valuable  when  judiciously  fed  as  part  of  a  bal- 
anced ration.    None  of  these  foods  had  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the 
flavor  or  quality  of  the  milk  or  butter.  (180) 

635.  Gluten  meal. — Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station3  fed  6  cows  for 
20  weeks,  comparing  gluten  meal  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
corn  meal  and  wheat  bran.    He  found  that  100  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  in 
the  form  of  gluten  meal,  substituted  for  an  equal  amount  of  dry 
matter  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  corn  meal  and  wheat  bran,  in- 
creased the  yield  of  milk  and  total  solids  12.5  per  ct.  (158) 

636.  Gluten  feed. — Cooke  of  the  Vermont  Station4  fed  2  cows  the 
following  rations  alternately  for  periods  of  18  days  each  to  compare 
gluten  feed  with  the  same  weight  of  a  mixture  of  corn  meal  and 
wheat  bran: 

Gluten  feed  compared  with  wheat  ~bran  and  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Ration  I 
Gluten  feed,  4  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  2  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  2  Ibs. 
Bation  II 
Wheat  bran,  4  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  4  Ibs. 

Cut  hay,  8  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  without  limit 

Lbs. 
21.5 

18.7 

Lbs. 
1.08 

0.9,'J 

Cut  hay,  8  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  without  limit  

The  table  shows  a  gain  of  15  per  ct.  in  milk  and  16  per  ct.  in  fat 
thru  substituting  gluten  feed  for  an  equal  weight  of  corn  meal  and 
bran,  equal  parts.  The  high  value  of  gluten  feed  is  here  shown.  (158) 


7  Ept.  1907. 


2  Bui.  41. 


3  Ept.  1895. 


*  Ept.  1892 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


399 


637.  Hominy   feed.— Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station1   found  that 
hominy  feed  in  the  ration  for  dairy  cows  was  fully  equal  to  wheat 
bran,  but  somewhat  less  valuable  than  gluten  meal  or  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  linseed  meal.  (158) 

638.  Germ-oil  meal. — In  a  feeding  trial  with  4  cows  at  the  Ver- 
mont Station,2  Hills  compared  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  germ-oil 
meal  and  wheat  bran  with  one  composed  of  1  part  cotton-seed  meal, 
1  part  linseed  meal,  and  2  parts  wheat  bran.     In  a  second  trial  the 
germ-oil  meal  and  bran  mixture  was  compared  with  ground  oats. 
The  roughage  consisted  of  mixed  hay  and  corn  silage.    In  both  trials 
the  returns  were  in  favor  of  the  germ-oil  meal.  (158) 

639.  Oil  cakes  v.  grain.— The  Copenhagen    (Denmark)    Station' 
compared  the  feeding  value  of  a  mixture  of  ground  barley  and  oats 
with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  palm-nut,  rape-seed,  and 
sunflower-seed  cake  fed  to  240  cows  on  several  farms.    In  each  series 
of  trials  3  lots  of  cows  were  fed  as  follows:     Lot  I,  three-fourths 
grain  mixture,  one-fourth  oil  cake;  Lot  II,  one-half  grain  mixture, 
one-half   oil   cake;    and  Lot   III,   one-fourth   grain   mixture,   three- 
fourths  oil  cake. 

Comparative  feeding  value  of  oil  cake  and  mixed  grains. 


Lot  I, 
%  grain 
%  oil  cake 

ILot  II, 
%  grain 
%  oil  cake 

Lot  III, 
%offcake 

Average  daily  milk  yield,  Ibs. 

21.7 

22  9 

23  4 

Average  per  ct.  of  milk  solids           

11.9 

11.9 

11.8 

Average  per  ct.  of  fat  

3.2 

3.2 

3.2 

The  table  shows  a  decided  increase  in  milk  flow  following  the 
larger  use  of  oil  cake  in  the  ration.  It  was  calculated  that  for  each 
100  Ibs.  of  oil  cake  substituted  for  the  same  amount  of  mixed  grains 
there  was  a  gain  of  66  Ibs.  of  milk,  provided  the  oil  cake  did  not 
constitute  more  than  half  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration.  Feed- 
ing oil  cake  to  this  extent  in  the  ration  therefore  proved  economical. 
European  dairymen  wisely  use  the  various  forms  of  oil  cakes  (oil 
meals)  in  the  rations  for  their  cows.  All  the  vast  quantity  of  cot- 
ton-seed and  linseed  cake  now  going  abroad  should  find  use  on  Amer- 
ican farms.  (536-9) 

640.  Linseed  meal  v.  cotton-seed  meal. — At  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion4 Waters  and  Hess  compared  old-process  linseed  meal  with  cot- 
ton-seed meal.  Nine  cows  were  used,  the  ration  at  first  consisting  of 


Ept.  1904. 


2Rpt.  1901. 


3  Rpt.  1892. 


Ept.  1895. 


400 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


cotton-seed  meal,  wheat  meal,  and  corn  stover  fed  without  limit.  Later 
linseed  meal  was  substituted  for  the  cotton-seed  meal : 

Linseed  meal  compared  with  cotton-seed  meal. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

IMilk 

Fat 

Lot  I 

Linseed  meal,  6.0  Ibs. 
Chopped  wheat,  6.0  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5.3  Ibs. 
Chopped  wheat,  6  .  7  Ibs. 

Corn  stover,  9.3  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
15.1 

16.2 

Lbs. 
0.78 

0.77 

Corn  stover,  9.3  Ibs. 

The  cows  receiving  the  cotton-seed  meal  produced  somewhat  more 
milk  but  no  more  fat  than  those  getting  linseed  meal.  Hills  of  the 
Vermont  Station1  found  that  cotton-seed  meal  seemed  to  possess  a 
small  tho  measurable  advantage  over  linseed  meal  for  dairy  cows. 
In  view  of  these  findings  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  linseed  meal 
is  slightly  less  valuable  than  cotton-seed  meal.  Linseed  meal  tends 
to  produce  a  soft  butter  and  therefore  may  sometimes  be  advan- 
tageously fed  in  rations  which  would  otherwise  produce  a  tallowy 
butter.  (200) 

641.  Cotton-seed  meal. — At  the  South  Carolina  Station2  Michels 
and  Burgess  fed  21  cows  for  3  alternate  periods  averaging  27  days 
each  on  the  rations  shown  below.  Both  lots  received  all  the  corn 
silage  they  would  consume.  In  the  second  period  5.1  Ibs.  of  cotton- 
seed meal  formed  the  sole  concentrate,  while  in  the  first  and  third 
periods  3.4  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  replaced  1.7  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Station3  Lane  fed  4  cows  for  66  days  on  either 
cotton-seed  meal  or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  wheat  bran  and  dried 
brewers  grains.  The  results  of  both  trials  are  shown  in  the  table  on 
the  next  page. 

From  the  South  Carolina  trial  we  learn  that  when  1.7  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  was  replaced  by  3.4  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  the  yield 
of  milk  and  fat  was  slightly  decreased.  In  the  New  Jersey  trial, 
where  corn  silage  and  corn  stover  formed  the  roughage,  4.5  Ibs.  of 
cotton-seed  meal  did  not  prove  quite  equal  to  10  Ibs.  of  a  mixture 
of  wheat  bran  and  dried  brewers'  grains.  Michels  concludes  that 
1  lb.  of  cotton-seed  meal  is  equal  to  2  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  for  milk 


1  Rpt.  1907. 


2  Bui.  117. 


Ept.  1903. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


401 


production,  while  Moore  of  the  Mississippi  Station1  holds  that  1  Ib. 
of  cotton-seed  meal  is  only  equal  to  1.5  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran. 

Cotton-seed  meal  compared  with  various  feeds. 


Average  ration 

"Average  daily! 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

South  Carolina  Station 
Lot  I 
Cotton-seed  meal,  5.1  Ibs.        Corn  silage, 
Lot  II 
Wheat  bran,  3.  4  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  3.4  Ibs.         Corn  silage, 

New  Jersey  Station 
Lot  I 
Cotton-seed  meal,  4.5  Ibs.         Corn  silage, 
Corn  stalks, 
Lot  11 
Wheat  bran,  5  Ibs.                    Corn  silage, 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  5  Ibs.    Corn  stalks, 

34.8  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
16.4 

15.9 

22.7 

23.9 

Lbs. 
0.71 

0.68 

0.96 
0.95 

32  1  Ibs. 

36  Ibs. 
6  Ibs. 

36  Ibs... 

6  Ibs. 

In  a  feeding  trial  with  24  cows  lasting  120  days  at  the  Virginia 
Station,2  Soule  and  Fain,  comparing  cotton-seed  meal  and  gluten 
meal,  found  that  the  relative  amount  of  digestible  crude  protein 
contained  in  these  feeds  was  a  fair  measure  of  their  feeding  value. 
At  the  Texas  Station,3  in  trials  with  18  cows  lasting  56  days,  Soule 
found  that  6  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  fed  daily  as  the  sole  concentrate 
proved  more  effective  and  gave  larger  profits  than  the  larger  allow- 
ance of  7  to  10  Ibs.  Moore  of  the  Mississippi  Station*  found  100  Ibs. 
of  cotton-seed  meal  equal  to  171  Ibs.  of  cotton  seed  in  feeding  value 
for  dairy  cows.  (190) 

642.  Cocoaimt  cake. — Hansen   of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Acad- 
emy, Germany,5  found  that  cocoanut  cake  and  the  residues  from  the 
manufacture  of  palm  oil  produced  practically  the  same  amount  of 
milk  as  wheat  bran,  but  increased  to  a  marked  extent  the  fat  con- 
tent of  the  milk.    Palmnut  cake  obtained  by  pressure  had  the  same 
influence  as  palmnut  meal  obtained  by  extraction.  (204) 

643.  Soybean  cake. — Gilchrist6  of  the  Armstrong  College,  Eng- 
land, found  soybean  cake  slightly  superior  to  cotton-seed  cake  for 
milk  production.     In  an  experiment  lasting  6  weeks,  Hansen  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Academy,   Germany,7   found  soybean   cake   and 


1  Bui.  70. 

2  Bui.  156. 

3  Bui.  47. 

4  Bui.  60. 
27 


5  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Expt.  Sta.  Eec.,  17,  p.  901. 
8  Mark  Lane  Express,  100, 1909,  p.  667. 
7  Deutsche  Land.  Presse,  36, 1909. 


402  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

linseed  cake  of  practically  equal  value  for  milk  production  when 
added  to  a  basal  ration  of  hay,  bran,  and  sugar-beet  chips.  Tho  a 
daily  allowance  of  4  to  7  Ibs.  of  soybean  cake  was  fed,  no  ill  effects 
resulted.  (201) 

Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station1  found  that  soybean  meal 
from  which  the  oil  had  been  extracted  did  not  modify  the  composi- 
tion of  the  milk  nor  exert  a  marked  influence  on  the  body  of  the 
butter.  The  feeding  of  soybean  oil  temporarily  increased  the  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  milk  and  produced  a  softer,  more  yielding 
butter.  (630) 

In  view  of  the  present  vast  importance  of  the  soybean  in  the 
Orient  and  its  rapidly  increasing  use  in  Europe  and  America,  these 
various  trials  are  significant  and  suggestive. 

644.  Wet  beet  pulp. — Wing  and  Anderson  of  the  Cornell  Station2 
found  that  cows  will  eat  50  to  100  Ibs.  of  fresh  beet  pulp  per  day 
in  addition  to  8  Ibs.  of  grain  and  6  to  12  Ibs.  of  hay.     The  dry  mat- 
ter in  wet  beet  pulp  proved  equal  to  the  dry  matter  in  corn  silage. 
The  milk-producing  value  of  beet  pulp  as  it  comes  from  the  factory 
is  about  one-half  that  of  corn  silage.    Beet  pulp  may  have  a  higher 
value  than  given  above  if  no  other  succulent  food  is  supplied.     The 
fermented  pulp  appears  to  be  more  palatable  and  satisfactory,  tho 
even  fresh  pulp  seems  to  stimulate  the  consumption  of  dry  rough- 
age.    There  are  occasional  reports  of  beet  pulp  tainting  the  milk. 
Buffum  and  Griffith  of  the  Colorado  Station3  found  2  Ibs.  of  fresh 
beet  pulp  equal  to  1  Ib.  of  sugar  beets  for  dairy  cows.  (309) 

645.  Dried  beet  pulp. — Billings  of  the  New  Jersey  Station4  fed 
2  lots  of  2  cows  each  alternately  for  two  15-day  periods  on  dried 
beet  pulp  and  corn  silage  with  other  feeds  as  given  below : 

Dried  beet  pulp  compared  with  corn  silage. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 

Dried  beet 
Mixed  hay. 
Lot  II 
Corn  silage, 
Mixed  hay, 

pulp,  9 
10  Ibs. 

45  Ibs. 
5  Ibs. 

Ibs. 
Rich  concentrates,  10.5  Ibs  

Hich  concentrates,  10  5  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
33.6 

30.2 

Lbs. 
1.39 

1.25 

It  will  be  seen  that,  where  9  Ibs.  of  dried  beet  pulp  and  5  Ibs. 
mixed  hay  replaced  45  Ibs.  of  corn  silage,  the  cows  gave  3.4  Ibs.,  or 

'Bpt.  1908.  2  Bui.  183.  3  Bui.  73.  *  Bui.  189. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


403 


11  per  ct.,  more  milk.  Woll  and  Humphrey  of  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion1 place  dried  beet  pulp  at  two-thirds  the  value  of  wheat 
l>ran.  (311,  755) 

646.  Dried  molasses-beet  pulp. — Billings  of  the  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion2 found  dried  molasses-beet  pulp  equal  in  feeding  value  to  dried 
beet  pulp  for  dairy  cows.     Dried  molasses-beet  pulp  proved  almost 
as  valuable  as  an  equal  weight  of  hominy  meal,  the  cows  eating  the 
dried  molasses-beet  pulp  with  more  eagerness  and  remaining  in  bet- 
ter health.     The  milk  from  cows  fed  on  dried  molasses-beet  pulp 
at  first  had  a  sweet  taste,  which  soon  passed  away.     Humphrey  and 
Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,3  when  feeding  3  Ibs.  of  dried  molasses- 
beet  pulp  against  2  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran,  found  that  12  per  ct.  more  milk 
was  produced  on  the  dried  molasses-beet  pulp   than  on  the  bran. 
Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station,4  on  substituting  2.7  Ibs.  of  dried  mo- 
lasses-beet pulp  for  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran,  secured  a  slightly 
greater  milk  flow.    '  *  Occasionally  a  cow  showed  some  looseness  of  the 
bowels,    due    apparently    to    the    feed,    but    nothing    serious    was 
noted."  (312,  755) 

647.  Dried  distillers'  grains.— Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Sta- 
tion-"'  compared  dried  distillers'   grains  with   gluten   feed  in  trials 
with  6  cows,  covering  2  alternate  periods  of  4  weeks  each.     The  ra- 
tion and  daily  returns  per  cow  are  given  in  the  table : 

Dried  distillers'  grains  compared  with  gluten  feed. 


Average 

ration 

Averagre  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  3.7  11 
Wheat  bran.  3.0  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Gluten  feed,  3.  7  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  3.0  Ibs. 

bs.  Blue  grass  hay,  10.7  Ibs. 
Ho  wen  hay,  10.7  Ibs. 

Blue  grass  hay,  10.6  Ibs. 
Ro  wen  hay,  10.7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

25.8 

24.3 

Lbs. 
1.23 

1.18 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  ration  containing  dried  distillers'  grains 
produced  1.5  Ibs.,  or  6  per  ct.,  more  milk  than  that  containing  the 
jrluten  feed.  Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station6  found  that  dried  dis- 
tillers' grains  produced  5  per  ct.  more  product  than  dried  brewers' 
grains.  A  mixture  of  1  part  wheat  bran  and  2  parts  dried  distillers' 
grains  produced  4  per  ct.  more  milk  and  fat  than  did  dried  distillers' 
grains  alone.  Dried  distillers'  grains  produced  one-eighth  more  milk 


lBpt.!905. 

»  Rpt.  1904. 


3  Rpt.  1905. 
*  Rpt.  1904. 


6  Bui.  94. 
0  Rpt.  1907. 


404 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  one-sixth  more  fat  than  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal 
and  bran.  Dried  distillers'  grains  and  cotton-seed  meal  proved 
equally  efficient,  but  the  latter  proved  more  economical.  Dried  dis- 
tillers' rye  grains  made  less  milk  and  butter  than  did  the  alcohol 
grains.  Armsby  and  Risser  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station1  found  that 
the  substitution  of  dried  distillers'  grains  for  an  equal  weight  of 
a  mixture  of  3  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  2.5  Ibs.  of  corn  meal 
caused  a  slight  increase  in  the  milk  yield.  The  butter  from  the  dis- 
tillers'-grains  ration  was  not  quite  as  high  in  quality  as  that  from 
the  cotton-seed  meal  ration.  On  the  other  hand,  Billings  of  the  New 
Jersey  Station2  reports  that  the  butter  from  cows  fed  dried  dis- 
tillers' grains  was  firm,  of  good  flavor  and  texture,  and  very  market- 
able. (317) 

648.  Dried  brewers'  grains. — At  the  Massachusetts  Station3  Lind- 
sey  compared  dried  brewers'  grains  with  wheat  bran  for  cows.  Seven 
cows,  divided  into  2  lots,  were  fed  in  2  alternate  periods  covering 
4  weeks  each,  the  ration  and  daily  returns  being  as  follows : 

Dried  "brewers'  grains  compared  with  wheat  bran. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 

yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Dried  brewers' 
Gluten  feed,  3. 

grains,  4.  3  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  26.3  Ibs. 
Blue-grass  hay,  12.1  Ibs.  _ 

21.4 

1.1 

Lot  11 

Wheat  bran,  4.4  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  26.2  Ibs. 

Gluten  feed,  3. 

Olbs. 

Blue-grass  hay,  12.6  Ibs.  . 

20.8 

1.1 

The  results  show  dried  brewers'  grains  somewhat  superior  to  wheat 
bran  for  milk  production.  Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station4  found 
dried  brewers'  grains  and  wheat  bran  equal  in  feeding  value  to  a 
mixture  of  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  and  wheat  bran.  Hayward 
and  Weld  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station5  found  dried  brewers'  grains 
equal  to  buckwheat  middlings.  (175) 

649.  Malt  sprouts. — Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station6  fed 
malt  sprouts  against  gluten  feed  to  cows  getting  a  basal  ration  com- 
posed of  10  Ibs.  of  Kentucky  blue-grass  hay,  10.4  Ibs.  rowen  hay, 
2  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  and  1  Ib.  corn  meal.  The  additional  concentrates 
fed  appear  in  the  table  together  with  the  daily  yield  of  milk  and  fat. 

It  will  be  seen  that  2  Ibs.  of  malt  sprouts  were  hardly  equal  to 
1.5  Ibs.  of  gluten  feed.  Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station7  found  that 


1  Bui.  73. 
*  Ept.  1907. 


3  Bui.  94. 
•  Bpt  1903. 


5  Bui.  41. 

6  Bui.  94. 


'Ept.  1907. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


405 


malt  sprouts  were  not  relished  by  cows,  some  refusing  them  whether 
dry  or  soaked.  When  fed  against  cotton-seed  meal  and  linseed  meal, 
the  cows  took  less  food  and  their  milk  fell  off  one-tenth.  When  fed 
against  ground  oats,  the  cows  ate  9  per  ct.  less  food  and  their  milk 
fell  off  4  per  ct.  Since  malt  sprouts  are  not  relished  by  cows,  not 
over  2  Ibs.  should  be  fed  at  one  time.  Lindsey  states  that  they 
may  form  one-third  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration,  and  at  pre- 
vailing prices  to  this  limited  extent  they  are  an  economical  nutri- 
ent. (176) 

Malt  sprouts  compared  with  gluten  meal. 


Average  ration 


Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 


Milk 


Fat 


Lot  1 

Malt  sprouts,  2.0  Ibs. 

Gluten  feed,  1.5  Ibs.    Basal  ration 
Lot  11 

Gluten  feed,  3.0  Ibs.    Basal  ration 


Lbs. 

18.1 

18.2 


Lbs. 

0.89 
0.91 


650.  Cereal  by-products  v.  pure  grains. — To  determine  whether 
the  digestible  matter  in  such  by-products  as  dried  brewers'  grains, 
malt  sprouts,  and  gluten  feed  are  as  valuable  as  the  digestible  matter 
of  the  pure  grains,  Jordan  and  Jenter  of  the  New  York  (Geneva) 
Station1  fed  the  following  rations: 


Ration  No.  1 

Lbs. 

Ground  oats 5 

Ground  peas 6 

Timothy  hay 5 

Corn  silage 40 


Ration  No.  2  * 

Lbs. 

Malt  sprouts 2 

Dried  brewers'  grains  __  3 

Gluten  feed 3 

Timothy  hay 15 

Corn  silage 25 


Each  ration  was  fed  to  5  cows  for  9  weeks  with  the  following  re- 
sults : 

Comparison  of  pure  grains  and  cereal  by-products  for  milk  production. 


Ration  No.  1 

Ration  No.  2 

Digestible 
matter 
eaten 

Milk 
solids 
produced 

Digestible 
matter 
eaten 

Milk 
solids 
produced 

Total,  5  cows  for  63  days 

Lbs. 
4,807.9 
15.3 

5.6 

Lbs. 
865.0 
2.7 

Lbs. 
4,435.8 
14.1 

5.2 

Lbs. 
861.5 
2.7 

Daily  average,  1  cow  _ 

Digestible  nutrients  fed  for  1  Ib. 
milk  solids 

Bui.  141. 


406  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

The  table  shows  that  the  ration  containing  malt  sprouts,  brewers' 
grains,  and  gluten  feed  was  rather  more  efficient  for  milk  production 
than  one  of  oats  and  peas,  containing  slightly  more  digestible  matter. 

651.  Flesh  meal,  fish  scrap. — In  a  trial  by  Schrodt  and  Peters,1 
bran  and  rape  cake  were  gradually  replaced  by  equal  quantities  of 
flesh  meal  until  the  allowance  of  the  latter  reached  2.2  Ibs.  per  head 
daily.     It  was  found  that  the  customary  shrinkage  in  live  weight 
when  in  full  milk  flow  did  not  occur,  and  there  was  an  increase  in 
the  total  quantity  of  milk  as  well  as  in  the  total  solids  and  fat.    Flesh 
meal  effected  a  saving  of  2  Ibs.  of  feed  per  head  daily,  and  the 
cows  learned  to  relish  it  highly.  (756) 

According  to  Kiihn,2  milk  and  butter  of  normal  quality  were 
produced  on  a  daily  allowance  of  2.3  Ibs.  of  fat-free  fish  scrap  sup- 
plied with  a  variety  of  other  feed,  no  deleterious  effects  result- 
ing.  (306) 

652.  Skim  milk.— Beach  and  Clark  of  the  Connecticut    (Storrs) 
Station3  found  that  when  sweet  separator  skim  milk  was  offered  to 
the  herd  of  24  cows,  only  4  would  drink  it,  even  tho  water  was  with- 
held as  long  as  48  hours  and  grain  was  mixed  with  the  milk.     Skim 
milk  was  substituted  for  half  the  grain  in  the  ration  at  the  rate  of  8 
Ibs.  of  milk  for  1  of  concenerates,  and  about  1  ton  of  milk  was  fed 
to  each  of  the  4  cows.     Feeding  the  skim  milk  caused  a  small  in- 
crease in  milk  flow  and  a  saving  of  grain,  which,  taken  together, 
gave  to  the  milk  so  fed  a  value  of  19  cents  per  cwt.,  which  is  less 
than  pigs  would  have  returned.  (302) 

653.  Whey.— At  the  Kiel  Dairy  Station4  Schrodt  fed  cows  a  ra- 
tion composed  of  11  Ibs.  clover  hay,  5.5  Ibs.  barley  straw,  10  Ibs. 
mangels,  5.5  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  and  2.2  Ibs.  palmnut  meal.    During  one 
period  11  Ibs.  of  sweet  whey  was  fed,  and  during  another  an  allow- 
ance of  22  Ibs.     The  whey  had  a  favorable  influence  on  the  quantity 
of  milk  yielded,  and  no  deleterious  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  but- 
ter. (304) 

III.  SILAGE;  ROOTS;  SOILAGE. 

654.  Corn  silage  v.  corn  fodder. — Voorhees  and  Lane  of  the  New 
Jersey  Station5  planted  a  15-acre  field  to  corn  in  rows  3.5  feet  wide, 
with  the  stalks  8  inches  apart  in  the  row.    When  the  ears  were  glaz- 

1  Fuh.  Landw.  Ztg.,  1892,  p.  836. 

2  Jahresber.  Agr.  Chemie,  1894,  p.  482. 

3  Ept.  1904. 

4  Landw.   Woehenbl.    Schl.   Hoi.,   1882,   p.   237;    Jahresber.   Agr.   Chemie,    1882, 
p.  441. 

5  Bui.  122. 


Teds  with  Feeding  Stuff*. 


407 


mg,  the  crop  from  12  acres,  averaging  11.25  tons  of  green  forage, 
was  run  thru  the  feed  cutter  and  placed  in  the  silo.  The  remaining 
3  acres  was  harvested  by  cutting  and  shocking.  After  curing  in  the 
field  for  a  month,  the  unhusked  fodder,  yielding  4.1  tons  per  acre, 
was  stored  in  the  barn.  The  cost  of  ensiling  the  crop  was  $11.22  per 
acre,  while  cutting,  shocking,  storing  the  unhusked  fodder  in  the 
barn,  and  later  running  it  thru  the  feed  cutter  cost  $10.31  per  acre. 
The  next  step  was  to  test  the  relative  merits  of  the  silage  and 
fodder.  Two  lots  of  4  cows  each  were  fed  silage  and  fodder  corn, 
respectively,  for  2  twelve-day  periods  as  shown  below,  the  rations 
being  reversed  at  the  close  of  the  first  feeding  period.  The  silage 
was  eaten  without  waste,  while  a  portion  of  the  fodder  corn  was  left 
uneaten.  Both  lots  of  cows  gained  in  weight  during  the  trial. 

Corn  silage  compared  with  corn  fodder. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk           Fat 

Lot  I 
Corn  silage,  44.0  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran,  4.6  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  3.4  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  1.  1  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,  1.  1  ibs.  

Lbs.           Lbs. 
23.7          0.90 

Lot  11 
Corn  fodder,  14.  3  Ibs. 

Concentrates  as  above  

21.0         0.90 

The  table  shows  that  the  silage-fed  cows  averaged  2.7  Ibs.,  or  12.8 
per  ct.,  more  milk  daily  than  those  on  dry  fodder  corn — a  convincing 
example  of  the  merits  of  corn  silage. 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station1  found  that  cows  fed  green  fodder 
corn  early  in  September  shrank  5  per  ct.  in  butter  yield,  while  others 
fed  corn  silage  pitted  the  previous  year  gained  8  per  ct.  (350) 

655.  Corn  silage  v.  hay. — At  the  Maine  Station2  Jordan  fed  cows 
first  with  good  hay,  later  with  hay  and  silage,  and  again  with  hay, 
all  getting  the  same  amount  of  concentrates.  The  yield  of  4  cows 
for  14-day  periods,  just  preceding  or  following  a  change  in  the  ra- 
tion, was  as  follows : 

When  fed  on  hay 1,212  pounds 

When  changed  to  silage  and  hay ._ 1,297  pounds 

An  increase  of  85  Ibs.,  or  7  per  ct. 

When  fed  on  silage  and  hay ___  1,200  pounds 

When  changed  to  hay  _ 1,098  pounds 

A  decrease  of  102  Ibs.,  or  8  per  ct. 


Ept.  1907. 


2  Ept.  1889. 


408 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


We  observe  that  when  the  cows  were  changed  from  good  hay  to 
silage  and  hay  their  milk  flow  increased  7  per  ct.,  and  when  changed 
back  it  decreased  8  per  ct.  In  this  trial  440  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  proved 
somewhat  superior  to  100  Ibs.  of  good  hay  (mostly  timothy).  Jordan 
holds  that  when  good  timothy  hay  is  worth  $10  per  ton,  average  corn 
silage  is  worth  $2.62  per  ton. 

In  an  extended  trial  with  6  cows  Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station1 
found  that  when  3.5  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  was  substituted  for  1  Ib.  of 
mixed  timothy,  red  top,  and  clover  hay,  the  milk  yield  was  increased 
7  per  ct.  Eating  hay  at  $10  and  silage  at  $3  per  ton,  there  was  a 
gain  of  1.66  cents  daily  per  cow  by  replacing  one- third  of  the  hay 
with  silage.  From  available  data  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  for  dairy 
cows  100  Ibs.  of  good  mixed  hay  is  worth  as  much  as  400  to  450  Ibs. 
of  average  corn  silage. 

656.  Corn  silage  v.  sugar  beets. — Haecker  of  the  Nebraska  Sta- 
tion2 compared  corn  silage  and  sugar  beets  with  2  lots  of  5  cows 
each,  fed  for  a  period  of  5  weeks  with  the  results  shown  below.  The 
concentrates  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  oats,  corn,  and  wheat  bran. 

Corn  silage  compared  with  sugar  beets. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk            Fat 

Lot  I 
Corn  .silage,  30  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs. 

Concentrates,  6  10  Ibs. 

Lbs.           Lbs. 
17.4          0.84 

Lot  II 
Sugar  beets,  30  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs. 

Concentrates,  6-10  Ibs. 

16.1         0.78 

It  is  shown  that  where  30  Ibs.  of  corn  silage  was  fed  against  an 
equal  weight  of  sugar  beets,  the  small  difference  in  yield  of  milk 
and  fat  was  in  favor  of  the  silage.  (352,  563) 

657.  Apple-pomace  silage. — Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station3  fed  as 
much  apple-pomace  silage  as  the  cows  would  consume  in  addition  to 
8  Ibs.  of  grain  and  10  to  12  Ibs.  of  hay.  On  apple-pomace  silage  the 
cows  consumed  somewhat  more  dry  matter  than  those  getting  corn 
silage,  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  milk  flow.  The  apple-pomace 
silage  had  no  deleterious  influence  on  the  cows  or  their  milk.  Lind- 
sey  of  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Station*  holds  that  apple-pomace 
milage  is  equal  to  average  corn  silage  in  feeding  value.  (360) 


Ept.  1901. 


Bui.  76. 


Kpt.  1903. 


4  Ept.  1005. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


409 


658.  Mixed  silage  v.  heavy  concentrates.— At  the  Ohio  Station1 
Williams  fed  2  uniform  lots  of  4  cows  each  the  rations  reported  in 
the  table  during  4  months,  to  determine  whether  a  large  part  of  the 
concentrates  usually  supplied  could  not  be  replaced  by  silage  com- 
posed of  2  parts  soybeans,  1  part  cowpeas,  and  7.5  parts  of  rather 
watery  corn  silage.  The  2  rations  contained  practically  the  same 
amount  of  dry  matter  and  crude  protein. 

Feeding  mixed  silage  in  place  of  part  of  the  concentrates. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 
Silage,  58.0  Ibs. 
Mixed  hay,  6.8  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Stover,  4.7  Ibs. 
Mixed  hay,  6.5  Ibs. 

Oil  meal,  2.0  Ibs. 
Bran,  2  0  Ibs 

Lbs. 
19.6 

16.9 

Lbs. 
1.03 

0.80 

Oil  meal,  2.  5  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  5.0  Ibs. 
Bran,  6.0  Ibs.           _ 

It  is  seen  that  the  cows  fed  58.0  Ibs.  of  mixed  silage  with  4  Ibs. 
of  concentrates  yielded  more  milk  and  fat  than  those  receiving  13.5 
Ibs.  of  rich,  expensive  concentrates  and  no  silage.  Less  dry  matter 
was  consumed  by  the  silage-fed  cows  for  1  Ib.  of  fat  than  by  those 
getting  no  silage.  During  the  trial  the  fat  yield  of  the  silage-fed 
cows  increased  1.9  per  ct.,  while  that  of  the  others  shrank  14.2  per  ct. 
These  results  forcibly  illustrate  how  protein-rich  silage  may  aid  the 
dairyman  in  reducing  the  expense  of  producing  milk.  (707,  711) 

659.  Other  silage  studies. — As  a  result  of  feeding  trials  Hills  of 
the  Vermont  Station2  found  that:    Rye  silage  was  dryer  and  less 
readily  eaten  than  corn  silage,  and  made  10  per  ct.  less  milk  and 
butter.    Cows  changed  from  corn  to  rye  silage  shrank  20  per  ct.  in 
milk,  while  on  changing  back  from  rye  to  corn  they  gained  2  per  ct. 
Good  corn  silage  gives  better  results  than  good  Hungarian  grass  hay 
or  silage.     Ensiled  peas,  vetch,  and  oats  keep  as  well  as  corn  silage, 
and  are  as  valuable  for  dairy  cows.   (360-1) 

660.  Roots.— The  Copenhagen  Station3  studied  the  value  of  roots 
for  milk  production  with  636  cows  for  3  years  on  various  farms.   The 
addition  of  40  Ibs.  of  mangels  or  50  Ibs.  of  turnips  to  an  ordinary 
ration  increased  the  milk  flow  by  as  much  as  1.8  to  2.9  Ibs.  daily,  the 
cows  gaining  somewhat  in  weight  and  the  consumption  of  straw  being 


Bui.  155. 


2  Ept.  1907. 


3  Rpt.  1890. 


410 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


lessened  0.6  to  2.1  Ibs.  daily.  One  pound  of  concentrates  in  the 
form  of  grain,  bran,  and  oil  cake  proved  equal  to  10  Ibs.  of  mangels. 
The  water  content  of  the  milk  was  not  materially  changed  by  feed- 
ing varying  quantities  of  roots.  Indeed  the  cows  eating  the  largest 
quantity  of  roots  gave  the  richest  milk.  These  extensive  experiments 
prove,  beyond  question,  that  the  milk  of  the  cow  cannot  be  watered 
by  feeding  roots.  (275-6) 

661.  Roots  v.  concentrates. — Friis  of  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark) 
Station1  conducted  feeding  trials  on  6  different  farms  with  4  lots  of 
10  to  12  cows  each  in  the  following  manner:  All  received  the  same 
basal  ration,  consisting  of  6.5  Ibs.  of  hay  and  10  Ibs.  of  straw.  The 
concentrates  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  barley,  oats,  and  rye  with 
cotton-seed  meal.  Each  cow  received  at  least  4.5  Ibs.  of  dry  matter 
in  the  form  of  mangels.  Three  Ibs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  was  withheld 
from  the  ration  of  Lot  III,  and  in  its  stead  sufficient  mangels  were 
supplied  to  furnish  3  Ibs.  of  dry  matter.  With  Lot  IV,  3  Ibs.  of 
cereal  grains  was  withheld  and  3  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  supplied  in 
mangels. 

Substituting  roots  in  part  for  grain  in  the  ration  for  dairy  cows. 


Concentrates  given 

Daily  yield 
of  milk 
per  cow 

Cereal 
grains 

Cotton- 
seed meal 

Dry  mat- 
ter in 
mangels 

Lot     I 

Lbs. 
7 
4 
4 

1 

Lbs. 
1.5 
4.5 
1.5 
4.5 

Lbs. 
4.5 
4.5 
7.5 
7.5 

Lbs. 
22.4 
23.7 
22.5 

24.2 

Lot    II 

Lot  III 

Lot  IV  _ 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  3  Ibs.  of  grain  or  cotton-seed  meal  re- 
placed an  equal  amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  form  of  mangels,  there 
was  an  increase  rather  than  a  decrease  in  the  milk  flow.  From  this 
and  other  feeding  trials  the  conclusion  was  drawn  that  for  cows  1  Ib. 
of  dry  matter  in  roots  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  1  Ib.  of  Indian 
corn,  mixed  grains — barley,  oats,  and  rye — or  0.75  Ib.  of  cotton-seed 
meal. 

Wing  and  Savage  of  the  Cornell  Station,2  from  carefully  conducted 
experiments  with  dairy  cows,  conclude: 

That  1  Ib.  of  dry  matter  in  mangels  is  slightly  superior  to  1  Ib.  of 
drv  matter  in  corn  silaere. 


1  Expt.  Sta.  Rec.,  14, 1903,  p.  801;  Landokon.  Forsog  (Copenhagen),  1902,  p.  30. 

2  Bui.  268. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs.  411 

That  1  Ib.  of  dry  matter  in  mangels  is  equal  to  1  Ib.  of  dry  matter 
in  grain,  and  that  mangels  may  replace  half  the  grain  ordinarily  fed 
in  a  ration  composed  of  grain,  mixed  hay,  and  silage. 

The  Cornell  studies  led  to  the  conclusion  that,  when  concentrates 
cost  $30  per  ton,  mangels  are  an  economical  feed  for  dairy  cows  when 
they  can  be  produced  and  stored  for  $4  per  ton, — a  high  price  for 
this  easily-grown  crop.  (351-3) 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station,1  in  a  trial  with  8  cows  fed  16  weeks, 
found  that  the  dry  matter  in  corn  silage  was  equal  to  the  same  weight 
of  dry  matter  in  beets  or  carrots. 

In  a  trial  with  6  cows  for  12  weeks,  Hills  found  the  dry  matter  of 
corn  silage  superior  to  that  in  potatoes.  The  cows  ate  the  potatoes 
readily,  but  they  made  neither  more  nor  better  milk.  At  15"  cents  a 
bushel  the  potatoes  were  more  costly  than  corn  silage.  The  butter 
from  the  potato-fed  cows  was  unsatisfactory. 

662.  Soilage  v.  silage. — For  7  years  the  New  Jersey  Station2  fed 
soilage  from  May  1st  to  November  1st,  and  silage  the  other  6  months. 
The  cows  freshened  quite  uniformly  thruout  the  year.     The  yield  of 
milk  and  fat  by  the  23  cows  in  the  herd  for  each  6-months  period  is 
shown  below : 

Average  yield  per  cow 
Milk  Fat 

Lot   I,  Soilage,  May  Ist-Nov.  1st 3,402  Ibs.         146.8  Ibs. 

Lot  II,  Silage,  Nov.  Ist-May  1st. 3,024  Ibs.         132.4  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  the  cows  getting  soilage  returned  about  13  per  ct. 
more  milk  than  those  fed  silage.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  soilage  was 
fed  in  summer  and  silage  in  winter,  we  may  regard  the  two  means  of 
maintaining  cows  as  practically  equal  so  far  as  the  yield  of  milk  and 
fat  are  concerned.  Such  being  the  case,  the  dairyman  seeking  to 
maintain  his  herd  economically,  while  at  the  same  time  securing  the 
largest  possible  returns,  has  the  choice  of  two  practical  systems  of 
supplying  forage. 

663.  Soilage  v.  pasturage. — During    several    years    at    the    Utah 
Station3  Linfield  compared  pasture  with  soilage.     A  tract  on  which 
orchard  grass,  blue  grass,  and  alfalfa  were  grown  was  divided  so  that 
one  portion  could  be  pastured  while  the  other  furnished  soilage.  Dur- 
ing one  year  soilage  crops  were  especially  grown,  in  which  case  they 
consisted  of  alfalfa,  vetch,  peas,  and  oats.    Both  tracts  were  irrigated 
so  that  maximum  yields  were  possible.    No  other  food  than  the  prod- 

1907.  2  Ept.  1903.  8  Bui.  68. 


412 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


net  of  an  acre  in  each  case  was  supplied.    The  results  of  the  trial  are 
thus  summarized  by  Linfield: 

Returns  from  1  acre  of— 

Soilage         Pasturage 

(Av.  3  yrs.)     (Av.  4  yrs.) 

Two  cows  were  kept,  days 108  102 

They  produced  in  milk,  Ibs. 3,055  4,447 

They  produced  in  butter  fat,  Ibs 142.9  189.8 

They  gained  or  lost  in  weight,  Ibs _  +105  -66 

It  is  shown  that  with  irrigation  under  Utah  conditions  pasturage 
was  more  economical  than  soilage. 

IV.  THE  VARIOUS  DRY  ROUGHAGES. 

664.  Cured  fodder  corn  v.  timothy  hay.— At  the  Pennsylvania  Sta- 
tion1 Hunt  and  Caldwell  fed  cured  fodder  corn  (corn  grown  for  the 
forage)  against  timothy  hay  to  2  lots,  each  of  4  cows,  for  45  days, 
with  the  results  shown  in  the  table: 

Fodder  corn  compared  with  timothy  hay. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Gain  or 
loss  in 
weight 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 
Fodder  corn, 

Lot  II 
Timothy  hay, 

22.8  Ibs.    Ground  oats, 
Wheat  bran, 

22.3  Ibs.    Ground  oats, 
Wheat  bran, 

3  Ibs. 
3  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
16.2 

17.1 

Lbs. 
0.66 

0.64 

Lbs. 
-23 

+84 

3  Ibs. 
3  Ibs. 

The  cows  fed  hay  gained  in  weight,  while  those  on  fodder  corn 
lost.  Taking  all  the  facts  into  consideration,  the  fodder  corn  proved 
almost  as  valuable  as  the  same  weight  of  timothy  hay.  Two  tons  of 
timothy  hay  per  acre  is  a  good  return,  while  the  yield  of  fodder  corn 
used  in  this  trial  was  nearly  4.5  tons  per  acre,  or  over  twice  that  of 
the  timothy  hay.  The  high  value  of  fodder  corn  for  the  dairy  cow 
is  thus  apparent.  (217,  224) 

665.  Corn  stover  v.  mixed  and  clover  hay. — At  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion2 the  author  compared  corn  stover  (husked  shocked  corn  forage) 
with  hay  for  dairy  cows  under  the  following  conditions: 

A  crop  of  yellow  dent  corn  yielding  4,490  Ibs.  of  cured  stalks  and 
4,941  Ibs.  of  ear  corn  per  acre  was  cut  and  shocked  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. After  drying,  the  corn  was  husked  and  the  stalks  reserved  for 


1  Ept.  1892. 


Ept.  1884. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs.  413 

feeding.  The  hay  fed  in  the  first  trial  consisted  of  one-third  clover 
and  two-thirds  timothy,  and  in  the  second  early-cut  medium  red 
clover  was  used.  Two  good  fresh  cows  were  fed  hay,  while  2  others 
were  fed  the  uncut  stover  mentioned  above.  After  3  weeks  the  feeds 
were  reversed  and  the  trial  repeated. 

In  the  first  trial  it  was  found  that  when  supplemented  by  280  Ibs. 
of  corn  meal  and  392  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran — 

2,374  Ibs.  of  corn  stover  returned  1,121  Ibs.  of  milk,  making  57  Ibs.  of 
butter. 

755  Ibs.  of  mixed  hay  returned  1, 064  Ibs.  of  milk,  making  56  Ibs.  of  butter. 

Since  the  returns  are  practically  equal,  we  may  conclude  that  1  ton 
of  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay  is  worth  3  tons  of  corn  stover,  or 
husked  corn  fodder,  fed  uncut  as  described.  (501) 

In  the  second  trial,  when  corn  stover  was  compared  with  clover 
hay,  grain  being  fed  as  before,  it  was  found  that — 

1,867  Ibs.  of  corn  stover  returned  1,079  Ibs.  of  milk,  Jmaking  52  Ibs.  of 
butter. 

643  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  returned  1, 059  Ibs.  of  milk,  making  55  Ibs.  of  butter. 

In  this  trial  1  ton  of  clover  hay  was  found  to  be  somewhat  superior 
to  3  tons  of  uncut  corn  stover.  Thirty- four  per  ct.  of  the  coarse  uncut 
stover  was  left  uneaten  in  these  trials.  This  shows  the  heavy  loss 
incident  to  feeding  dry  corn  forage,  which  if  ensiled  would  be  wholly 
consumed.  (218,  254) 

666.  Meadow  fox-tail  hay. — In  a  feeding  trial  at  the  Mustiala 
(Finland)   Agricultural  College,1  cows  were  fed  from  12  to  18  Ibs. 
of  meadow  fox-tail  (Alopecurus)  hay  or  timothy  hay  daily,  together 
with  oat  straw  without  limit,  both  lots  receiving  the  same  amount  of 
concentrates  and  roots.     The  meadow  fox-tail  hay  produced  5.5  per 
ct.  more  milk  than  the  timothy  hay. 

667.  Upland  prairie  v.  timothy  hay. — Haecker  of  the  Minnesota 
Station2  compared  native  upland  prairie  hay  of  excellent  quality  with 
medium  fine,  early-cut  timothy  hay  properly  cured.     Sixteen  cows 
were  used  during  the  trial  lasting  77  days,  the  same  quantity  of  grain 
and  hay  being  supplied  in  each  case.     The  returns  in  milk  and  fat 
were  practically  the  same  from  the  two  kinds  of  hay.     Later  this 
study3  was  repeated  with  the  same  results.     It  is  fair,  then,  to  hold 
that  good  upland  prairie  hay,  like  that  of  the  Minnesota  region,  is 
equal  to  timothy  hay  with  the  dairy  cow. 

1  Biet.  1893.  2  Bui.  35.  3  Bui.  67. 


414:  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

668.  Johnson-grass  hay. — Moore  of  the  Mississippi  Station1  found 
Johnson-grass  hay  nearly  as  valuable  as  cowpea  hay  when  corn  silage, 
cotton-seed  meal,  and  wheat  bran  were  the  other  feeds  given.     Had 
less  rich  and  palatable  concentrates  been  fed,  Johnson-grass  hay  would 
probably  have  shown  but  half  to  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the  cow- 
pea  hay.    (233) 

669.  Bermuda  hay. — Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station,2  studying 
the  returns  from  a  herd  of  30  to  60  cows  during  3  years,  concludes 
that  Bermuda  hay  equals  timothy  hay  for  milk  and  butter  produc- 
tion.  (232) 

670.  Salt-marsh  hay. — Lindsey  and  Jones  of  the  Massachusetts 
(Hatch)   Station3  found  in  trials  with  12  cows,  covering  7  months, 
that  where  10  Ibs.  of  various  kinds  of  salt-marsh  hay  was  given  daily 
in  place  of  an  equal  wreight  of  English  hay,  the  milk  flow  was  de- 
creased from  2  to  5  per  ct.     They  state:     "When  fed  directly  after 
milking,  no  objectionable  flavor  could  be  detected  in  the  milk  or  but- 
ter.    It  is  possible  that  if  these  hays  were  cut  very  soon  after  being 
covered  by  the  tide  they  would  then  produce  a  disagreeable  flavor." 

671.  Cotton-seed   hulls. — Moore    of   the    Mississippi   Station,4   in 
feeding  trials  with  dairy  cows,  found  100  Ibs.  of  well  cleaned  cotton- 
seed hulls  equal  to  67  Ibs.  of  prime  Johnson-grass  hay.     Soule  of  the 
Texas  Station5  found  cotton-seed  hulls  nearly  equal  to  sorghum  hay 
for  cows.    Nourse  of  the  Virginia  Station6  considers  cotton-seed  hulls 
about  equal  to  oat  straw  in  feeding  value.   Conner  of  the  South  Caro- 
lina Station7  found  cotton-seed  hulls  decidedly  inferior  to  corn  stover 
in  feeding  value.     Cotton-seed  hulls  furnish  a  roughage  of  fair  value 
in  carbohydrates,  but  are  very  deficient  in  crude  protein  (193) 

672.  Alfalfa  hay  and  fodder  corn  v.  alfalfa  hay. — During  4  sea- 
sons at  the  Utah  Station8  Linfield  fed  2  lots  of  cows  as  shown  below, 
the  concentrates  supplied  consisting  of  half  wheat  bran  and  half 
wheat,  barley,  or  corn  meal: 

Alfalfa  hay  and  fodder  corn  compared  with  alfalfa  hay. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  11 
Fodder  corn,  8 
Lot  JJ 
Alfalfa  hay,  21 

.5  Ibs. 
.  7  Ibs.    Concentrates, 

.5  Ibs.    Concentrates, 

6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

16.9 
17.1 

Lbs. 

0.75 
0.74 

6  Ibs. 

1  Bui.  70. 
2  Rpt.  1895. 

3  Bui.  50. 
4  Ept.  1903. 

5  Bui.  47.                          7  Bui.  66. 
6  Bui.  148.                       s  Bui.  68. 

Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


415 


It  is  seen  that  when  fodder  corn  replaced  nearly  one-half  the  alfalfa 
hay,  about  as  good  returns  were  secured  as  when  alfalfa  hay  alone 
constituted  the  roughage.  These  trials  show  that  where  corn  and 
alfalfa  flourish,  both  should  be  used  rather  than  alfalfa  alone.  (245) 

673.  Alfalfa  meal  v.  wheat  bran. — Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station,1 
on  substituting  alfalfa  meal  (ground  alfalfa  hay)  for  the  same  weight 
of  wheat  bran,  found  a  loss  of  from  3  to  6  per  ct.  in  milk  flow  caused 
thereby,  and  Mairs  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station2  found  a  loss  of  about 
5  per  ct.  by  such  substitution.  (248) 

674.  Soybean,  cowpea,  and  Japan  clover  hay. — At  the  Tennessee 
Station3  Price  compared  soybean  straw  and  ground  soybeans,  com- 
bined in  the  same  proportion  as  in  soybean  hay,  with  alfalfa  hay  in 
a  trial  with  2  lots  of  4  cows  each.     The  returns  from  rations  alter- 
nately fed  during  3  periods  of  30  days  each  are  shown  below: 

Soybean  hay  v.  alfalfa  hay. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

JjOtl 

Soybean  straw, 
Silage,  25.0  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  12. 
Silage,  24.6  Ibs. 

7.1  Ibs.    Ground  soybeans,  3 
Corn-and-cob  meal, 

3  Ibs.        Corn-and-cob  meal, 

.7  Ibs. 
3.7  Ibs.  

Lbs. 
17.2 

15.1 

Lbs. 
0.98 

0.80 

3.7  Ibs. 

The  table  shows  that  the  soybean  ration  proved  more  effective  than 
the  alfalfa-hay  ration.  Price  concludes:  "A  ton  of  soybean  hay 
that  can  be  produced  (in  Tennessee)  for  $7  has  a  higher  feeding 
value  than  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay." 

Wing  of  the  Georgia  Station4  found  that  cowpea  hay  produced  30 
per  ct.  more  milk  than  cotton-seed  hulls,  a  reasonable  result  when  the 
composition  of  the  two  is  considered. 

Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station5  reports  Japan  clover  hay  prefer- 
able to  timothy  hay.  (201) 

V.  SUBSTITUTING  PROTEIN-RICH  ROUGHAGES  FOR  ALL  OR  PART  OF  THE 
EXPENSIVE  CONCENTRATES  OF  THE  RATION. 

675.  Alfalfa  hay. — At  the  New  Jersey  Station6  Billings  alter- 
nately fed  2  lots  of  4  cows  each  for  two  30-day  periods  as  follows: 
One  lot  received  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  7  Ibs.  corn  stover,  and  11  Ibs.  of 


1  Rpt.  1906. 

2  Bui.  80. 


3  Bui.  80. 

4  Bui.  49. 


5  Ept.  1891. 
•Bills.  190.204. 


416 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


protein-rich  concentrates,  consisting  of  wheat  bran,  dried  brewers' 
grains,  and  cotton-seed  meal.  The  other  lot  was  given  35  Ibs.  corn 
silage,  no  corn  stover,  and  2.5  Ibs.  cotton-seed  meal,  together  with  14 
Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  in  place  of  the  rest  of  the  rich  concentrates  given 
to  the  first  lot 

In  the  second  trial  2  lots  of  4  cows  each  were  fed  for  two  60-day 
periods,  one  lot  getting  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6.8  Ibs.  corn  stover,  and  a 
little  over  9  Ibs.  of  rich  concentrates,  and  the  other  35  Ibs.  corn  silage, 
17.5  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  no  concentrates.  In  both  trials  the  feed- 
ing was  reversed  so  that  both  lots  were  on  both  sides  of  the  test. 

Substituting  alfalfa  hay  for  part  or  all  of  the  rich  concentrates  in  the 

ration. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  I 

Corn  stover,    7  .  0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  40.0  Ibs. 

Lot  II 
Alfalfa  hay,  14.0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  35.0  Ibs. 

Lot  I 
Corn  stover,    6.8  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  40.0  Ibs. 

°Alfalfahay,  17.  5  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  35.0  Ibs. 

First  trial 

Wheat  bran,  4.5  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  4.5  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  2.0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

27.3 
26.3 

24.6 
20.4 

Lbs. 

1.13 

1.05 

1.07 

0.88 

Cotton-seed  meal,  2.5  Ibs. 

Second  trial 

Dried  distillers'  grains,  4.6  Ibs. 
Wheat  bran,  4.2  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.5  Ib  

!No  concentrates 

Studying  the  first  trial  we  note  that  where  alfalfa  hay  replaced 
all  the  corn  stover,  some  of  the  silage,  and  nearly  all  of  the  rich  con- 
centrates, there  was  a  shrinkage  of  only  1  Ib.  of  milk  per  cow  daily. 

The  second  trial  was  more  severe,  since  17.5  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  re- 
placed 5  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6.8  Ibs.  corn  stover,  and  over  9  Ibs.  of  rich 
concentrates.  In  this  trial  each  cow  getting  the  heavy  alfalfa-hay  al- 
lowance and  no  concentrates  gave  4.2  Ibs.  less  milk  per  day  than 
those  given  more  corn  silage,  some  corn  stover,  and  over  9  Ibs.  of  rich 
concentrates.  In  both  trials  alfalfa  hay  shows  a  surprising  feed 
value. 

In  a  trial  lasting  12  weeks  with  8  cows  at  the  New  Mexico  Station1 
Vernon  found  that  246  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  alone,  or  202  Ibs.  of  alfalfa 


.  1904. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs. 


417 


hay  and  50  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran,  produced  100  Ibs.  of  milk.  The  cows 
produced  more  milk  on  the  bran-alfalfa  ration,  but  the  increase  was 
dearly  purchased.  The  findings  of  Soule  of  the  Tennessee  Station1 
confirm  the  above  results. 

Hansen  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Academy,  Germany,2  on  feeding 
40  cows  140  days,  found  that  800  to  933  Ibs.  of  green  alfalfa  equaled 
100  Ibs.  of  sunflower  seed  cake  in  feeding  value,  with  cows  pastured 
a  portion  of  the  day  or  wholly  confined  to  the  stable.  (709) 

676.  Crimson  clover  hay. — At  the  New  Jersey  Station3  Lane  fed 
2  lots,  each  of  2  cows,  for  2  periods  of  12  days  each,  alternately  on 
the  rations  shown  below: 

Crimson  clover  hay  fed  against  purchased  protein. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk           Fat 

Lot  I 
Crimson  clover  hay, 
Corn  silage,  30.0  Ibs. 

16.4  Ibs. 
INo  concentrates  

Lbs.           Lbs. 
20.1          0.85 

Lot  II 
Mixed  hay,     5.0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  30.0  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran,  6  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  5  Ibs. 

23.8         1.00 

The  table  shows  that  the  yield  of  milk  was  3.7  Ibs.  and  of  fat  0.15 
Ib.  less  on  the  crimson  clover  ration  than  on  that  containing  pur- 
chased concentrates.  Using  the  home-grown  ration,  however,  effected 
a  saving  of  18.3  cents  in  the  cost  of  producing  100  Ibs.  of  milk.  (257) 

677.  Crimson  clover  hay  and  cowpea  silage. — Lane*  also  compared 
a  ration  of  crimson  clover  hay,  cowpea  silage,  and  corn-and-cob  meal 
with  one  in  which  the  crude  protein  was  largely  purchased.  The  fol- 
lowing rations  were  fed  alternately  for  2  periods  of  12  days  each  to 
2  lots  of  2  cows  each: 

Crimson  clover  hay  and  cowpea  silage  compared  with  purchased  protein. 


Average  ration 


Lot  I 

Crimson  clover  hay,  10  Ibs. 

Cowpea  silage,  36  Ibs.  Corn-and-cob  meal,  6.0  Ibs — 

Lot  II 

Mixed  hay,  5  Ibs.  Dried  brewers'  grains,  5.0  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  36  Ibs.  Cotton-seed  meal,  2.5  Ibs 


Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 


Milk 

Fat 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

24.8 

0.94 

24.6 

0.99 

1  Bui.  Vol.  XVII,  4. 
28 


2  Expt.  Sta.  Rec.,  20,  572.          3  Bui.  161.         « Loc.  cit. 


418 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  amount  of  milk  and  fat  produced  was  practically  the  same  for 
both  rations,  showing  the  high  value  of  crimson  clover  hay  and  cow- 
pea  silage  as  sources  of  protein  for  dairy  cows. 

678.  Cowpea  hay. — At  the  New  Jersey  Station1  Lane  alternately 
fed  2  lots  of  2  cows  each  rations  containing  either  cowpea  hay  or  rich 
purchased  concentrates  for  periods  of  15  days,  with  the  results  shown 
in  the  table: 

Cowpea  hay  compared  with  purchased  protein. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Pat 

Lot  I 
Cowpea  hay,  IT  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,   36  Ibs. 
Lot  II 
Corn  stover,    5  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  36  Ibs. 

No  concentrates 

Lbs. 
23.7 

25.7 

Lbs. 
0.92 

1.05 

Wheat  bran,  4  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  3  Ibs. 
Ootition-sfiBd  mfial,  2  Ibs 

Tho  2  Ibs.  more  milk  and  0.13  Ib.  more  fat  were  produced  by  each 
cow  daily  on  the  ration  containing  purchased  concentrates,  this  in- 
crease was  not  sufficient  to  offset  the  greater  cost  of  the  purchased 
feed.  (261) 

679.  Cowpea  hay  v.  wheat  bran. — At  the  Alabama  Station2  Dug- 
gar  fed  2  lots  of  3  cows  each  cotton-seed  hulls  and  a  basal  ration  of  2 
parts  cotton  seed  and  1  part  each  of  wheat  bran  and  cotton-seed  meal. 
In  addition  the  cows  in  Lot  I  received  cowpea  hay  and  those  in  Lot 
II  wheat  bran  with  the  results  shown  below: 

Cowpea  hay  compared  with  wheat  bran. 


Average  ration 


Average  d  aily 
yield  per  •  cow 


Milk 

Fat 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

17.3 

1.13 

16.0 

1.02 

Lot  I 

Cowpea  hay,   7 . 8  Ibs. 
Basal  ration,  9.6  Ibs.    Cotton-seed  hulls,  9.( 

Lotn 

Wheat  bran,  6.1  Ibs. 

Basal  ration,  9.6  Ibs.    Cotton-seed  hulls,  9.6  Ibs. 


In  this  trial  the  cows  getting  the  cowpea  hay  averaged  1.3  Ibs. 
more  milk  daily  than  those  fed  wheat  bran,  showing  that  where  there 
is  a  fair  supply  of  rich  concentrates  it  is  more  economical  to  com- 


1  Bui.  174. 


Bui.  123. 


Tests  with  Feeding  Stuffs.  419 

plete  the  ration  with  some  protein-rich  roughage,  like  cowpea  hay  or 
silage,  than  with  more  expensive  concentrates.  The  great  value  of 
cowpea  hay  to  the  dairy  interests  of  the  South  is  well  set  forth  in 
this  trial. 

680.  Hairy  vetch  hay. — Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station1  substi- 
tuted 6.6  Ibs.  of  hairy  vetch  hay  for  7  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran  for  short 
periods,  and  found  substantially  no  decrease  in  milk  flow.  (262) 

681.  Soybean  silage  and  alfalfa  hay. — At  the  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion2 Lane  fed  2  lots  of  2  cows  each  for  2  periods  of  15  days  alter- 
nately upon  the  rations  shown  below: 

Soybean  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  compared  with  purchased  protein. 


Average  ration 

Average  daily 
yield  per  cow 

Milk 

Pat 

First  ration 
Soybean  silage,  36 
Alfalfa  hay,  8  Ibs. 
Second  ration 
Corn  silage,  36  Ibs. 
Corn  stover,  6  Ibs. 

Ibs.    Corn  meal,  6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
27.2 

25.7 

Lbs. 
0.98 

0.98 

Wheat  bran,  4  Ibs. 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  4  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  2  Ibs. 

The  table  shows  that  the  yield  of  fat  was  the  same  for  these  two 
rations,  while  the  home-grown  ration  with  corn  meal  produced  slightly 
more  milk.  There  was  a  saving  of  1.1  cents  per  Ib.  of  butter  pro- 
duced when  the  ration  of  soybean  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  was  fed. 

682.  Summary. — These  trials  show  conclusively  that  the  legumes 
rich  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter  are  of  great  importance  in 
reducing  the  quantity  of  expensive  concentrates  ordinarily  fed  to 
dairy  cows.  If  the  legumes  are  so  used  it  is  most  desirable  that  some 
succulent  roughage  such  as  corn  silage  or  roots  form  a  part  of  the 
ration  to  furnish  variety  and  palatability  as  well  as  nourishment.  In 
such  cases  very  little  additional  roughage  such  as  straw,  corn  stover, 
or  low-grade  hay  should  be  used,  for  a  cow  giving  a  large  quantity 
of  milk  cannot  long  do  her  best  and  retain  her  vitality  on  even  the 
best  of  roughages  when  they  alone  are  fed,  for  their  digestion  and 
passage  thru  the  alimentary  tract  call  for  an  expenditure  of  energy 
beyond  her  powers.  The  rich  legume  roughages  may  be  most  profit- 
ably used  in  place  of  about  half  the  concentrates  usually  fed,  pro- 
vided corn  silage  or  roots  form  a  part  of  the  ration.  This  means  that 
ordinarily  not  over  6  Ibs.  of  expensive  concentrates  need  be  fed  per 
cow  daily.  It  is  not  wise  to  force  the  cow  giving  a  good  flow  of  milk 
to  subsist  wholly  on  roughages,  no  matter  how  good  they  may  be. 

1  Bui.  174.  2  Bui.  123. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

PUBLIC   TESTS  OF  PTJKE-BKED  DAIRY  COWS— FEED  RE- 
QUIRED BY  COW— COST   OF  PRODUCING 
MILK  AND  FAT. 

683.  Exposition  breed  tests. — Tests  of  pure-bred  cows  of  various 
breeds  for  the  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat  were  conducted  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  held  in  Chicago  in  1893;  at  the 
Pan-American  Exposition  held  in  Buffalo  in  1901 ;  and  at  the  Louisi- 
ana-Purchase Exposition  held  in  St.  Louis  in  1904.  In  each  case  the 
test  was  supervised  by  a  joint  committee  composed  of  delegates  rep- 
resenting, on  the  one  hand,  the  various  breed  associations  interested, 
and  on  the  other  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Stations.  The  representatives  of  the  several  breed 
associations  had  direct  and  full  charge  of  the  cows  and  their  feed 
and  care  in  all  particulars.  The  representatives  of  the  colleges  and 
stations  took  charge  of  all  weighings  of  feed  as  well  as  of  milk  and 
conducted  all  analyses  of  the  milk. 

From  the  vast  accumulation  of  data  gathered  during  these  tests 
the  following  condensed  table  is  compiled,  giving  some  of  the  more 
striking  and  helpful  findings.  The  data  for  the  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion test  is  taken  from  the  Jersey  Bulletin,  1893,  and  the  Journal  of 
the  British  Dairy  Farmers'1  Association,  1894;  for  the  Pan-American 
test,  from  the  Hoist  ein-Friesian  Register,  October,  1901 ;  and  for  the 
Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition,  from  the  Dairy  Cow  Demonstration 
of  the  Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition,  Farrington,  published  by 
Hoard's  Dairyman. 

In  these  competitive  tests  the  cows  were  selected  and  entered  by 
the  several  breed  associations,  there  being  no  restrictions  as  to  choice 
in  this  matter.  The  chosen  specimens  of  each  breed  were  managed 
as  to  feed,  water,  and  care  entirely  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  and 
wishes  of  the  committee  in  charge  of  that  particular  breed.  The 
feeding  and  milking  of  each  cow,  however,  was  done  in  the  presence 
of  representatives  of  the  colleges  and  experiment  stations  assisting  in 
the  test.  Before  each  test  was  begun  a  price  was  established  for  each 
and  all  kinds  of  feed  by  the  joint  committee.  The  sub-committee  in 
charge  of  each  competing  herd  was  allowed  to  give  as  much  of  any 

420 


Public  Tests  of  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows. 


421 


and  all  kinds  of  various  feeds  as  it  wished  to  each  cow  under  its 
care.  Full  records  were  kept  of  everything  eaten,  of  all  the  milk 
yielded,  the  gain  or  loss  in  the  weight  of  the  cows,  etc.  A  price  was 
further  established  for  milk  and  fat  so  that  the  returns  of  each  cow 
over  the  cost  of  the  feed  consumed  could  be  credited.  The  toble 
which  follows  shows  the  results  of  one  test  at  each  exposition  con- 
densed and  arranged  for  comparative  study. 

Summary  of  principal  test  of  pure-bred  dairy  cows  at  the  Columbian,  Pan- 
American,  and  Louisiana-Purchase  Expositions. 


Breed 

A  v.  daily  yield  per  cow 

Per 

cent 
fat 

Feed 
cost  100 
Ibs.  milk 

Feed 
cost 
1  Ib.  fat 

Gain 
in  live 
wt. 

Daily 
return 
over 
feed 
cost 

Milk 

Fat 

Total 
solids 

Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893:  best  cow  in  90-day  test 


Jersey 

Lbs. 
40.4 

Lbs. 
2.0 

Lbs. 

4.9 

Cents 
70.2 

Cents 
14.3 

Lbs. 
81 

Cents 
81.3 

Guernsey 

39.0 

1.7 

4.4 

64.6 

14.8 

-13 

64.2 

Short-horn 

40.9 

1.5 

3.7 

65.5 

18.0 

115 

58.5 

Pan-American  Exposition,  Buffalo,  1901:  average  of  5  cows,  146  days 


Jersey 

31.0 

1.3 

4.2 

4.2 

48.8 

11.5 

22.5 

Guernsey 

31.6 

1.4 

4.2 

4.3 

47.9 

11.1 

23.1 

Ayrshire 

37.6 

1.2 

4.6 

3.1 

40.5 

12.9 

26.4 

Short-horn 

36.7 

1.2 

4.4 

3.3 

48.4 

14.6 

22.7 

Holstein-Friesian 

44.2 

1.3 

5.1 

3.0 

40.2 

13.2 

28.6 

Polled  Jersey 

23.4 

1.0 

3.1 

4.4 

51.5 

11.6 

15.7 

French  Canadian 

28.5 

1.1 

3.6 

3.8 

44.2 

11.8 

20.2 

Brown  Swiss  

35.8 

1,2 

3.5 

3.4 

45.7 

13.4 

23.3 

Red  Poll  

33.3 

1.3 

4.2 

3.8 

45.8 

12.1 

21.8 

Dutch  Belted 

28.0 

0.9 

3.3 

3.2 

51.4 

16.1 

15.7 

Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis,  1904:  best  and  poorest  cow,  120  days 


Jersey 

Best  cow  

48.4 

2.3 

6.7 

4.8 

55.0 

9.7 

77 

42.1 

Poorest  cow  

38.8 

1.6 

5.1 

4.1 

65.0 

13.2 

85 

22.3 

Holstein-Friesian 

Best  cow 

67.5 

2.4 

7.5 

3.5 

45.0 

11.0 

54 

38.4 

Poorest  cow  

47.1 

1.5 

5.1 

3.2 

61.0 

16.5 

147 

15.0 

Brown  Swiss 

Best  cow 

51.0 

1.8  ' 

6.1 

3.4 

54.5 

13.7 

74 

23.1 

Poorest  cow  

38.5 

1.5 

5.1 

3.8 

69.5 

15.5 

147 

16.5 

Short-horn 

Best  cow 

43.4 

1.7 

5.5 

4.0 

54.5 

11.7 

139 

27.1 

Poorest  cow  

21.4 

0.8 

2.7 

3.9 

107.5 

23.5 

234 

1.6 

Since  widely  different  prices  were  charged  for  feed  and  allowed 
for  products  at  the  different  expositions,  the  returns  from  milk  and 
fat  over  the  cost  of  feed  in  the  different  tests  should  not  be  com- 
pared with  one  another. 


422 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


684.  Station  breed  tests. — Tests  of  pure-bred  dairy  cows  have 
been  conducted  at  the  Maine,1  New  Jersey,2  New  York  (Geneva),3 
and  Wisconsin  Stations,4  the  findings  being  condensed  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

Tests  of  pure-bred  cows  at  four  American  stations. 


Station  and  breed 

No.:of 
cows 

No.  lac- 
tation 
periods 
included 

Av.  annual  yield 
per  cow 

Av. 

per 

cent 
fat 

Feed  cost  for 

100  Ibs. 
milk 

lib. 
fat 

Milk 

Fat 

New  York 
American-Holderness 
Ayrshire    

2 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
1 

2 
2 
2 

4 
4 
3 
3 
3 

9 
5 
10 

8 
2 

4 
12 
5 
6 
4 
11 
2 

3 

4 
4 

4 
4 
3 
3 
3 

57 
33 

69 
50 
6 

Lbs. 

5,721 

6,824 
3,984 
5,385 
7,918 
5,045 
6,055 

8,369 
6,612 
5,460 

7,461 
7;  446 
8,455 
7,695 
10,457 

6,273 
11,184 
5,773 
6,920 
6,971 

Lbs. 

213 
245 
183 

286 
266 
282 
269 

285 
233 
297 

275 

379 
300 
376 
396 

312 
382 
303 
272 
273 

3.73 

3.60 
4.60 
5.30 
3.36 
5.60 
4.44 

3.41 
3.52 
5.44 

3.69 
5.09 
3.55 

4.89 
3.79 

4.99 
3.48 
5.25 
3.94 
3.92 

Cents 

76.0 
74.0 
94.0 
86.0 
65.0 
90.0 
78.0 

85.5 
94.9 
113.0 

76.0 

78.1 
79.7 
87.5 
79.0 

58.4 
37.1 
62.3 
54.3 
49.5 

Cents 

20.1 
20.2 
20.5 
16.1 
19.1 
16.1 
17.2 

25.2 

26.8 
20.4 

20.6 
15.3 
22.4 

17.9 
20.8 

11.8 
11.4 
13.2 
13.3 
12.6 

Devon        . 

Guernsey       

Holstein-Friesian  
Jersey  _ 

Short-horn  _ 

Maine 
Holstein-Friesian  
Ayrshire  - 

Jersey  _  

New  Jersey 
Ayrshire 

Guernsey       

Holstein-Friesian  
Jersey 

Short-horn  .  __  _ 

Wisconsin 
Guernsey- 

Holstein-Friesian  
Jersey            _        -  .- 

Short-horn    

Brown  Swiss  . 

The  figures  given  above  by  each  station  may  be  compared  with 
each  other  for  that  station.  Only  in  a  general  way  should  those  from 
different  stations  be  compared,  for  the  prices  charged  for  feed  varied 
greatly  at  the  different  stations.  The  Wisconsin  prices  for  feeds, 
for  example,  were  much  lower  than  were  charged  by  the  Maine  Sta- 
tion. Many  interesting  comparisons  may  be  made  from  the  table. 
At  the  New  York  Station  the  Holstein  cows  gave  the  most  and  cheap- 
est milk,  while  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  gave  the  richest  milk  and 
produced  butter  fat  at  the  lowest  cost  for  feed  consumed.  The  Short- 
horn cows  at  tfye  New  Jersey  Station  produced  more  milk  than  the 
cows  of  any  other  breed  at  any  station  and  at  reasonable  cost  for  the 
feed  consumed.  The  butter  fat,  however,  was  less  economically  pro- 
duced. 


1  Ept.  1890. 


2  Rpt.  1890. 


3  Rpt.  1894. 


4  Epts.  1905-7,  Bui.  102. 


Public  Tests  of  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows. 


423 


685.  A  herd  record. — On  taking  charge  of  the  Cornell  Station1 
Koberts  found  a  herd  of  cows  yielding  about  3,000  Ibs.  of  milk  per 
head  yearly.  After  years  of  careful  breeding  and  selection  the  rec- 
ords shown  in  the  table  below  were  actually  made,  the  table  including 
the  cost  of  feed,  the  milk  and  fat  production,  and  the  feed  cost  of 
100  Ibs.  milk  and  1  Ib.  fat  for  every  cow  in  the  herd. 

One  year's  milk  and  fat  record  with  a  herd  of  20  cows. 


No.  of  cow 

Age 

Cost 
of  feed 

Milk 
produced 

Feed  cost  of 
100  Ibs.  milk 

Fat 
produced 

Feed  cost  of 
1  Ib.  of  fat 

Yrs.      Mo. 

Dollars 

Lbs. 

Dollars 

Lbs. 

Cents 

No.    l-_ 

7+ 

44.24 

8,029 

0.55 

391.6 

11.5 

No.    2— 

5         4 

47.65 

9,740 

0.49 

309.2 

15.5 

No.    3.--- 

3         5 

42.00 

4,743 

0.89 

233.6 

18.0 

No.    4.... 

1          9 

49.07 

6,009 

0.82 

219.3 

22.5 

No.    5.1" 

1+ 

38.74 

6,215 

0.62 

326.7 

12.0 

No.    6__._ 

1        10 

41.24 

2,830 

1.48 

159.0 

26.0 

No.     7.... 

6          4 

52.06 

11,  165 

0.47 

418.0 

12.5 

No.    8____ 

4 

39.96 

5,671 

0.70 

285.1 

14.0 

No.    9__.. 

3 

36.24 

3,388 

1.07 

197.3 

18.5 

No.  10..._ 

4          8 

46.51 

6,324 

0.74 

224.7 

21.0 

No.  11.-.. 

1          9 

43.80 

5,136 

0.85 

160.8 

27.0 

No.  12.... 

3          5 

43.66 

5,786 

0.75 

294.3 

15.0 

No.  13___- 

10          4 

44.34 

5,459 

0.81 

195.3 

22.5 

No.  14.__. 

2          4 

45.98 

7,757 

0.59 

260.3 

17.5 

No.  15.___ 

3          4 

47.44 

9,003 

0.53 

299.1 

16.0 

No.  16..-- 

6          4 

43.12 

9,777 

0.44 

330.6 

18.0 

No.  17.... 

7          3 

47.87 

10,417 

0.46 

302.9 

16.0 

No.  18.... 

3          4 

48.63 

7,955 

0.61 

282.4 

17.0 

No.  19—. 

7+ 

53.38 

8,656 

0.62 

382.8 

14.0 

No.  20.-.. 

7+ 

49.08 

10,754 

0.46 

439.4 

11.0 

We  observe  a  considerable  range  in  the  cost  of  feed  for  the  several 
cows,  a  wide  one  in  the  yield  of  milk,  and  a  marked  difference  in  the 
cost  of  producing  milk  and  fat.  While  in  1875  the  average  milk 
yield  of  the  cows  in  the  herd  was  only  3,000  Ibs.,  in  1892  the  descend- 
ants of  the  same  cows  averaged  more  than  7,000  Ibs.  This  table 
teaches  that  even  with  good,  well-fed  herds  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  study  the  feed  consumption  and  milk  and  fat  production 
of  each  individual,  in  order  that  only  the  best  cows  and  their  prog- 
eny may  be  retained. 

686.  Dairy  v.  beef  type.— Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station2  sepa- 
rated the  Station  herd  into  4  groups,  the  first  including  cows  of  the 
beef  type ;  the  second,  those  showing  less  tendency  to  beef ;  the  third, 
spare  cows  lacking  in  depth;  and  the  fourth,  spare  cows  with  deep 


Bui.  52. 


2  Bui.  35. 


424 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


bodies  and  of  distinctly  dairy  type.     The  returns  of  cows  of  the 
different  types  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Beef  and  dairy  types  of  cows. 


Type 

No.  of 
animals 

Av.  live 
weight 

Dry  matter  consumed 

Feed 
cost  of 
1  Ib.  fat 

Daily 

Daily  per 
1,000  Ibs. 
live  wt. 

Per 

lib.  fat 

Beef  type                     _.  

3 
4 
3 
12 

Lbs. 
1,240 
945 

875 
951 

Lbs. 
20.8 
20.4 
20.0 
21.9 

Lbs. 
16.7 
21.0 
23.0 
23.6 

Lbs. 
31.3 
26.4 
25.5 
21.2 

Cents 
17.5 
15.1 
14.6 
12.1 

Less  of  beef  type      

Lacking  depth  of  body 

Dairy  type  _  _ 

The  great  difference  in  the  cost  of  producing  butter  fat,  due  to  the 
type  of  animal  used,  is  here  shown.  (593) 

687.  Good  and  poor  producers. — Carlyle  and  Woll,  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station,1  studied  the  food  consumed  by  and  the  returns  from 
33  cows,  covering  88  milking  periods  extending  thru  the  entire  win- 
ter. The  herd  was  divided  into  the  following  classes  according  to 
their  production  capacity. 

Feed  eaten  and  returns  by  cows  of  different  quality. 


Character  of  cows 

Wt.of 
cows 

Dry  matter 
eaten^daily 

Daily 
production 

Dry  matter  eaten  per— 

Milk 

Fat 

1,000  Ibs. 
live  wt. 

100  Ibs. 
milk 

lib. 
fat 

High  producers 

Lbs. 
956 
1,133 
1,012 

Lbs. 
25.3 
24.7 
21.1 

Lbs. 
26.6 
21.5 
14.6 

Lbs. 
1.2 
0.9 
0.7 

Lbs. 
27.0 
21.4 
21.1 

Lbs. 
102 
119 
149 

Lbs. 
22 
27 
32 

Medium  producers  _. 
Low  producers  

The  high-grade  producers  ate  much  more  feed  for  their  weight 
than  the  others,  yet  they  required  only  102  Ibs.  of  dry  matter  for  100 
Ibs.  of  milk,  while  the  low-grade  cows,  which  ate  less  feed,  required 
149  Ibs.,  or  almost  50  per  cent,  more  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  milk. 

1  688.  Profitable  v.  unprofitable  cows. — Beach  of  the  Connecticut 
(Storrs)  Station2  found  the  cost  of  feed  and  the  returns  from  the  5 
best  and  the  5  poorest  cows  in  the  Station  herd  for  5  years  to  be  as 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

The  table  shows  that  the  good  cows  ate  more  feed  and  gave  better 
returns  over  cost  of  keep  than  the  small  producers.  During  the  first 

2  years  the  5  poorest  cows  did  not  pay  for  their  feed.     By  gradual 


Bui.  102. 


Bui.  29. 


Public  Tests  of  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows. 


425 


elimination  the  net  loss  of  about  $4  for  each  of  the  poorest  cows  the 
first  year  was  changed  to  a  gain  of  $17  per  head  for  the  5  poorest 
animals  in  the  herd  during  the  fifth  year. 

Comparative  returns  from  profitable   and  unprofitable   cows. 


Cost  of 
feed 

Yield 
of  fat 

Margin  over 
cost  of  feed 

Feed  cost  of 
1  Ib.  of  fat 

First  year 
5  most  profitable  cows  

Dollars 
56.54 

Pounds 
304 

Dollars 
26.91 

Cents 
18.6 

5  least  profitable  cows 

52.02 

189 

4.09* 

27.5 

Second  year 
5  most  profitable  cows 

60.30 

377 

43.27 

16.0 

5  least  profitable  cows. 

45.38 

164 

5.75* 

27.7 

Third  year 
5  most  profitable  cows  

53.24 

375 

44.25 

14.2 

5  least  profitable  cows 

43.38 

217 

15.68 

20.0 

Fourth  year 
5  most  profitable  cows       _    __ 

59.52 

376 

43.71 

15.8 

5  least  profitable  cows       _  _  __ 

51.45 

237 

13.71 

21.7 

Fifth  year 
5  most  profitable  cows.__ 

59.46 

366 

40.23 

16.2 

5  least  profitable  cows.  __     .....    _ 

56.11 

269 

17.67 

20.9 

*  Loss. 

Fraser  of  the  Illinois  Station1  reports  a  cow  in  the  Station  herd 
that  in  12  years  gave  87,102  Ibs.  of  milk,  containing  fat  sufficient  to 
make  4,318  Ibs.  of  butter.  During  3  years  one  cow  gave  11,390  Ibs. 
of  milk  annually,  containing  405  Ibs.  of  fat,  and  returned  $42.60  per 
year  over  cost  of  feed.  Another  with  the  same  feed  and  care  gave 
in  the  same  time  only  3,830  Ibs.  of  milk  annually,  containing  138  Ibs. 
of  fat,  and  failed  by  $5.62  per  year  of  paying  for  her  feed. 

,689.  Unreliability  of  short  tests.— Glover  of  the  Illinois  Station2 
found  2  cows  in  an  Illinois  dairyman's  herd  whose  best  weekly  rec- 
ords and  actual  annual  returns  during  3  years  were  as  follows: 

Best  weekly  and  annual  returns  of  two  cows. 


Days 
in  milk 

Best  week's  record 

Av.  yearly  returns 

Milk 

Pat 

Milk 

Fat 

Cow  No.  1  

266 
315 

Lbs. 
309 
197 

Lbs. 
10.5 
10.2 

Lbs. 
5,355 
7,190 

Lbs. 
184 
367 

Cow  No.  2 

Cir.  106. 


2  Cir.  84. 


426 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Measured  by  a  single  week's  performance,  cow  No.  1  was  the  bet- 
ter animal,  for  in  that  time  she  gave  36  per  ct.  more  milk  and  slightly 
more  fat  than  cow  No.  2.  By  the  yearly  record,  however,  it  was 
found  that  cow  No.  2  gave  nearly  2,000  Ibs.  more  milk  and  nearly 
100  per  ct.  more  fat  than  cow  No.  1.  Time,  the  scales,  the  Babcock 
fat  test,  combined  with  good  judgment,  are  all  essential  in  determin- 
ing the  true  value  of  dairy  cows. 

690.  A  cow  census. — Many  years  ago  Hoard's  Dairyman,  by 
means  of  trained  representatives,  began  studying  the  returns  from 
cows  on  dairy  farms  in  many  states  and  under  varying  conditions. 
Prom  the  great  accumulation  of  data,  the  following  summary  by 
Kingsley1  covers  the  yearly  returns  from  100  herds  containing  1,935 
cows,  whose  milk  went  to  8  creameries  in  3  counties  in  northwestern 
Illinois : 

Summary  of  the  Hoard's  Dairyman  cow  census  in  northwestern  Illinois. 


Fat  de- 
livered 
to 
cream- 
ery 

Cost 
of 
keep 

Gross 
returns 

Returns 
over  cost 
of  keep 

Eec'd 
for$l 
invest- 
ed in 
feed 

Peed 
cost  of 
lib. 
butter 
fat 

Average  for  1  cow  in— 
73  dual-purpose  herds 

Lbs. 
133 

Dols. 
33.27 

Dols. 
36.77 

Dols. 
3.50 

Dols. 
1.10 

Cts. 
27.0 

27  dairy-type  herds 

178 

31.73 

48.96 

17.23 

1.56 

18.5 

25  best  herds 

204 

33.07 

55.75 

22.68 

1.73 

16.0 

25  poorest  herds 

97 

33.11 

26.66 

-6.45 

0.81 

34.2 

7  silage-fed  herds 

197 

29.00 

54.18 

25.18 

1.89 

16.1 

Average  for  — 
61  herds  whose  owners  read 
dairy  papers.    

168 

33.05 

45.96 

12.91 

1.40 

21.0 

39  herds  whose  owners  did  not 
read  dairy  papers  

110 

32.31 

30.15 

-2.16 

0.94 

30.0 

Nearly  all  data  heretofore  presented  concerning  cows  have  come 
from  the  experiment  stations.  This  table  shows  the  conditions  as  they 
exist  on  dairy  farms  in  a  great  Western  state. 

691.  Annual  feed  requirement. — The  next  table  condenses  studies 
covering  from  1  to  6  years  at  9  widely  separated  American  stations, 
showing  the  yearly  feed  requirement  of  cows  and  their  returns  in 
milk  and  fat. 

"We  learn  that  the  pasture  period  ranged  from  131  days  in  Min- 
nesota to  191  in  Missouri.  At  the  Wisconsin  Station,  only  1,200  Ibs. 
of  hay  and  less  than  1  ton  of  concentrates  were  fed  per  cow,  the 
soilage  and  silage  exceeding  9,000  Ibs.  per  cow.  In  New  Jersey  the 

1  Hoard's  Dairyman,  39,  p.  537. 


Public  Tests  of  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows. 


427 


cows  were  maintained  in  summer  almost  wholly  on  soilage  and  silage, 
over  16,000  Ibs.  being  fed.  The  great  value  of  alfalfa  hay  in  reduc- 
ing the  amount  of  the  concentrates  fed  and  the  cost  of  keep  is  shown 
by  the  Utah  and  Montana  reports.  The  yearly  feed  cost  per  cow 
ranged  from  $21.43  in  Utah  to  $53.46  in  Connecticut,  a  difference  of 
over  150  per  ct.  between  the  West  with  its  low-priced  alfalfa  hay  and 
concentrates  and  the  East  where  feeds  are  high.  The  milk  returns 
varied  from  5,498  Ibs.  per  cow  in  Connecticut  to  8,783  Ibs.  in  Ne- 
braska, and  the  fat  from  237  Ibs.  in  Utah  to  339  Ibs.  in  Nebraska. 

Annual  feed  requirement  of  the  dairy  cow  as  found  by  nine  stations. 


Station 

No.  of 
years 

Feed  eaten 

Av.  cost 
of  feed 
per  cow 

Returns 

Pasture 

Concen- 
trates 

Soilage, 
roots, 
silage 

Hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Lbs. 
279 
277 
260 
299 
301 
248 
339 
250 
237 

Connecticut  l  . 
New  Jersey  *__ 
Michigan3  
Wisconsin  4___ 
Minnesota5.— 
Missouri9...  . 

5 

6 
1 
3 

1 
1 
1 

2 
5 

Days 
152 
168 
139 
180 
131 
191 
187 
150 
153 

Lbs. 
2,029 
2,624 
2,774 
1,914 
3,435 
3,027 
1,976 
1,169 
1,305 

Lbs. 
8,694 
16,  753 
3,638 
9,448 
5,306 

Lbs. 
1,830 
1,825 
3,986 
1,200 
2,029 
3,480 
2,347 
6,468 
4,518 

Dols. 
53.46 
44.68 
35.96 
37.68 
37.82 
35.30 
31.61 
32.45 
21.43 

Lbs. 
5,498 
6,165 
7,009 
7,061 
6,408 
5,927 
8,783 
5,993 
5,601 

Utah  7 

3,692 

Montana8  

Nebraska9  

1  Bui.  29.    *  Rpts.  1897-1904.    3  Bui.  166.    •*  Rpts.  1905-7.    *  Bui.  35. 
6Bul.26.    7|Bul.68.    8Rpt.  1905.    9 Bui.  101. 

From  this  table  the  intelligent,  experienced  dairyman  can  closely 
estimate  the  quantity  and  cost  of  the  concentrates  and  roughages  re- 
quired to  maintain  his  herd  of  cows  during  the  year,  and  the  returns 
in  milk  and  fat  he  may  reasonably  expect  therefrom. 

692.  Monthly  feed  cost  of  milk. — In  1897  the  author  compiled  the 
data  from  4  widely  separated  stations  presented  in  the  following 
table  showing  the  feed  cost  of  100  Ibs.  of  milk  for  the  different 
months  of  the  year  according  to  the  prices  then  prevailing  for  past- 
ure, concentrates,  and  roughages. 

Since  the  data  were  gathered  by  the  stations  the  cost  of  feeding 
stuffs  has  greatly  advanced,  so  that  the  figures  are  only  relatively 
valuable.  They  show  that  the  feed  necessary  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of 
milk  in  March  cost  76  cents,  while  when  the  cows  were  on  pasture  in 
June  it  fell  to  26  cents.  Winter  prices  were  again  reached  in  Novem- 
ber. The  average  feed  cost  for  the  year  at  the  4  stations  was  55 
cents  for  100  Ibs.  of  milk  and  13.3  cents  for  a  pound  of  fat.  To  get 


428 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


the  present  feed  cost  of  milk  and  fat  in  the  United  States  the  figures 
of  the  table  should  be  increased  by  from  40  to  75  per  ct. 

Feed  cost  of  100  Tbs.  of  milk  and  1  Ib.  of  fat  by  months. 


New  York! 

Minnesota2 

Missouri3 

Utah4 

Average 

Number  of  cows 

20 
l,1231bs. 
286  Ibs. 

23 
976  Ibs. 
301  Ibs. 

12 
990  Ibs. 
248  Ibs. 

15 
970  Ibs. 
222  Ibs. 

Average  weight  of  cows... 
Average  f  at  per  cow  

Month 

100 
Ibs. 
milk 

lib. 
fat 

100 
Ibs. 
milk 

1  Ib. 
fat 

100 
Ibs. 
milk 

1  Ib. 
fat 

100 
Ibs. 
milk 

1  Ib. 

fat 

Milk 

Fat 

January 

$  .64 
.68 
•  71 
•  71 
.58 
.28 
.38 
.65 
.51 
.41 
.65 
•  63 

f  -17 

.18 
.18 
.18 
.145 
.075 
.095 
.155 
.125 
.105 
.175 
.155 

$  .65 
.67 
•  67 
.71 
.59 
.32 
.37 
.51 
.51 
.60 
.68 
.65 

$  .149 
.151 
.165 
.162 
.132 
.076 
.078 
.114 
.106 
.140 
.159 
.164 

$  .94 
1.01 
1.21 
1.01 
.43 
.24 
.23 
.14 
.21 
.42 
.65 
1.03 

$  .240 
.253 
.299 
.234 
.096 
.053 
.053 
.033 
.052 
.098 
.153 
.265 

$  .56 
.62 
.59 
.49 
.48 
.15 
.19 
.21 
.26 
.38 
.59 
.63 

3  .138 
•  160 
.142 
.121 
.113 
.038 
.049 
.051 
•  066 
.091 
.135 
.143 

$  .68 
•  72 
.76 
.71 
.54 
.26 
.31 
.42 
.41 
.47 
.65 
.71 

$  .168 
.179 
.187 
.171 
.125 
.064 
.072 
.098 
.094 
.112 
.157 
.174 

February                   ..  

March 

April 

May 

June    . 

July 

August      .            

September 

October  

November 

December  

Average 

$  .57 

$  .145 

$  .58 

$  .133 

$  .63 

$  .152 

$  .43 

1  .104 

$  .55 

1  .133 

1  Bui.  52.    2  Bui.  35.    3  Bui.  26.    4  Bui.  43. 

693.  Sample  rations  in  forced  feeding. — Farrington1  gives  the  fol- 
lowing to  show  the  actual  rations  fed  on  a  certain  day  to  cows  of  the 
several  breeds  in  the  Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition  dairy  contest. 

Rations  fed  on  the  same  day  at  the  Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition. 


Brown 

Swiss 

Holstein- 
Friesian 

Jersey 

Short- 
horn 

Roughage 
Long  alfalfa  hay 

Lbs. 

7 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
18.0 

Lbs. 
9 

Cut  alfalfa  hay                                           

15 

6.0 

Corn  silage 

16.0 

24 

Green  cut  corn 

40 

15 

Green  cowpeas 

35 

Total  roughage  (green  and  dry)      

47 

65 

40.0 

33 

Concentrates 
Wheat  bran 

2 

3.0 

4 

Linseed  oil  meal 

2.0 

2 

Ground  oats 

2.5 

2 

Hominy  feed 

8 

5 

2.5 

3 

Gluten  feed 

5.0 

2 

Corn  meal                                                            

1.5 

Corn  hearts 

2.5 

2 

Cotton-seed  meal 

1 

1 

2 

Distillers'  grains 

15 

14 

4 

Total  concentrates        _      

24 

22 

19.0 

21 

1  Dairy  Cow  Demonstration,  La.-Pur.  Expo. 


Public  Tests  of  Pure-bred  Dairy  Cows. 


429 


While  the  roughage  supply  for  the  cows  under  test  was  not  large, 
a  heavy  concentrate  allowance  of  from  19  to  24  Ibs.  was  fed  daily, 
the  Brown  Swiss  cows  getting  the  largest  and  the  Jerseys  the  least. 

694.  Records  of  great  cows.— The  Guernsey  cow  Yeksa  Sun- 
beam,1 during  a  semi-official  test  beginning  September  1904,  produced 
milk  and  fat  from  feeds  as  reported  below.  The  concentrates  con- 
sisted of  a  mixture  of  bran,  gluten  feed,  and  oil  meal. 

Ration  and  production  of  the  Guernsey  cow  Yeksa  Sunbeam. 


Month 

Ration 

Monthly 
yield 
Of  milk 

Per  ct. 
of  fat 

Monthly 
yield 
of  fat 

1 

Silage,  hay,  concentrates  15  Ibs.     .... 

Lbs. 
1,428.2 

5.69 

Lbs. 
81.26 

2 

Silage,  hay,  concentrates  15  Ibs. 

1,322.5 

5.62 

74.32 

3 

Silage,  hay,  concentrates  15  Ibs. 

1,294.4 

6.08 

78.70 

4 

Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  rutabagas  10  Ibs.,  con- 
centrates 15  Ibs. 

1,217.0 

6.04 

73.51 

5 

Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  rutabagas  10  Ibs.,  con- 
centrates 14  Ibs.                              

1,060.8 

5.75 

61.00 

6 

Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  rutabagas  10  Ibs.,  con- 
centrates 14  Ibs.    __           

1,185.1 

6.05 

71.70 

7 

Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  rutabagas  10  Ibs.,  con- 
centrates 14  Ibs. 

1,089.6 

5.79 

63.09 

8 

Pasture,   mixed  clover  hay,  concentrates 
12  Ibs. 

1,127.5 

5.75 

64.83 

9 

Pasture,   mixed  clover  hay,  concentrates 
8  Ibs.                                                    

1,158.4 

5.25 

60.82 

10 

Pasture,  concentrates  10  Ibs. 

1,266.0 

5.88 

74.44 

11 

Pasture,  green  clover  8  Ibs.,  concentrates 
10  Ibs.                       .        .    - 

1,463.8 

5.42 

79.34 

12 

Pasture,  clover  hay,  concentrates  14  Ibs  — 

1,307.5 

5.67 

74.14 

Totals  and  average             

14,920.8 

5.74 

857.15 

During  the  year  ending  January  25,  1909,  the  pure-bred  Jersey 
cow  Jacoba  Irene2  produced  17,253  Ibs.  of  5.53  per  ct.  milk,  con- 
taining 954.2  Ibs.  fat.  Besides  pasture  for  6  hours  daily  during  5 
months,  she  consumed  feed  as  follows: 


Concentrates 

Bran 1,694  pounds 

Corn 661  pounds 

Oil  meal 489  pounds 

Gluten 1,615  pounds 

Ground  oats 364  pounds 


Roughages 

Corn  silage  ..  7,400  pounds 
Chaffed  hay..  1,074  pounds 
Long  hay 3,000  pounds 


In  a  semi-official  test  ending  December  22,  1907,  the  Holstein 
Friesian  cow  Colantha  4th  's  Johanna3  produced  27,432.5  Ibs.  of  3.64 
per  ct.  milk,  containing  998.26  Ibs.  of  fat,  or  an  average  yield  of  2.73 


1  Wis.  Sta.,  Bui.  131. 


2  Jersey  Bui.  28,  p.  274. 


3  Wis.  Sta.,  Bui.  160. 


430  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Ibs.  of  fat  daily  for  the  entire  year.  Her  concentrate  allowance,  con- 
sisting of  equal  parts  of  oats,  bran,  and  gluten  feed  together  with  2 
or  3  Ibs.  of  oil  meal,  began  with  12  Ibs.  daily,  which  was  gradually 
increased  to  22  Ibs.,  the  maximum  except  that  for  one  week  she  was 
fed  24  Ibs.  daily.  During  the  first  65  days  the  roughage  consisted  of 
30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  35  Ibs.  roots,  and  clover  hay  without  limit.  After 
this,  10  Ibs.  of  silage  was  fed  in  place  of  the  roots.  While  on  pasture 
she  was  fed  12.5  to  15  Ibs.  of  grain  daily  with  clover  hay  and  corn 
silage,  of  which  she  ate  very  little.  During  a  7-day  test  she  pro- 
duced an  average  of  4.03  Ibs.  of  fat  daily,  requiring  for  each  Ib.  of 
fat  10.6  Ibs.  of  dry  matter,  of  which  1.4  Ibs.  was  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FEED  AND  CAKE  OF  THE  DAIRY  COW. 
I.  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Monrad,1  a  most  reliable  dairy  authority,  tells  us  that  in  the 
mountain  districts  of  Norway,  in  the  dawn  of  dairying,  cows  on 
small  farms  were  fed  in  winter  on  straw,  birch  leaves,  reindeer  moss, 
and  horse  dung,  cooked  and  given  as  a  mash  mixed  with  chaff  and 
leaves,  while  on  large  ones  the  mixture  was  fed  uncooked.  As  late 
as  the  close  of  the  last  century,  herring  hauled  inland  and  stored  in 
snow  banks  were  boiled  with  horse  dung  and  shavings  of  mountain 
ash  and  birch  bark  for  feeding  goats,  sheep,  and  young  cattle.  Along 
the  coast  even  now  herring,  fish  offal,  seaweed,  and  ocean  algas  are 
fed  in  spring  time  when  the  hay  gives  out.  The  butter  yield  on  the 
summer  mountain  pastures  in  the  early  times  was  from  24  to  48 
Ibs.  per  cow  for  the  season,  and  the  annual  yield  of  milk  from  a 
good  cow  ranged  from  1,600  to  1,800  Ibs.  While  the  changes  from 
such  primitive  times  have  been  great,  the  cow  has  generously  re- 
sponded to  every  advancement  in  feed  and  care. 

695.  Dairying  and  maternity. — When  a  steer  is  fattening,  the  pro- 
cess goes  on  rapidly  at  first,  but  after  a  time  it  is  accomplished  only 
at  a  high  cost  for  the  feed  consumed.  How  different  is  the  dairy 
cow,  which  takes  her  food,  not  for  storing  what  she  makes  from  it  for 
her  own  use,  but  for  nurturing  her  young.  Food  given  to  her  at 
night  is  converted  into  milk  by  morning,  and  soon  drawn  from  her, 
makes  easy  way  for  more.  So  strong  is  the  maternal  impulse  that, 
if  food  fails,  the  cow  will  for  a  considerable  time  draw  from  her 
flesh  and  bones  the  substances  necessary  to  maintain  the  milk  flow 
and  preserve  its  normal  composition,  in  order  that  her  young  may  be 
properly  nourished.  (604)  The  basis  of  dairying  is  the  maternity  of 
the  cow,  and  success  in  this  art  depends  upon  rationally  recognizing 
this  great  basic  fact.  W.  D.  Hoard  of  Wisconsin2  first  brought  this 
form  of  the  subject  prominently  to  the  attention  of  dairymen.  Who- 
ever will  study  dairying  from  this  standpoint  will  come  to  regard 
the  cow  in  a  new  light  and  become  a  better  dairyman. 

1  Hoard  'a  Dairyman,  April  16, 1909. 

2  Bui.  No.  1,  Wis.  Farmers '  Inst.,  and  elsewhere. 

431 


432  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

696.  Shelter. — The  steer,  gorged  with  feed  and  every  day  adding 
to  the  heat-holding  fat  layer  just  beneath  the  skin,  prefers  the  yard 
or  open  shed  to  the  stable.  (495)     The  dairy  cow  stands  in  strong 
contrast,  her  system  being  relaxed  thru  the  annual  drain  of  mater- 
nity and  the  daily  loss  of  milk,  the  combination  severely  taxing  her 
digestive  and  assimilative  powers  and  drawing  heavily  on  her  vital- 
ity.    In  winter  the  cow  should  be  comfortably  housed  in  a  well- 
lighted,   well-ventilated   stable,  the  temperature   of  which   should 
range  from  40°  to  50°  F. 

697.  Exercise. — Confinement  is  advisable  with  the  fattening  steer 
soon  to  be  slaughtered,  since  it  prevents  waste  of  tissues  and  con- 
serves feed.    With  the  dairy  cow  a  high  standard  of  bodily  health 
and  vigor  can  only  be  maintained  thru  proper  stable  conditions, 
supplemented  by  a  reasonable  amount  of  outdoor  air  and  exercise 
even  during  winter.     Whenever  possible,  the  cow  should  be  out  of 
doors  2  or  3  hours  each  day,  enjoying  the  sunshine  and  exercising 
muscles  which  cannot  be  called  into  action  while  she  is  in  stanchions. 
At  the  Cornell  Station1  Koberts  devised  a  system  whereby  the  cows 
stood  in  stanchions  while  feeding  and  being  milked.     Afterward 
they  were  turned  into  a  large  covered  enclosure  where  they  were 
free  to  stand  or  lie  at  will.    In  other  words,  they  were  milked  and 
fed  in  one  room  and  spent  most  of  their  time  unconfined  in  another. 
The  accumulation  from  the  horse  stable  was  spread  on  the  floor  of 
the  covered  shed,  and  this  in  turn  was  overlaid  with  straw  and 
sprinkled  with  land  plaster  to  suppress  odors.    A  modified  plan,  and 
a  most  excellent  one,  is  to  have  a  small  sanitary  room  in  which  are 
admitted  2  or  more  cows  at  a  time  for  milking  and  eating  their  con- 
centrates.   At  other  times  they  are  confined  in  a  covered  enclosure 
provided  with  a  roomy  rack  for  holding  the  roughage  they  need.  The 
special  milking  room  can  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  properly 
aired,  making  possible  the  cleanest  of  milk. 

698.  Regularity  and  kindness. — To  skilful  feeding  and  wholesome 
quarters   the   successful   dairyman   adds   regularity   and   kindness. 
On  this  point  Babcock  of  the  Wisconsin  Station2  writes:    "I  would 
recommend,  therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  any 
cow,  that  first  of  all  she  be  treated  kindly,  all  sources  of  excitement 
being  avoided  so  far  as  possible.    She  should  also  be  fed  and  milked 
at  regular  intervals  by  the  same  person,  and  all  conditions  should 
be  maintained  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  at  all  times.    It  is  my 
opinion  that  kind  treatment  and  pleasant  surroundings  will  have  a 

1  Bui.  13;  The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  p.  20.  -'  JRpt.  1889. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  483 

greater  influence  upon  the  quality  of  milk  than  the  kind  of  food,  pro- 
vided the  ration  given  contains  sufficient  nutriment  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  animal." 

699.  Fall-fresh  cows. — Spring-fresh  cows  yield  most  of  their  milk 
when  low  prices  prevail  for  dairy  products  and  the  dairyman  is 
busiest  with  the  crops.    In  winter  such  cows  yield  only  a  small  flow 
of  milk  at  most.     On  the  other  hand,  a  fall-fresh  cow  gives  a  large 
supply  of  milk  during  the  winter,  and  flushes  again  with  the  stimulus 
of  pasture  in  springtime.    Fall-fresh  cows  should  annually  yield  from 
10  to  15  per  ct.  more  milk  than  those  calving  in  the  spring. 

700.  Calving. — Good  dairy  cows  usually  show  a  strong  tendency 
to  lay  on  fat  when  not  giving  milk.    Dry  cows  should  be  put  in  good 
condition  before  calving,  fleshing  up  on  grass  alone  if  possible,  for 
having  been  heavily  fed  with  rich  concentrates  while  giving  milk 
this  is  the  only  opportunity  for  a  marked  change  in  the  ration,  which 
should  prove  both  beneficial  and  recuperative.     Before  calving  time 
let  the  feed  be  cooling  and  slightly  laxative.     Silage,  roots,  clover 
hay,  and  fodder  corn  are  desirable  for  roughage,  while  wheat  bran, 
oats,  and  linseed  oil  meal  are  particularly  satisfactory  for  concen- 
trates.    Immediately  after  calving  let  the  feed  supply  be  small.     To 
allay  thirst  give  tepid  water  carrying  a  little  ground  oats.    A  clinical 
thermometer  rightly  used  a  few  days  before  and  after  calving  may 
announce  coming  trouble  before  it  would  otherwise  be  observed. 

701.  Frequency  of  feeding. — The  ample  paunch  and  the  consider- 
able time  needed  for  rumination  teach  that  the  common  practice  of 
feeding  cows  twice  daily,  morning  and  evening,  with  possibly  a  little 
roughage  additional  at  midday,  is  a  reasonable  one.    Those  who  give 
their  cows  first  a  little  of  this  and  then  a  little  of  that,  busying  them- 
selves all  day  in  the  stable,  usually  ascribe  success  to  their  irksome 
system  of  feeding,  when  in  truth  it  is  due  to  good  care  generally  and 
not  to  the  particular  system  of  feeding.     Habit  is  strong  with  the 
cow,  and  a  simple  system  of  feeding  and  stable  management  once 
established  should  be  rigorously  continued.  (615) 

702.  Order   of  feeding. — In   the   roomy  paunch   hay   and   grain 
eaten  separately  are  rapidly  and  thoroly  commingled  by  the  churn- 
ing action  of  that  organ  and  gradually  softened  in  the  warm,  abun- 
dant liquid  it  contains.     This  true,  the  particular  order  of  feeding 
roughages  and  concentrates  is  not  important.     The  cow  seems  best 
satisfied  when  the  concentrates  are  given  first,  and  these  out  of  the 
way,  she  contentedly  proceeds  to  dispose  of  the  roughage  before  her. 
Turning  to  water  should  follow  a  few  hours  after  feeding. 


434  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

703.  Preparation  of  feed. — The  cow  giving  a  large  flow  of  milk 
is  working  as  hard  as  the  horse  ever  does,  and,  this  true,  any  grain 
given  her  should  be  ground  or  crushed  if  not  otherwise  easy  of  mas- 
tication and  digestion.     Corn  and  oats  should  generally,  and  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  kafir,  and  milo  always,  be  ground  or  "chopped,"  and 
roots  should  be  sliced  or  pulped.     Because  the  cow  takes  kindly  to 
dry  feed  and  everything  which  enters  the  paunch  is  quickly  soaked 
and  softened,  there  seems  no  occasion  for  feeding  slops,  nor  is  there 
any  advantage  from  cooking  ordinary  feeding  stuffs.  (332) 

704.  Generous  feed  and  care. — Since  it  requires  something  like 
73  per  ct.  of  all  the  well-fed  cow  eats  to  support  her  body  and  man- 
ufacture the  milk  she  produces,  how  short-sighted  is  that  dairyman 
who  would  withhold  any  part  of  the  remaining  27  per  ct.  of  feed 
that  the  cow  can  possibly  eat !  (592)     Having  reached  the  point  of  lib- 
eral feeding,  the  wise  dairyman  will  next  study  the  capacity  and 
needs  of  each  individual  cow  in  order  that  all  may  receive  the  largest 
profitable  allowance. 

During  the  heated  periods  of  summer,  cows  are  more  comfortable 
in  darkened  stables  away  from  blood-sucking  flies  than  in  pastures. 
In  such  cases  soilage  should  be  fed  by  day,  and  the  herd  turned  into 
the  yard  or  pasture  at  night.  Knowing  the  difficulties  of  bringing 
cows  back  to  their  normal  milk  flow  after  a  shrinkage  caused  by 
scant  feeding,  the  prudent  dairyman  provides  at  all  times  not  only 
abundant  feed  but  also  all  possible  comforts.  (602) 

705.  Water,   salt. — Cows  require   a  large   amount   of  water  for 
their  bodily  needs  and  for  the  milk.     Creatures  of  habit,  they  are 
well  content  if  once  each  day  they  have  ample  opportunity  to  easily 
secure  all  the  water  they  can  then  drink.     Some  devices  for  stall 
watering  are  actually  dangerous,  for  while  the  drinking  basin  may  be 
kept  clean,  the  supply  pipe  coming  into  it  from  below  retains  any 
saliva  which  may  drop  into  it  from  the  basin.    Such  material  quickly 
putrefies  and  steadily  contaminates  the  water  which  rises  thru  the 
pipe  into  the  basin.     The  dairyman  who  boasts  of  a  spring  or  creek 
to  which  his  cows  must  daily  journey,  often  in  inclement  weather,  will 
usually  find  a  conveniently  located  well  with  windmill  or  gasoline 
lift  far  superior.  (87,  452,  612) 

The  studies  of  Babcock  and  Carlyle"  show  that  dairy  cows  must 
have  salt  to  thrive.  (91)  Near  the  sea,  salt  in  addition  to  that  con- 
tained in  the  feeding  stuffs  may  not  be  essential,  but  elsewhere  it 
should  be  liberally  supplied,  the  allowance  increasing  with  the  amount 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  435 

of  rich  concentrates  fed.  From  0.75  to  1  ounce  of  salt  per  day  per 
cow  is  a  reasonable  allowance,  and  should  be  supplied  in  any  con- 
venient manner  as  frequently  as  once  each  week. 

II.  FEED  FOR  THE  DAIRY  Cow. 

706.  Concentrates  and  roughage. — The  wise  dairyman  holds  in 
mind  that  a  good  dairy  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  is  expending  as  much 
energy  as  a  horse  at  hard  labor,  and  this  without  cessation  for  many 
months.  (590-2)     We  have  learned  that  the  harder  the  horse  works 
the  more  grain  and  the  less  roughage  must  he  have,  and  the  same  is 
true  for  the  cow.     Except  when  pasture  is  good  a  portion  of  the 
cow's  provender  should  consist  of  grain  or  rich  concentrates,  and  if 
she  is  yielding  a  large  amount  of  milk,  i.  e.  working  extra  hard,  all 
grain  should  be  ground  or  crushed.     The  dry  cow  doing  little  work 
can  subsist  on  less  carefully  prepared  food,  and  all  or  most  may  be 
in  the  form  of  roughage.     In  feeding,  the  aim  should  be  to  supply 
as  much  roughage  as  the  cow  will  readily  consume,  and  to  this  add 
sufficient  concentrates  to  keep  the  digestible  matter  up  to  the  standard 
set  by  the  scientists.  (611) 

Our  American  experiment  stations  have  now  so  well  solved  the 
problem  that  we  know  if  good  roughage,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
with  corn  silage,  is  supplied  in  abundance,  from  4  to  8  Ibs.  of  such 
concentrates  as  corn,  oats,  barley,  or  milling  and  other  rich  by-prod- 
ucts will  usually  furnish  ample  concentrates.  This  is  a  material  re- 
duction from  earlier  recommendations  and  tends  to  the  more  eco- 
nomical production  of  dairy  products.  However,  such  small  allow- 
ance of  concentrates  is  only  profitable  when  the  roughages  fed  are  of 
high  quality,  palatable,  and  abundant.  The  dairyman  who  persists 
in  feeding  his  cows  wholly  on  such  low-grade  roughages  as  timothy 
hay,  corn  stover,  etc.,  must  pay  the  penalty  by  feeding  from  10  to  12 
Ibs.  of  expensive  concentrates  daily  if  his  cows  are  to  maintain  a 
reasonable  flow  of  milk. 

707.  The  burden  of  dairying. — So  large  are  the  feed  and  labor 
bills  on  many  dairy  farms,  especially  in  the  earlier  settled  portions 
of  our  country,  that  when  they  have  been  met  little  remains  for  the 
proprietor.     Analysis  will  show  that  in  nearly  every  case  it  is  the 
feed  bills  and  not  those  for  labor  that  are  the  real  burden.    Who- 
ever would  improve  his  condition  must  cut  the  monthly  feed  bills 
to  the  minimum,   not   thru   parsimonious   feeding,   but  by   growing 
great  crops  of  the  best  feeding  stuffs.     With  rare  exceptions  the 
dairy  farm  should  produce  all  the  roughage  and  all  or  nearly  all 


436  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

the  concentrates  the  herd  consumes.  Growing  the  needed  feeding 
stuffs  will  increase  labor  and  fertilizer  bills,  but  such  shifting  of  ex- 
penditure should  prove  highly  economical  in  the  end.  Indian  corn 
flourishes  over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  one  or  more 
kinds  of  legumes  can  be  successfully  grown  on  every  farm.  By  the 
judicious  and  generous  use  of  these  two  best  allies  of  the  dairyman, 
the  great  burden  of  the  feed  bills  can  be  lessened. 

708.  The  corn  plant. — Wherever  it  flourishes  the  dairyman  should 
make  the  largest  possible  use  of  the  corn  plant.     The  manure  from 
the  stable,  wisely  fortified  with  commercial  fertilizers,  will  so  enrich 
the  fields  that  each  acre  will  produce  from  12  to  20  tons  of  green 
forage  bearing  a  great  wealth  of  ears  rich  in  grain.     Most  of  the 
crop,  still  green,  should  go  directly  into  the  silo,  which  should  hold 
sufficient  silage  for  6  months  winter  and  2  months  midsummer  feed- 
ing, allowing  40  Ibs.  for  each  cow  daily.    A  portion  of  the  crop,  cured 
in  the  shock,  will  provide  corn  meal  and  some  stover.  (Ch.  IX) 

709.  Legume  hay. — Almost  everywhere  in  America  the  Indian- 
corn  plant  provides  the  cheapest,  most  abundant,  and  most  palatable 
carbohydrates  the  farmer  can  produce,  but  it  falls  short  in  furnish- 
ing protein,  so  vital  in  milk  production.     Happily  at  least  one  of 
the  legumes — alfalfa,   clover,   cowpeas,  or  vetch — can  be  grown  on 
every  American  farm  to  supply  the  deficiency.     The  dairyman  who 
grows  great  crops  of  corn  for  silage  must  also  have  broad  fields  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  some  other  legume  to  help  round  out  the  ration. 
With  corn  silage,  the  daily  legume  hay  provision  should  be  not  less 
than  15  Ibs.  per  cow  for  6  months.    With  rich  corn  silage  and  all  the 
palatable  legume  hay  the  cow  will  eat,  not  over  4  or  5  Ibs.  of  ex- 
pensive concentrates  are  needed  to  complete  a  well-balanced  liberal 
ration.     The  findings  of  Hart  and  McCollum  of  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion, that  a  cow  yielding  30  Ibs.  of  milk  daily  requires  a  minimum  of 
not  less  than  2  ounces  of  lime  a  day,  gives  a  new  value  to  legume  hayr 
which  is  rich  in  lime.  (89,  Ch.  XII) 

710.  Roots. — Since  roots  may  successfully  replace  half  the  grain 
usually  fed  to  cows  even  when  corn  silage  is  fed,  (661)  the  dairyman 
who  can  produce  a  great  tonnage  of  mangels  or  rutabagas  may  still 
further  reduce  the  concentrates  required  by  his  herd.     When  bran, 
corn,  etc.,  sold  for  low  prices,  the  dairyman  with  a  silo  could  hardly 
afford  to  grow  roots,  but  with  the  advancing  prices  of  good  con- 
centrates many  farmers  can  now  profitably  grow  and  feed  roots. 

To  build  up  the  fertility  of  the  fields  so  that  they  will  econom- 
ically produce  great  crops  of  corn,  legumes,  and  roots  will  call  for 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  437 

much  labor,  and  the  judicious  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  many 
cases,  but  it  is  far  better  to  spend  money  for  these  purposes  than  to 
pay  it  in  the  dragging-down  process  of  forever  buying  feed  that 
under  a  wiser  system  could  be  profitably  produced  at  home.  (275-6) 

711.  Protein-rich  silage. — There  is  great  need  for  some  protein- 
rich  legume  which  can  be  satisfactorily  ensiled.     The  soybean  and 
cowpea  are  the  most  promising  candidates,  and  if  these  can  be  profit- 
ably grown  and  successfully  ensiled  along  with  the  green  corn  crop, 
the  mixture  will  furnish  a  ration  almost  rich  enough  in  protein  and 
sufficiently  digestible  to  nearly  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  sup- 
plying any  concentrates.  (360,  658) 

712.  Soilage,   summer  silage. — The   dairyman  who   feeds   silage 
knows  that  not  for  a  single  day  in  winter  will  his  cows  suffer  for 
food.    Let  him  next  plan  that  there  shall  be  equal  provision  for  them 
in  summer.     It  is  practically  impossible  to  have  pastures  that  will 
provide  an  abundance  of  grass  for  the  herd  at  all  times  with  little 
or  no  waste.     Pasturage  supplemented  by  partial  soilage  or  silage 
solves  the  problem  of  summer  feeding  as  economically  and  completely 
as  does  silage  feeding  solve  the  problem  of  winter  feeding.    The  wise 
dairyman  will  provide  sufficient  soilage  or  silage  to  make  good  all 
possible  shortage  of  the  pastures  in  summer.     Soilage  and  silage  en- 
able the  dairyman  to  maintain  the  maximum  flow  of  milk  at  the  min- 
imum cost  for  production,  regardless  of  the  season.  (Ch.  XIV,  Part  I) 

713.  Trashy  feeds  and  timothy  hay. — The  prevailing  high  prices 
for  concentrates  have  brought  out  a  great  many  new  feeds  and  feed 
combinations,  ranging  from  worthless  to  excellent.    Feeling  the  pinch 
of  poverty,  the  dairyman  is  tempted  to  buy  the  poorer  grades,  vainly 
hoping  that  his  cows  will  thrive  on  them,  while  he  saves  a  little 
money  by  their  use.     Almost  without  exception,  low-grade  concen- 
trates are  extravagantly  expensive  feeding  stuffs.  (Ch.  XIV,  Part  IV) 

Next  to  the  folly  of  buying  trashy  feeds  is  the  practice  of  many 
dairymen,  especially  in  the  Eastern  states,  of  using  timothy  hay  for 
roughage,  supplemented  with  large  quantities  of  expensive  purchased 
concentrates.  (224,  664)  Timothy  hay  has  its  uses,  but  it  is  not  suit- 
able or  economical  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  The  dairyman  who  relies 
on  this  roughage  for  nourishing  his  dairy  herd  often  gets  no  return 
for  his  invested  money  and  less  wages  for  himself  than  the  hired  man 
who  helps  him  milk  the  cows. 

714.  Compounding  rations. — Chapter  VIII,  which  teaches  how  to 
formulate  rations,  and  Table  III  of  the  Appendix,  giving  the  diges- 
tible nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs,  should  ]be  studied  by  dairymen  de- 
sirous of  knowing  the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs  and  how  to  com- 


438 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


pound  rations  that  will  furnish  all  the  nutrients  required  by  cows 
without  supplying  any  in  excess.  There  is  no  gain  in  attempting  to 
apply  these  teachings  with  extreme  exactness  to  every-day  feeding 
operations.  No  two  cows  in  the  herd  have  exactly  the  same  wants, 
and  the  various  feeds  at  hand  are  not  identical  in  chemical  composi- 
tion with  the  averages  given  in  the  tables  of  composition.  Such 
tables  and  standards  are  invaluable  in  giving  sound  and  helpful  fun- 
damental knowledge  so  that  one  has  a  clear,  broad  conception  of  what 
he  is  doing  and  can  move  forward  along  the  right  lines  with  confi- 
dence. Having  well  in  hand  the  basic  facts  concerning  feeding  stuffs 
and  rations,  it  is  enough  if  the  weight  of  concentrates  each  cow  con- 
sumes daily  is  known,  while  the  quantity  of  roughage  may  be  esti- 
mated from  weighings  made  occasionally. 

To  aid  in  efforts  at  economical  feeding,  the  following  groupings 
of  commonly  available  feeding  stuffs  are  presented,  based  on  their 
digestible  nutrients,  fiber,  and  palatability : 


Class  I 

Poor  in  diges.  crude  protein, 
poor  in  digestible  carbohy., 
high  in  fiber 

Wheat  straw 
Barley  straw 
Oat  straw 
Marsh  hay 
Salt  marsh  hay 
Rye  hay 

Cotton-seed  hulls 
Corn  stover 


Class  IV 

Fair  in  diges.  crude  protein, 
rich  in  digestible  carbohy., 
little  fiber 

Ground  corn 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Hominy  feed 

Oats 

Barley  meal 

Emmer  meal 

Rye  meal 

Buckwheat  meal 

Buckwheat  bran 

Rice  meal 

Kafir 

Milo 

Dried  beet  pulp 


Roughages 
Class  II 

Fair  in  diges.  crude  protein, 
fair  in  digestible  carbohy., 
considerable  fiber 

Timothy  hay 
Red  top  hay 
Bermuda  hay 
Johnson-grass  hay 
Sorghum  fodder 
Kafir  fodder 
Milo  fodder 
Corn  fodder 


Class  III 

Rich  in  diges.  crude  protein, 
fair  in  digestible  carbohy., 
considerable  fiber 

Alfalfa  hay 
Red  clover  hay 
Cowpea  hay 
Vetch  hay 
Soybean  hay 
Velvet  bean  hay 
Beggar-weed  hay 


Corn  silage 
Roots 

Concentrates 
Class  r 

Rich  in  diges.  crude  protein, 
fair  in  digestible  carbohy., 
some  fiber 

Low-grade  flour 
Wheat  bran 
Wheat  middlings 
Rye  bran 
Rye  middlings 


Class  VI 

Highest  in  diges.  cr.  protein, 
fair  in  digestible  carbohy., 
little  fibei 

Gluten  meal 
Gluten  feed 
Buckwheat  middlings 
Field-pea  meal 
Cowpea  meal 
Soybean  meal 
Linseed  meal 
Cotton-seed  meal 
Soybean  cake  meal 
Dried  brewers'  grains 
Dried  distillers'  grains 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  439 

It  will  be  observed  that  both  the  roughages  and  concentrates  are 
divided  into  three  classes  on  the  basis  of  digestible  nutrients,  palata- 
bility,  and  general  usefulness.  When  the  crude-protein-poor  rough- 
ages of  Class  I  are  fed,  then  as  an  offset  the  protein-rich  concentrates 
from  Class  VI  should  as  a  rule  be  taken.  When  Class  III,  which 
furnishes  roughage  of  the  highest  quality,  is  fed,  the  concentrates  of 
Class  IV,  which  are  only  fair  in  crude  protein  and  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, should  largely  furnish  the  concentrates.  In  general,  crude- 
protein-rich  concentrates  in  large  quantity  must  be  fed  with  rough- 
ages which  are  poor  in  crude  protein,  while  crude-protein-rich  rough- 
ages should  be  supplemented  with  concentrates  rich  in  carbohydrates 
rather  than  rich  in  crude  protein.  The  several  divisions  of  the  table 
are  more  or  less  arbitrary.  The  last  roughages  listed  in  Class  I 
might  go  with  Class  II,  and  roots  and  corn  silage  might  form  a  sep- 
arate class  because  of  their  succulence  and  great  palatability.  This 
classification  is  sufficiently  complete,  however,  to  give  the  intelligent 
student  a  general  conception  of  how  to  properly  combine  nitrogenous 
and  carbohydrate-rich  feeding  stuffs  into  rations  that  will  fully  and 
economically  nourish  the  dairy  cow. 

The  provident  dairyman  will  grow  an  abundance  of  the  low-priced 
useful  roughages  of  Class  II,  especially  corn  for  forage  and  silage,  as 
well  as  for  grain.  He  will  also  grow  one  or  more  of  the  invaluable 
legumes  in  Class  III  in  such  abundance  that  he  will  need  but  the 
minimum  of  expensive  concentrates  to  complete  the  balanced  ration. 
To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  preceding  classification  table,  three 
rations  are  given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

In  the  first  ration  where  timothy  hay  from  Class  II  supplies  the 
roughage,  11  Ibs.  of  expensive  concentrates  from  Classes  IV  and  VI 
are  necessary  to  furnish  the  additional  nutrients  required.  Even  then 
this  expensive  ration  is  not  satisfactory,  for  timothy  hay  is  a  poor 
cow  feed  at  best  and  a  large  amount  of  concentrates  is  used. 

The  second  ration  with  clover  hay  from  Class  III  and  ground  corn 
from  Class  IV  is  better  and  less  expensive  than  the  first.  Such  a  ra- 
tion is  theoretically  ample,  but  there  should  be  a  larger  variety  of 
feeding  stuffs  to  make  it  entirely  satisfactory. 

The  last  ration  may  be  called  ideal.  Drawing  legume  hay  from 
Class  III  and  corn  silage  from  Class  II,  the  combination  of  rough- 
age is  most  palatable  and  acceptable  to  the  cow,  while  there  is  further 
required  only  4  Ibs.  of  concentrates  from  IV  and  VI  to  balance  the 
ration.  This  last  ration  is  less  expensive  and  more  desirable  than 
the  second  one,  and  far  less  expensive  and  much  more  desirable  than 


440 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


the  first.  Altho  all  are  "  balanced "  from  the  theoretical  standpoint, 
the  last  one  is  not  only  the  lowest  in  cost,  but  if  put  to  the  test  will 
probably  produce  from  20  to  30  per  ct.  more  milk  than  the  first  and 
somewhat  more  than  the  second. 

Sample  rations  for  dairy  cows  based  on  the  previous  table  and  Tables  111 
and  IV  of  the  Appendix. 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

A  poor  ration,  roughage  from  Class  II 
Timothy  hay,  20  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

17.4 
3.6 
6.4 

Lbs. 

0.56 
0.31 
1.40 

Lbs. 

8.48 
2.67 
2.25 

Lbs. 

0.26 
0.17 
0.42 

Ground  corn,  4  Ibs. 

Dried  brewers'  grains,  7  Ibs  

A  fair  ration,  roughage  from  Class  II 
Clover  hay,  22  Ibs  

27.4 

2.27 

13.40 

0.85 

18.6 
7.2 

1.56 
0.62 

8.32 
5.34 

0.40 
0.34 

Ground  corn,  8  Ibs  

An  ideal  ration,  roughage  from  II  and  III 
Corn  silage,  40  Ibs. 

25.8 

2.18 

13.66 

0.74 

10.6 
12.7 

2.7 
0.9 

0.56 
1.07 
0.23 
0.38 
2^A 

5.68 
5.67 
2.00 
0.21 

0.28 
0.27 
0.13 
0.10 

Clover  hay,  15  Ibs. 

Ground  corn,  3  Ibs. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  lib.  _  

26.9 

13.56 

0.78 

In  compounding  desirable  and  economical  rations  for  the  dairy 
cow  there  should  first  be  provided  at  least  two  varieties  of  palatable 
roughage,  one  of  which  is  leguminous,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or 
cowpea  hay,  in  order  to  furnish  a  considerable  amount  of  crude  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter.  The  other,  richer  in  carbohydrates,  should 
if  possible  be  succulent  in  character.  Corn  silage  and  roots  serve 
advantageously,  or  in  their  absence  dry  corn  forage,  sorghum  forage, 
or  similar  roughage  may  be  fed.  The  two  classes  of  roughages  com- 
bined should  furnish  fully  three-fourths  of  the  necessary  carbohy- 
drates and  half  or  more  of  the  crude  protein.  The  ration  should 
then  be  completed  by  adding  from  6  to  8  Ibs.  of  concentrates,  of  two 
kinds  if  possible,  for  variety  and  palatability.  If  the  ration  con- 
tains corn  silage  well  loaded  with  ears,  or  if  roots  are  fed,  then  the 
concentrates  may  be  cut  to  4  or  5  Ibs.  It  is  never  well  to  entirely 
eliminate  the  concentrates  from  the  ration  of  cows  giving  a  good 
flow  of  milk,  for  a  ration  composed  wholly  of  roughage  will  carry  so 
much  inert  matter  that  the  work  of  digesting  it  taxes  the  animal 
severely. 


Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  441 

When  there  is  an  ample  supply  of  suitable  roughage,  a  safe  and 
simple  rule  as  to  the  proper  supply  of  concentrates  is  that  in  prac- 
tice at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  College,  which  is:  Give  to  each 
cow  as  many  pounds  of  concentrates  daily  as  she  yields  pounds  of 
butter  fat  weekly.  Or  give  1  pound  of  concentrates  daily  for  each 
3  or  4  Ibs.  of  milk  yielded  daily,  according  to  its  richness.  If  the 
roughages  are  meager  in  quantity  or  of  low  palatability,  more  con- 
centrates must  be  given  than  is  here  recommended. 

The  dairyman  seeking  further  light  on  the  proper  amount  of  con- 
centrates and  roughages  of  the  various  kinds  for  his  dairy  herd  will 
find  the  information  amply  and  helpfully  set  forth  in  the  numerous 
feeding  trials,  conducted  at  the  various  experiment  stations  with 
many  kinds  of  feed,  reported  in  Chapters  XXIV  and  XXV.  (611) 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


GENEKAL  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  CAEE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF 

SHEEP. 

715.  Period  of  gestation. — Below  are  given  the  findings  of  Tes- 
sier1  of  France,  and  Carlyle,  Humphrey,  and  Kleinheinz  of  the  Wis- 
consin Station,2  showing  the  gestation  period  of  ewes.  The  Wiscon- 
sin data  cover  17  years  of  the  records  kept  by  Kleinheinz,  the  sta- 
tion flock  master. 

The  gestation  period  of  ewes. 


Authority 

Number 
of  ewes 

Shortest 
period 

Longest 
period 

Average 
period 

Kange  of 
period 

Over  75  per 
ct.between 

Days 

Days 

Days 

Days 

Days 

Days 

Tessier  of  France... 

912 

146 

161 

152 

15 

150-154 

Wisconsin  Station.. 

764 

140 

156 

147 

16 

145-149 

The  Wisconsin  ewes,  mostly  grades  of  the  English  breeds,  carried 
their  lambs  for  an  average  of  147  days,  while  the  French  ewes,  doubt- 
less of  the  Merino  breed,  yeaned  in  152  days.  At  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion the  grade  Merinos  and  Cheviots  carried  their  lambs  longer  than 
those  of  the  English  breeds  under  observation. 

716.  Breeding  studies. — Studies  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  flock, 
covering  5  years,  by  Humphrey  and  Kleinheinz  show:3  The  length 
of  the  gestation  period  does  not  influence  the  birth  size  of  the  lamb. 
The  average  weight  of  ram  lambs  at  birth  is  about  0.5  Ib.  greater,  and 
the  gestation  period  somewhat  longer,  than  in  the  case  of  ewe  lambs. 
The  per  cent  of  male  lambs  is  practically  the  same  as  females.  The 
age  of  the  ram  appears  to  have  no  effect  on  the  sex  of  his  offspring, 
but  as  the  age  of  the  ewe  increases,  the  per  cent  of  ram  lambs  she 
bears  increases.  The  size  of  the  lamb  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the 
ewe  and  not  of  the  ram.  Six-year-old  ewes  produced  the  largest  per 
cent  of  increase,  while  young  ewes  have  more  singles.  The  size  of  the 
ram  appears  to  have  no  effect  on  the  number  of  lambs  yeaned  by 
the  ewes.  The  larger  the  ewe  of  a  given  breed  the  greater  is  the  per 
cent  of  her  increase. 


1  Coleman,  Sheep  of  Great  Britain. 

2  Ept.  1907,  Bui.  95. 


3  Wis.  Sta.,  Ept.  1907. 


442 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


443 


717.  Weight  of  lambs  at  birth. — Below  is  given  the  average 
weight  of  lambs  of  several  breeds  at  yeaning,  as  reported  by  Hum- 
phrey and  Kleinheinz  from  records  covering  5  years  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin Station1  flock: 

Average  weight  of  lambs  at  birth. 


15  reed 

Singles 

Twins 

Triplets 

Av.  of  all 

Shropshire  

Lbs. 
8.9 

Lbs. 
7.4 

Lbs. 

5.8 

Lbs. 

7.7 

Dorset                          -                  _  __      

10.7 

8.5 

9.3 

Shrop-Merino_  •        ._  

10.4 

8.3 

7.8 

8.6 

Southdown 

8.5 

7.4 

7.9 

Oxford  -.. 

10.4 

8.2 

7.1 

8.3 

Hampshire 

10.3 

8.4 

9.0 

Cheviot 

8.8 

8.2 

8.4 

Montana  range 

8.0 

7.3 

6.5 

7.2 

718.  Ewe's  milk. — In  America  sheep  are  not  generally  used  for 
producing  milk  for  man,  but  in  many  districts  abroad,  especially  the 
mountain  regions  of  Continental  Europe,  their  milk  is  extensively 
employed,  partly  for  direct  consumption  and  to  a  larger  extent  for 
the  manufacture  of  cheese.     Ewe's  milk  has  a  peculiar,  somewhat 
unpleasant  odor  and  taste,  and  differs  from  cow's  milk  mainly  in 
its   greater  proportion  of   fat  and   protein.    It  is  also   thicker   and 
sours  more  slowly.    The  fat  content  of  ewe's  milk  is  extremely  vari- 
able, ranging  from  2  to  12  per  cent.2     The  butter  is  pale  yellow, 
less  firm  than  cow's  butter,  and  becomes  rancid  much  quicker. 

The  yield  of  milk  by  sheep  will  vary  greatly  according  to  breed 
and  feed.  Sieglin3  states  that  the  East  Friesian  milk  sheep  in  Ger- 
many yield  at  2  to  3  years  of  age  from  3  to  4  quarts  of  milk  daily 
for  2  months  after  weaning  their  lambs,  and  keep  up  an  excellent  flow 
of  milk  during  the  autumn  months.  These  sheep  are  prolific,  drop- 
ping 2,  3,  and  even  4  lambs,  individuals  lambing  twice  a  year.  Three 
sheep  are  estimated  to  consume  as  much  feed  as  1  cow.  Ordinary 
sheep  yield  from  100  to  150  Ibs.  of  milk  per  year,  while  the  milk 
breeds  produce  from  300  to  1,400  Ibs. 

719.  Composition  of  ewe's  milk. — Below  is  given  the  composition 
of  ewe's  milk  as  determined  by  Sartori  and  Fleischmann.4   For  com- 

1  Rpt.  1907. 

2  See  Staz.  Sper.  Ag.  Ital.  23,  p.  572;  Analyst,  1893,  p.  248;  Fleischmann,  Milch- 
wirtschaft,  1901,  p.  64;  Jensen,  Milchkunde  und  Milchhygiene,  1903,  p.  17. 

,     8  Schaf  er-Sieglin  Lehrbuch  der  Milchwirtschaf  t,  1908,  p.  17. 
*  Milchkunde  und  Milchhygiene,  Jensen,  p.  18. 


444 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


parison  the  table  gives  the  average  composition  of  cow's  milk,  ac- 
cording to  Konig.1 

Composition  of  ewe's  milk,  with  that  of  cow's  milk  for  comparison. 


Authority 

Water 

Casein  and 
albumin 

Fat 

Sugar 

Ash 

Sartori—  Av.  of  analyses  of 
milk  from  2,700  ewes  

Per  cent 
78.70 

Per  cent 
6.30 

Per  cent 
8.94 

Per  cent 
5.06 

Per  cent 
1.02 

Fleischmann—  Av.  of  analyses 
of  milk  from  250  ewes  

75.54 

7.16 

11.90 

3.43 

1.05     . 

Konig  —  Av.  of  analyses  of 
milk  from  705  cows 

87.27 

3.39 

3.68 

4.94 

0.72    ! 

It  is  here  shown  that,  as  a  rule,  ewe's  milk  is  markedly  richer  in 
all  constituents  than  that  of  the  cow.  (595) 

720.  Milking  qualities  of  ewes.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  Car- 
lyle,  Puller,  and  Kleinheinz  kept  lambs  from  their  dams  except  at 
regular  intervals  when  they  were  allowed  to  suckle.  The  milk 
yielded  by  the  ewes  was  determined  by  weighing  their  lambs  imme- 
diately before  and  after  placing  them  with  their  dams. 

Daily  milk  yield  of  ewes  of  different  breeds. 


Breed 

Number 
of  ewes 

Av.  daily 
milk  yield 

Composition 

Specific 
gravity 

Fat 

Solids 
not  fat 

Total 
solids 

Oxford  

2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 

Lbs. 
3.1 
1.9 
4.3 
2.5 
2.3 
2.7 

Per  cent 

7.7 
8.4 
7.2 
5.9 
6.0 
7.2 

Per  cent 
11.0 

11.1 

10.9 
10.8 
10.8 
11.1 

Per  cent 
18.6 
19.5 
18.1 
16.7 
16.8 
18.3 

Per  cent 
1.038 
1.038 
1.038 
1.039 
1.038 
1.039 

Southdown.           

Dorset.      _  _  

Shropshire  _  .  

Merino  .. 

Range  . 

Average,  14  ewes 

2.8 

7.1 

10.9 

18.2 

1.038 

In  this  trial  the  Dorsets  gave  the  most  and  the  Southdowns  the 
richest  milk.  On  the  average  the  milk  of  these  ewes  contained  over 
7  per  ct.  fat  and  nearly  11  per  ct.  of  solids  not  fat,  its  specific  gravity 
exceeding  that  of  cow 's  milk. 

721.  Feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  ewe's  milk.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station3 
Shepperd  recorded  the  milk  yielded  by  ewes  receiving  a  mixture  of 

1  Chem.  Nahrungs-und  Genuss-mittel,  II,  1904,  p.  602. 

2  Ept.  1904. 

8  Agri.  Science,  VI,  p.  397. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


445 


3  parts  of  wheat  bran  and  1  of  linseed  meal,  with  fair-quality  clover 
hay  and  sliced  potatoes  for  roughage. 

Feed  and  water  consumed  by  ewes  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  milk  produced. 


Concentrates 

Clover  hay 

Potatoes 

Water  drank 

Single  ewe         _        ..      

Lbs. 
51 

Lbs. 
61.6 

Lbs. 
38 

Lbs. 
293 

Group  of  2  ewes  

59 

55.5 

29 

417 

Group  of  2  ewes     

72 

63.0 

36 

404 

It  is  shown  that  the  single  ewe  under  trial  produced  100  Ibs.  of 
milk  while  consuming  51  Ibs.  of  concentrates,  61.6  Ibs.  of  clover  hay, 
and  38  Ibs.  of  potatoes.  The  figures  show  that  the  ewe  ranks  with  the 
cow  in  ability  to  convert  hay  and  grain  economically  into  milk,  tho 
she  is  at  the  same  time  growing  a  fleece.  (686,  687) 

722.  Value  of  ewe's  milk  for  lambs. — Shepperd1  further  noted 
the  amount  of  milk  consumed  by  lambs  and  the  gains  made  by  them. 
The  lambs,  kept  from  the  ewes  except  when  sucking,  were  weighed 
before  and  after  sucking  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  milk  they  re- 
ceived. 

Daily  gain  of  young  lambs  and  gain  per  Ib.  of  ewe's  milk  consumed. 


Age 

Gain  per  day 

Gain  per  Ib.  of  milk 

Lamb  No.  1 

Days 
25 

Lbs. 
0.62 

Lbs. 
0.156 

Lamb  No.  2_  

28 

0.47 

0.166 

Lamb  No.  3 

36 

0.44 

0.145 

Lamb  No.  4 

34 

0.40 

0.159 

Average  

31 

0.48 

0.156 

In  this  trial  the  lambs  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  nearly  0.5 
Ib.,  each  Ib.  of  milk  consumed  producing  about  0.15  Ib.  increase  in 
live  weight.  Shepperd  concludes  that  the  gain  of  lambs,  during  the 
first  month  of  their  lives  at  least,  is  largely  controlled  by  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  they  receive,  and  consequently  that  ewes  should  be  care- 
fully selected  for  their  milking  qualities.  (473,  814) 

723.  Feeding  milk  to  lambs. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  the  au- 
thor reared  4  vigorous  cross-bred  Shrop-Merino  lambs  on  cow's  milk 
and  other  appropriate  feeding  stuff's.  They  were  10  days  old  and 
averaged  10  Ibs.  each  in  weight  when  the  trial  began.  For  the  first 
21  days  cow's  milk  at  blood  heat  constituted  their  sole  food,  and 


1  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  397,  405. 


2Rpt.  1890. 


446 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


after  that  skim  milk,  ground  oats,  and  green  clover  were  supplied. 
During  the  last  21  days  hay  was  fed  in  place  of  the  milk. 

Rearing  lambs  on  cow's  milk  and  other  feeds. 


Period 

Feed  for  100  pounds  gain 

Whole 
milk 

Skim 
milk 

Oats 

Green 
clover 

Hay 

1st  period,    21  days 

Lbs. 
579 

ILbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

2d  period,  115  days          

830 

119 
291 

262 
1,197 

3d  period,     21  days  ... 

176 

At  the  close  of  the  last  period,  when  167  days  old,  the  lambs  aver- 
aged 79  Ibs.  each,  showing  a  daily  gain,  including  birth  weight,  of 
nearly  0.5  Ib.  each.  The  heavy  gains  which  followed  the  use  of  cow's 
milk  suggest  its  profitable  use  in  forcing  lambs  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  special  markets,  e.  g.  "Christmas  lambs."  (301-2,  474,  881-5) 

724.  Relative  economy  of  lambs  and  pigs. — From  the  figures  for 
the  second  period  of  the  preceding  article  and  those  in  Article  816 
the  following  data  are  deduced: 

Feed  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  increase  by  young  pigs  and  lambs. 


Feed 

Pigs 

Lambs 

Meal 

Lbs. 
237 

Lbs. 
119 

Skim  milk 

475 

830 

Green  clover 

262 

Meal  equivalent 

316 

284 

Estimating  that  6  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  equals  1  Ib.  of  meal  in  feeding 
value,  according  to  the  Danish  formula,  (883)  we  have  316  Ibs.  of 
meal  or  its  equivalent  as  the  feed  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with 
unweaned  pigs.  Using  the  same  ratio  for  the  skim  milk  fed  to  the 
lambs  and  estimating  that  10  Ibs.  of  green  clover  is  equal  to  1  Ib.  of 
meal,  we  have  284  Ibs.  of  grain,  or  its  equivalent,  as  the  feed  re- 
quired for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  young  lambs,  or  32  Ibs.  less  than 
that  required  by  the  pigs.  From  this  it  is  apparent  that  lambs  make 
at  least  as  economical  gains  for  feed  consumed  as  do  pigs  of  the  same 
age.  (472) 

725.  Iowa  Station  breed  test. — The  most  extensive  breed  test  con- 
ducted with  sheep  in  this  country  was  made  by  Wilson  and  Curtiss 
at  the  Iowa  Station.1  In  the  first  trial  there  were  10  wethers  in  each 


1  Buls.  33,  35. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


447 


lot,  averaging  12  months  in  age,  and  in  the  second  9  wethers  in  each 
lot,  averaging  9  months  in  age.  The  Merinos  in  the  first  trial  were 
of  the  National  Delaine  strain  and  in  the  second  trial  were  Ram- 
bouillets.  The  first  trial  lasted  90  and  the  second  105  days,  the 
rations  for  all  the  lots  being  alike.  The  leading  results  of  the  2 
trials  are  arranged  in  the  following  table: 

Comparison  of  breeds  for  mutton  and  wool  production. 


Av. 

wt. 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Per  cent 
dressed 
carcass 

Av. 

wt.  of 
fleece 

Value 
of 

fleece 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots 

Southdown.. 
Shropshire  -. 
Dorset 

Lbs. 
78 
95 
92 
105 
107 
109 
102 
108 
78 

Lbs. 
0.40 
0.41 
0.45 
0.47 
0.46 
0.48 
0.55 
0.50 
0.32 

Lbs. 
39.2 
40.6 
44.8 
46.3 
45.2 
47.2 
54.5 
49.7 
32.4 

Lbs. 
483 
500 
485 
492 
499 
465 
418 
457 
573 

Lbs. 
451 
476 
494 
493 
500 
462 
411 
451 
509 

Lbs. 
279 
306 
286 
280 
311 
293 
249 
270 
345 

Lbs. 
55.3 
54.6 
53.4 
53.1 
52.6 
54.8 
54.2 
53.4 
50.7 

Lbs. 
5.7 
8.3 
6.4 
6.4 
9.5 
10.3 
11.3 
11.7 
8.2 

Dollars 
0.70. 
1.04 
0.80 
0.81 
1.30 
1.54 
1.56 
1.67 
0.87 

Suffolk 

Oxford 

Leicester.  __ 
Cotswold  
Lincoln  

Merino  

The  large  breeds  such  as  the  Leicester,  Cotswold,  and  Lincoln  made 
somewhat  the  largest  daily  gains,  while  the  Merinos  ranked  lowest  in 
daily  gains  and  consumed  the  most  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The 
Cotswolds  consumed  the  least  feed  for  a  given  gain,  tho  it  is  not 
reasonable  to  hold  that  they  are  in  a  class  by  themselves  in  this  par- 
ticular. (769) 

726.  Daily  gain  for  various  breeds. — The  best  daily  gains  made 
by  fat  wethers  exhibited  at  the  American  Fat-Stock  Show,  Chicago,1 
between  the  years  1879  and  1882,  inclusive,  were  as  follows: 

Weight  and  average  daily  gain  from  birth  of  wethers  making  the  best  gains. 


Breed  and  age 

Age 

Weight 

Av.  daily  gain 
from  birth 

Wethers  2  and  under  3  years 
Leicester                                          

Days 
969 

[Lbs. 
300 

Lbs. 
0.31 

Cotswold 

933 

281 

0.30 

Wethers  1  and  under  2  years 
Cotswold 

535 

220 

0.41 

Grade  Oxford                                               

612 

232 

0.38 

Leicester                                                   

600 

295 

0.49 

Wethers  under  1  year 
Cotswold                                                   

170 

152 

0.89 

Southdown                                  ..      

213 

193 

0.90 

Leicester                                       -  

235 

178 

0.75 

1  Trans.  Dept.  Agr.,  Ill,  1884,  p.  228. 


448 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


727.  Soiling  ewes  and  lambs. — Because  of  their  daintiness  and 
the  large  variety  of  plants  they  crop  if  opportunity  offers,  it  is 
usually  impracticable  to  soil  sheep.  Desiring  to  ascertain,  regardless 
of  cost,  the  amount  of  food  required  by  sheep  for  growth  in  sum- 
mer, the  author  conducted  the  trial  reported  below.1  Ten  large 
Merino  ewes  were  chosen,  each  with  a  vigorous  lamb  at  foot  1  month 
old  when  the  trial  began,  June  3.  With  patience  and  laborious  at- 
tention to  details  the  shepherd  fed  the  lot  successfully,  obtaining  the 
results  given  in  the  table: 

Feed  required  for  100  Us.  gain  when  soiling  ewes  and  lambs. 


Green 
clover 

Green  corn 
fodder 

Hay 

Oats 

Ewes  and  lambs,  before  weaning 
1st  period,  June   3-July  29  (57  days) 

Lbs. 

2,882 

Lbs. 

478 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
45 

2d  period,  July   29-Sept.  16  (49  days)  

555 

2,400 

45 

Lambs  only,  after  weaning 
3d  period,  Sept.  16-Oct.  14  (28  days)  

915 

292 

413 

Placing  a  fair  price  on  the  substances  consumed,  we  find  that  100 
Ibs.  of  increase  was  made  at  a  reasonable  cost.  When  we  remember 
that  the  ewes  would  have  preferred  to  do  their  own  foraging  and 
would  have  eaten  weeds  and  weed  seeds  as  well  as  better  forage,  we 
must  conclude  that  evidence  points  to  the  sheep  as  one  of  the  most 
economical  meat  producers  on  the  farm. 

728.  Feeding  grain  to  lambs  before  and  after  weaning. — At  the 
Wisconsin  Station2  Craig  gave  some  lambs  grain  before  weaning, 
others  grain  after  weaning,  and  still  others  grain  during  fattening 
only.  Among  the  conclusions  reached  are  the  following: 

"The  continuous  grain  feeding  from  birth  until  the  lambs  were 
about  10  months  old  did  not  produce  any  noticeable  difference  in  the 
carcasses  in  respect  to  the  mixture  of  fat  and  lean,  but  materially 
influenced  the  early  maturity  of  the  lambs.  The  lambs  so  fed  attained 
a  given  weight  from  4  to  7  weeks  sooner  than  those  fed  no  grain  be- 
fore weaning  and  required  about  the  same  amount  of  grain  for  the 
same  increase  in  weight. 

"When  lambs  are  fed  grain  continuously  from  birth  they  are  fit 
for  the  market  at  any  time,  so  that  advantage  may  be  taken  of  any 
favorable  fluctuation  that  may  occur  in  market  prices. 

1 '  When  the  lambs  are  to  be  sold  at  weaning  time  in  July  at  the  age 
of  3  or  4  months,  or  in  November  when  about  7  months  old,  it  will 
pay  to  feed  them  grain." 


1  Ept.  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.,  1890. 


2  Rpt.  1896. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


449 


The  unlimited  feeding  of  grain  after  weaning  led  the  lambs  to  eat 
less  pasture.  One-half  pound  of  grain  per  head  daily  is  the  greatest 
amount  that  was  found  profitable  to  feed  at  this  time. 

729.  Grain-feeding  lambs  before  weaning. — At  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion1 Craig  fed  various  grains  to  unweaned  high-grade  Shropshire 
lambs  for  periods  averaging  10  weeks.  The  lambs  were  induced  to 
eat  grain  as  early  as  possible  and  were  given  all  they  could  consume 
in  a  trough  accessible  at  all  times  thru  a  "creep,"  which  shut  out 
the  dams.  A  summary  of  4  trials  is  here  shown. 

Feeding  various  grains  to  lambs  before  weaning. 


Grain  fed 

Average  daily 
grain  con- 
sumption 

Average 
weight  at  be- 
ginning 

Average 
daily  gain 

Average 
total  gain 

Grain  fed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn  meal*  

Lbs. 
0.4 

Lbs. 
39 

Lbs. 
0.51 

Lbs. 

35.8 

Lbs. 
74 

Whole  oats  

0.4 

44 

0.53 

37.0 

78 

Wheat  bran 

0.3 

43 

0  48 

33  6 

71 

Cracked  peas  

0.4 

37 

0.53 

37.0 

81 

*  Average  of  5  trials. 

Corn  meal  gave  good  returns  in  these  trials,  especially  when  cost  is 
considered.  This  feed  is  one  of  the  best  for  unweaned  lambs  de- 
signed for  the  butcher,  since  it  puts  on  much  fat.  For  unweaned 
lambs  which  are  to  go  into  the  breeding  flock,  at  least  one-half  of  the 
concentrates  should  be  such  as  were  fed  to  the  other  lots  in  these 
trials.  Oats  and  peas  are  rich  in  crude  protein  and  one  or  both 
can  be  grown  on  almost  any  farm  in  America.  Where  not  avail- 
able, bran  can  take  their  place.  The  large  daily  gains  made  by 
these  unweaned  lambs  and  the  small  amount  of  grain  required  in 
addition  to  the  dams '  milk  for  a  given  gain  forcefully  illustrate  the 
principle  that  young  animals  give  the  best  returns  for  feed  con- 
sumed. (95) 

730.  Fattening  shorn  lambs. — At  the  Michigan  Station2  Mumford 
fed  2  lots  of  10  lambs  each  for  13  weeks  with  the  results  given  in  the 
table.  One  lot  was  shorn  in  November  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial, 
and  the  other  left  unshorn,  both  receiving  good  clover  hay  and  a  grain 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn  and  wheat.  Both  lots  were  kept  in  a 
barn,  the  window  in  the  pen  containing  the  unshorn  lambs  being  kept 
open,  while  that  in  the  pen  of  the  shorn  lambs  was  kept  closed.  In 
spite  of  this  care  the  shorn  lambs  suffered  from  the  cold.  Had  it 


1  Ept.  1903. 
30 


Bui.  128. 


450 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


been  possible  to  give  the  shorn  lambs  still  warmer  quarters  they 
would  undoubtedly  have  given  better  returns. 

Feeding  shorn  and  unshorn  lambs  confined  in  a  l>arn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  wt. 

at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Grain 

Hay 

Unshorn 

Lbs. 
1.3 
1.4 

Lbs. 
1.3 
1.5 

Lbs. 
85 
84 

Lbs. 
0.25 
0.18 

Lbs. 
23.0 
16.1 

Lbs. 
506 

786 

Lbs. 
510 
830 

Shorn  _    . 

The  shorn  lambs  ate  more  food,  drank  less  water,  and  made  30  per 
ct.  less  gain  than  the  unshorn  lambs. 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Craig,  after  studying  the  subject  for 
four  years,  concludes : 

"1.  Fall  shearing  is  a  beneficial  practice  to  prepare  lambs  that 
are  six  months  old  for  early  winter  market. 

"2.  To  secure  the  benefits  of  fall  shearing,  it  should  be  done  early 
in  the  season,  at  least  not  later  than  October. 

"3.  When  done  under  such  circumstances,  the  removal  of  the  fleece 
hastens  the  fattening,  and  the  gain  is  made  at  a  slightly  cheaper  rate. 

"4.  The  results  show  that  by  shearing  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the 
spring  more  wool  is  obtained  than  from  a  single  spring  shearing, 
but  the  market  value  of  the  two  clippings  is  not  any  greater  than 
that  of  the  single  clipping  in  which  the  fibers  of  the  fleece  are  longer. 

"5.  When  the  lambs  are  to  be  fattened  during  three  or  four  of 
the  winter  months,  there  appears  to  be  no  practical  advantage  in 
fall  shearing." 

731.  "Self-feeders"  for  fattening  lambs.— To  save  time  and  labor 
some  feeders  follow  the  practice  of  placing  quantities  of  grain  suffi- 
cient to  last  a  week  or  more  in  a  box  arranged  so  that  the  grain 
passes  down  into  the  feed  trough  as  rapidly  as  the  sheep  consume 
the  supply  below.  Mumford2  concludes  from  trials  covering  3  years, 
"  Fattening  lambs  by  means  of  a  self -feed  is  an  expensive  practice, 
and  economy  of  production  requires  more  attention  to  the  variation 
in  the  appetites  of  the  animals  than  can  be  given  by  this  method." 
Wing3  writes,  "Not  only  is  the  death  rate  much  heavier  where  self- 
feeders  are  used,  but  the  cost  of  gain  is  also  much  greater."  Trials 
with  self-feeders  are  reported  from  the  Michigan  Station4  with  ten 

1  Kpt.  1904.  3  Sheep  Farming  in  America. 

2  Mich.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  128.  *  Bui.  113. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep.  451 

80-lb.  lambs  in  each  lot,  fed  for  105  days,  and  from  the  Minnesota 
Station1  with  eight  80-lb.  lambs  in  each  lot  fed  for  117  days. 

Trials  with  "self-feeders"  for  fattening  lambs. 


Method  of  feeding 

Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Grain 

Hay 

Michigan 
Self  -feed  

Corn,  1.4  Ibs. 
Cora,  1.5  Ibs. 
Corn  and 
bran,  1.8  Ibs. 
Corn  and 
bran,  1.6  Ibs. 
Wheat  screen- 
ings, 3.2  Ibs. 
Wheat  screen- 
ings, 2.4  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.9 
1.0 

0.9 
1.0 
0.5 

0.8 

Lbs. 
0.23 
0.31 

0.22 
0.25 
0.35 
0.32 

Lbs. 

24.8 
32.8 

23.7 

26.7 
41.6 
37.5 

Lbs. 
607 
481 

776 
638 
908 
742 

Lbs. 
387 
334 

405 
421 
130 

251 

Ordinary 

Self-feed 

Ordinary  _ 

Minnesota 
Self-feed 

Ordinary  . 

In  each  trial  the  use  of  a  self-feeder  increased  the  amount  of  feed 
required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  (497) 

Carlyle  and  Morton  of  the  Colorado  Station2  report  favorably  on 
self-feed  hay  racks  for  Colorado  conditions.  Backs,  costing  $1  per 
running  foot  and  accommodating  four  lambs  per  foot,  two  on  a  side, 
save  sufficient  feed  to  pay  for  themselves  in  two  seasons. 

732.  Fattening  sheep  of  different  ages. — At  the  Montana  Sta- 
tion3 Shaw  compared  the  fattening  qualities  of  average  western  range 
lambs,  1-  and  2-year-old  wethers,  and  aged  ewes.  Each  lot  of  about 
50  was  fed  whole  barley  and  clover  hay  for  88  days  with  the  fol- 
lowing results : 

Fattening  range  sheep  of  different  ages. 


Age  when  fed 

Average  ration 

Av.  wt. 
at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Peed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Barley 

Clover 
hay 

Barley 

Clover 
hay 

Lambs 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

Lbs. 
2.1 
3.8 
4.1 
2.3 

Lbs. 
63 
95 
116 
92 

Lbs. 
0.27 
0.27 
0.28 
0.18 

Lbs. 
23.7 
23.5 
24.3 
15.6 

Lbs. 
253 
256 

248 
387 

Lbs. 
763 
1,413 
1,469 
1,320 

One-year-old  wethers. 
Two-year-old  wethers 
Aged  ewes  

It  will  be  observed  that  all  lots,  except  the  aged  ewes,  made  prac- 
tically the  same  daily  and  total  gains.  The  lambs,  however,  con- 
sumed but  little  over  half  the  hay  eaten  by  the  others.  About  the 
same  amount  of  grain  was  required  by  all  but  the  aged  ewes.  Other 
trials  at  the  same  Station4  showed  that  lambs  make  more  rapid  and 


1  Bui.  44. 


2  Bui.  151. 


3  Bui.  35. 


4  Buls.  47,  59. 


452 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


economical  gains  than  do  yearling  wethers.  Owing  to  their  tendency 
to  grow,  lambs  require  a  longer  period  to  fatten  than  do  mature 
wethers,  and  their  ration  should  contain  more  fat-producing  ma- 
terial. (95,  815) 

733.  Exercise  v.  confinement. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Hum- 
phrey and  Kleinheinz  tested  the  influence  of  exercise  and  close  con- 
finement on  fattening  wether  lambs  during  3  consecutive  winters. 
In  each  trial  2  lots  of  12  lambs  each  were  fed  the  same  rations.  One 
lot  was  closely  confined  and  the  other  received  exercise  daily  when 
the  weather  permitted.  The  results  of  the  3  trials  are  averaged 
below : 

Exercise  v.  confinement  for  fattening  wether  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots 

Exercised 

Lbs. 
1.1 
1.1 

Lbs. 
1.9 
1.9 

Lbs. 
1.4 
1.4 

Lbs. 
0.15 
0.17 

Lbs. 
708 
618 

Lbs. 
1,297 
1,113 

Lbs. 

1,068 
899 

Not  exercised 

These  lambs  made  neither  large  nor  economical  gains,  as  they  were 
not  fed  to  produce  the  largest  gains,  and  all  were  in  better  condi- 
tion at  the  beginning  than  average  feeding  lambs.  These  results 
indicate  that,  in  fattening  growing  wethers,  close  confinement  in 
dry,  airy,  well-lighted  pens  is  better  than  allowing  much  ex- 
ercise. (495,  771) 

734.  Exposure  v.  confinement. — Next  to  feed,  the  feeding  place 
and  the  method  of  confinement  are  of  importance  in  fattening  sheep. 
At  the  Minnesota  Station2  Shaw  fed  4  lots,  each  of  8  lambs  averaging 
78  Ibs.,  for  117  days  under  various  conditions  as  to  confinement.  Lot 
I  was  kept  out  of  doors  continuously  in  a  yard  sheltered  from  the 
wind  by  a  low  building  at  one  side.  Lot  II  was  confined  in  a  yard 
with  an  open  shed  for  shelter.  Lot  III  was  kept  in  a  compartment  of 
the  barn  having  one  large  window  facing  the  east  for  ventilation.  All 
lots  were  fed  the  same  ration  with  the  following  results: 

Effect  of  various  methods  of  confinement  on  fattening  lambs. 


Where  fed 

Average 
daily  gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Wheat 
screenings 

Oil 
meal 

IHay 

Lot     I, 
Lot    II, 
Lot  III, 

out  of  doors 

Lbs. 
0.28 
0.32 
0.28 

Lbs. 
804 
668 

722 

Lbs. 
90 
74 
80 

Lbs. 
316 
251 

283 

in  yard  with  shed 

in  stable                   _             

1  Rpts.  1904-5. 


2  Bui.  44. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


453 


It  will  be  seen  that  Lot  II,  kept  in  a  yard  with  an  open  shed,  made 
the  largest  and  the  most  economical  gain,  while  Lot  I,  kept  out  of 
doors,  made  as  good  gains  as  those  confined  in  the  barn,  but  re- 
quired slightly  more  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  (771,  828) 

735.  Water. — The  following  table  presents  data  gathered  at  the 
Michigan1  and  Colorado2  Stations  on  the  consumption  of  water  by 
fattening  lambs  weighing  about  80  Ibs.  at  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
periment : 

Water  drank  ~by  lambs  on  various  rations  during  fattening. 


Rations 

Water 
drank 
daily 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  and  water  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

No. 
of 
trials 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots 

Water 

Michigan 
Grain  and  clover  hay,  open- 
yard  feeding                 

Lbs. 

1.4 

2.8 
1.9 
0.3 

5.1 
5.3 

Lbs. 

0.22 
0.28 
0.36 
0.13 

0.36 
0.36 

Lbs. 

583 
520 
422 

Lbs. 

530 
423 

279 
1,018 

489 
500 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

599 
979 
540 
314 

1,423 
1,514 

1 
8 
3 
1 

2 
2 

Grain  and  clover  hay 

Grain,  roots,  and  clover  hay 
Clover  hay  and  sugar  beets 
Colorado 
Grain  and  alfalfa  hay,  cold 
water  given 

591 
4,901 

365 
374 

Grain    and     alfalfa    hay, 
warm  water  given 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  addition  of  roots  to  the  ration  greatly 
decreased  the  amount  of  water  required  per  lamb  daily,  lambs  fed 
clover  hay  and  unlimited  sugar  beets  drinking  only  0.3  Ib.  each  daily. 
Lambs  fed  in  an  open  yard  required  less  water  than  those  kept  in 
confinement.  At  the  Colorado  Station,  supplying  lambs  fattening  on 
alfalfa  hay  and  grain  with  warm  instead  of  cold  water  made  no  dif- 
ference either  in  the  quantity  of  water  drank  or  in  the  rate  and 
economy  of  the  gains  produced.  (87,  612) 

Grey  and  Ridgeway  of  the  Alabama  Station3  found  that  in  late 
summer  ewes  in  confinement  drank  2.5  Ibs.  of  water  each  while  liv- 
ing on  green  sorghum  forage,  and  6.1  Ibs.  when  on  cotton-seed  meal 
and  hulls. 

736.  Salt. — In  a  feeding  experiment  in  France4  in  which  3  lots 
of  sheep  were  fed  the  same  ration  of  hay,  straw,  potatoes,  and  beans, 
those  receiving  0.5  oz.  of  salt  per  head  daily  gained  4.5  Ibs.  per  head 
more  than  those  fed  no  salt,  and  1.25  Ibs.  more  than  those  fed  0.75 
oz.  of  salt  per  head  daily.  This  indicates  that  sheep  can  be  given  too 
much  as  well  as  too  little  salt.  The  fleeces  of  the  salt-fed  sheep  were 
better  and  heavier  than  of  those  fed  no  salt. 


1  Buls.  113, 128, 136. 
-  Bui.  75. 


3  Bui.  148. 

4  Abs.  in  Agr.  Jour,  and  Min.  Rec.  5  (1902),  p.  361. 


454 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Grey  and  Ridgeway  of  the  Alabama  Station1  found  that  a  flock  of 
100  ewes  would  in  1  year  consume  from  1,500  to  2,000  Ibs.  of  salt, 
which  is  a  larger  amount,  certainly,  than  they  require  in  many  sec- 
tions, tho  the  sheep  is  to  a  marked  extent  a  salt-craving  animal.  (91) 

737.  Weight  of  fattened  sheep.— The  weight  of  fat  sheep  of  the 
several  breeds  competing  for  prizes  at  the  American  Fat- Stock  Show, 
Chicago,  during  the  years  1878  to  1884,  inclusive,2  are  shown  below : 

Weight  of  fat  sheep  of  various  breeds — American  Fat-Stock  Show. 


Wethers 

Ewes 

Breed 

Under 
1  year 

1  year  and 
under 
2  years 

2  years 
older 
over 

Under 
1  year 

1  year  and 
under 
2  years 

2  years  or 
over 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cotswold             

142 

199 

258 

127 

235 

273 

Other  long  wools  _  _  _ 

151 

239 

263 

112 

204 

238 

Southdown 

119 

172 

205 

97 

130 

169 

Other  middle  wools. 

117 

181 

223 

87 

208 

211 

American  Merino.  __ 

79 

112 

137 

52 

73 

101 

Grades  or  crosses  .  _ 

118 

188 

221 

122 

165 

213 

738.  Weight  of  fattened  wethers. — Below  are  given  the  average 
weights  and  daily  gains  of  fat  wethers  of  the  different  breeds  win- 
ning prizes  at  the  Smithfield  Club  Show,  London,  England,  from 
1894  to  1908,  inclusive  :3 

Weight  of  prize-winning  wethers  at  Smithfield. 


Breed 

Wether  lambs 

Yearling1  wethers 

Num- 
ber 

Av. 

agre 

Av. 

wt. 

Av.  daily 
Igain 

Num- 
ber 

Av. 

age 

Av. 
wt. 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Middle-wool 
Southdown  _ 

96 
30 

Days 

285 
231 

Lbs. 

149 
132 

Lbs. 

0.52 
0.57 

97 
65 
14 
51 
56 
49 
28 
72 
48 

63 

61 
27 
17 
52 

Days 

637 
600 
609 
612 
636 
647 
669 
659 
647 

606 

615 
624 
625 
641 

Lbs. 

202 
192 
201 
220 
251 
304 
255 
281 
279 

266 

268 
267 
293 
334 

Lbs. 

0.32 
0.32 
0.33 
0.36 
0.39 
0.45 
0.39 
0.42 
0.43 

0.44 

0.47 
0.43 
0.47 
0.52 

Mountain  _  _  .  

Ryeland 

Cheviot 

28 
56 
70 
39 
91 
55 

59 

63 
43 
28 
45 

243 

272 
285 
336 
199 
280 

272 

249 
276 

284 
288 

139 
158 
201 
203 

208 
195 

158 

159 

184 
195 
207 

0.59 
0.58 
0.70 
0.59 
0.67 
0.65 

0.58 

0.64 
0.67 
0.61 
0.72 

Shropshire  __ 
Suffolk 

Dorset 

Hampshire 

Oxford 

Long-wool 
Leicester 

Kentish  or  Romney 
Marsh 

Devon 

Cotswold           _    . 

Lincoln          

1  Bui.  148. 

2  Trans.  Dept.  Agr.,  111.,  p.  228, 1884. 


3  Lond.  Live  Stock  Jour.,  Vols.  40-66. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


455 


739.  Weight  of  carcass. — At  the  American  Fat-Stock  Show  in 
18841  animals  competing  for  prizes  were  slaughtered  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Slaughter  tests  with  sheep  at  the  American  Fat-Stock  Show,  Chicago. 


Age  of  animals 

Number 

Live  weight 
at  slaughter 

Weight  of 
dressed  carcass 

Per  cent 

Under  one  year                    

2 

Lbs. 
99 

Lbs. 
57 

57 

One  year,  under  two  

4 

171 

105 

61 

Two  years  or  over  __  ___  _ 

2 

248 

156 

62 

740.  Smithfield  slaughter  tests.— At  the  Smithfield  Club  Show, 
London,  England,  animals  of  different  breeds  competing  for  prizes  in 
the  carcass  class  during  the  years  1898-1908,  both  inclusive,2  on 
slaughtering  showed  the  following  results : 

Smithfield  slaughter  tests. 


Breed  and  age 

Av.  live 
wt.  at 
slaughter 

Av.  wt.  of 
dressed 
carcass 

Av.  per 
cent  of 
dressed 
carcass 

Av.  wt. 

lof  fat 

Av.  wt.  of 
pluck 

Av.  wt. 
of  skin 

Suffolk,  lambs 

Lbs. 
152 

Lbs. 
96 

63 

Lbs. 
9.7 

Lbs. 
5  1 

Lbs. 
13.5 

Suffolk,  1-2  years  

178 

118 

69 

11.8 

5.4 

14.0 

Southdown,  lambs  

120 

76 

63 

6.7 

3.8 

10.6 

Southdown,  1-2  years  _  . 
Cross-bred,  lambs  

143 
126 

95 

78 

67 
62 

8.7 
7.1 

4.2 
4.2 

11.9 
13.2 

Cross-bred,  1-2  years.  __ 
Cheviot,  lambs 

165 
113 

107 

79 

65 
63 

11.0 
6.7 

5.0 
3.5 

14.7 
12.3 

Cheviot,  1-2  years 

149 

98 

65 

9.1 

4.3 

15.1 

Hampshire,  lambs. 

155 

100 

64 

9.9 

4.9 

15.2 

Hampshire,  1-2  years  __ 
Blackfaced,  lambs 

185 
121 

119 
75 

64 
62 

12.8 

8.5 

5.9 
3.3 

14.4 
15.3 

Blackfaced,  1-2  years  __ 
Welsh,  1-2  years.     

167 
121 

105 

78 

63 
64 

16.0 
9.0 

4.6 
3.5 

18.9 
11.5 

Kent,  lambs  _  

137 

103 

61 

7.0 

5.1 

19.0 

741.  Shrinkage  in  shipping. — Linfield  of  the  Montana  Station3 
during  4  winters  fattened  average  range  lambs  and  2-year-old  wethers 
on  clover  hay  and  grain  and  shipped  them  from  Bozeman,  Montana, 
to  Chicago,  where  they  were  slaughtered.  The  per  cent  of  shrinkage 
and  the  dressed  weight  of  the  carcasses  is  shown  in  the  next  table. 

It  is  shown  that  average  range  lambs  shrank  0.8  per  ct.  more 
than  2-year-old  wethers  and  yielded  2.2  per  ct.  more  dressed  carcass 
to  the  Chicago  weight.  The  shrinkage  in  these  trials  ranged  from 


1  Breeder  >s  Gazette,  1884,  p.  824. 

2  Lond.  Live  Stock  Jour.,  Vols.  40-66. 


3  Buls.  47,  59. 


456 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


4,6  to  8.7  per  ct.  At  the  Oklahoma  Station1  it  was  observed  that,  on 
account  of  the  laxative  nature  of  alfalfa  hay,  sheep  fed  thereon  shrank 
more  in  shipping  than  others  fed  prairie  hay.  (587) 

Data  on  shrinkage  and  weight  of  dressed  carcass  of  lairibs  and  wethers. 


Av.  wt.  at 
Bozeman 

Av.  wt.  at 
Chicago 
stockyards 

Range  of 
shrinkage 

Mean 
shrinkage 

Av.  per  cent 
dressed  car- 
cass to 
Chicago  wt.* 

Lambs        

Lbs. 

87.5 

Lbs. 

80.7 

Per  cent 
4.6-8.7 

Per  cent 
7.6 

54.5 

2-year-old  wethers  

138.0 

128.6 

5.1-8.6 

6.8 

52.3 

*Average  of  3  trials. 

742.  Wool  production. — Soil  and  climate  produce  marked  effects 
on  the  characteristics  of  sheep,  as  shown  by  Brown2  in  his  study  of 
the  evolution  of  various  English  breeds.  The  rich  lowlands  of  Eng- 
land with  their  abundant  nutritious  grasses  produced  the  heavy- 
bodied,  plethoric  Long-wools,  the  next  higher  lands  with  less  abun- 
dant herbage  furnished  the  Downs  and  Middle-wools,  while  the 
mountains  with  scanty  herbage  produced  the  active,  still  lighter 
breeds.  Coleman3  states  that  the  peculiar  luster  of  the  Lincoln  wool 
diminishes  when  these  sheep  pass  to  a  less  congenial  soil,  and  that 
wool  in  certain  districts  of  Yorkshire  brings  a  higher  price  than  that 
of  other  localities,  due  to  the  favorable  influence  of  soil  and  climate. 
He  further  states  that  limestone  soils,  while  for  many  reasons  pecul- 
iarly suited  to  sheep,  tend  to  produce  a  harshness  in  wool  which 
renders  it  less  valuable  than  that  from  sheep  living  on  clays  or 
gravels. 

Aside  from  the  moisture  and  dirt,  wool  is  made  up  of  yolk  or 
suint,  fat,  and  pure  wool-fiber.4  The  yolk  or  "fat,"  chiefly  a  com- 
pound of  potassium  with  an  organic  acid,  comprises  from  15  to  over 
50  per  ct.  of  the  unwashed  fleece,  being  low  in  sheep  exposed  to  the 
weather  and  especially  high  in  Merinos.  As  the  yolk  is  soluble  in 
water,  most  of  it  is  removed  by  washing  the  sheep  or  fleece.  The 
' '  fat ' '  in  a  washed  fleece  may  range  from  8  to  over  30  per  ct. 

Warington5  states  that  the  production  of  wool-hair  and  wool-fat  is 
practically  no  greater  when  a  full-grown  sheep  receives  a  liberal 
fattening  diet  than  when  it  is  given  only  a  maintenance  ration. 
Feeding  lambs  liberally  produces  a  larger  body  and  consequently  a 
heavier  fleece.  At  the  Wisconsin  Station6  Craig  found  that  lambs 

1  Bui.  78.  4  Warington,  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 

2  British  Sheep  Farming.  B  The  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 
'  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Pigs  of  Great  Britain.     6  Rpt.  1896. 


Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. 


457 


fed  grain  from  an  early  age  sheared  about  1  Ib.  more  of  un- 
washed but  practically  the  same  amount  of  washed  wool  as  those 
getting  no  grain  until  after  they  were  weaned.  The  early  feeding 
had  produced  more  yolk  but  not  more  wool-fiber.  With  starvation 
the  yield  of  wool  is  considerably  diminished.  The  strength  of  the 
wool-fiber  is  dependent  on  the  breed,  the  quality  of  the  sheep,  and 
the  conditions  under  which  they  are  reared.  Ba^ly  bred  and  poorly 
nourished  sheep  produce  wool  of  uneven  fiber,  lacking  strength.  As 
wool-hair  is  formed  from  the  nitrogenous  part  of  the  food,  the  amount 
of  protein  supplied  sheep  must  not  fall  too  low. 

743.  Frequency  of  shearing. — Weiske  and  Dehmel1  studied  the 
influence  of  frequent  shearing  on  the  yield  of  wool.  Two  Rambouil- 
let  sheep  were  shorn  every  other  month  for  a  year,  and  2  others 
at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  experiment,  with  the  results 
given  in  the  following  table: 

Influence  of  frequent  shearing  on  growth  of  wool. 


Av.  weight 
unwashed  wool 

Av.  weight  pure 
wool  fiber 

Av.  per 
cent  yolk 

Shorn  6  times 

Lbs. 
12.4 

Lbs. 
5.3 

57.7 

Shorn  once  _  _.  _ 

12.8 

4.3 

65.8 

The  sheep  shorn  6  times  produced  less  unwashed  wool,  but  nearly 
25  per  ct.  more  pure  wool  fiber  than  those  shorn  once. 

1  Futterungslehre,  1872,  p.  511. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


EXPEEIMENTS  IN  FATTENING  SHEEP. 
I.  FEEDING  AND  FATTENING. 

Nearly  all  the  feeding  trials  here  reported  are  with  lambs,  for  the 
sufficient  reason  that  these  animals  make  better  use  of  their  feed 
than  do  mature  sheep,  and  also  because  their  flesh  is  more  in  de- 
mand. Two  classes,  western  range  lambs  and  those  from  the  farms 
of  the  East,  appear  in  the  trials. 

In  what  follows,  when  no  mention  is  made  in  detailing  a  feeding 
experiment,  it  may  be  assumed  that  eastern  lambs  weighed  about  80 
Ibs.  when  feeding  began  and  western  lambs  67  Ibs.  and  that  the  feed- 
ing period  covered  from  12  to  15  weeks.  Western  clover  hay  has  a 
feeding  value  equal  to  that  of  alfalfa  hay,  a  fact  to  be  remembered 
in  studying  the  trials  in  which  it  was  used. 

744.  Indian  corn. — This  grain  is  extensively  used  for  fattening 
sheep  and  lambs  over  the  United  States  as  far  west  as  Colorado,  be- 
yond which  wheat  and  barley  are  more  commonly  used.  The  table 
below  gives  the  results  of  4  trials  with  corn  for  fattening  lambs  at 
eastern  experiment  stations  and  4  similar  trials  at  western  stations: 

Fattening  lambs  on  whole  corn  and  \ay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Hay 

Corn 

Hay 

Eastern  states 
Michigan* 

Lbs. 

1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 

Lbs. 

1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.0 

Lbs. 

0.31 
0.24 
0.37 
0.25 

Lbs. 

32.8 

24.8 
20.8 
21.1 

Lbs. 

481 
607 
411 
523 

Lbs. 
334 

387 
277 
402 

Michigan* 

Wisconsinf 

Minnesota! 

Av.  of  4  trials  _  __ 

1.4 

1.0 

0.29 

24.9 

506 

350 

Western  states 
South  Dakota**  

1.5 
1.6 
1.1 
1.0 

1.3 
1.5 
1.7 
1.4 

0.28 
0.35 
0.29 
0.33 

30.5 
39.0 
28.6 
31.9 

561 
466 
381 
308 

485 
431 
584 
412 

South  Dakota  ft 

WyomingJJ 

Nebraska! 

Av.  of  4  trials  

1.3 

1.5 

0.31 

32.5 

429 

478 

•Bui.  113.    tRept.1895.    }Bul.31.    **Bul.86.    ttBul.  80.    «Bul.  73.    $Bul.  66. 

458 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


459 


From  this  table  we  learn  that  eastern  lambs  gained  0.3  Ib.  per  head 
daily,  and  required  about  500  Ibs.  of  corn  and  350  Ibs.  of  clover  hay 
for  each  100  Ibs.  of  increase  while  fattening.  Western  range  lambs 
gained  slightly  more  than  0.3  Ib.  per  head  daily,  and  required  about 
425  Ibs.  of  corn  and  500  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  for  100  Ibs.  increase. 
This  is  about  75  Ibs.  less  corn  and  150  Ibs.  more  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of 
gain  than  eastern  lambs  required.  (521-3) 

745.  Corn  alone  and  in  combination. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1 
Craig  fed  3  lots,  each  of  5  high  grade,  58-lb.  Shropshire  lambs,  the 
grain  allowances  shown  below  before  and  after  weaning.  The  lambs 
were  fed  all  the  grain  they  would  eat  morning  and  evening,  and  dur- 
ing the  day  were  with  their  dams  on  blue-grass  pasture. 

Corn  meal  compared  with  grain  mixtures. 


8  we 

eks  bef  < 

we  wear 

ring 

8^ 

veeks  al 

ter  wea 

ning 

Grain  fed 

Av. 
grain 
allow- 
ance 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
gain 
in  8 
weeks 

Grain 
for  100 
Ibs. 
gain 

Av. 
grain 
allow- 
ance 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
gain 
in  8 
weeks 

Grain 
for  100 
Ibs.  gain 

Lot     I,  Corn  meal  only 
Lot   II,  Corn  meal  and 
oats  

Lbs. 
0.13 

0.15 

Lbs. 
0.50 

0.50 

Lbs. 
28 

28 

Lbs. 
26 

31 

Lbs. 
0.5 

0.5 

Lbs. 
0.34 

0.33 

Lbs. 
19.0 

18.5 

Lbs. 
137 

141 

Lot  III,  Corn  meal  and 
peas 

0.21 

0.50 

28 

42 

0.5 

0.35 

19.6 

136 

It  is  shown  that  corn  meal  alone  proved  more  economical  before 
\veaning  than  corn  and  oats  or  corn  and  peas,  and  of  equal  value 
to  these  combinations  after  weaning.  It  is  probable  that  corn  will 
force  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains  with  lambs  both  before 
and  after  weaning,  the  protein  required  coming  from  the  dam's  milk 
and  pasture  grass.  It  is  not  prudent,  however,  to  use  corn  alone  for 
ewe  lambs  designed  for  the  flock,  since  this  grain  builds  fat  rather 
than  bone  and  muscle. 

In  feeding  ground  corn  alone  there  is  likely  to  be  more  sickness 
among  the  lambs  than  if  they  have  a  mixed  grain  allowance.  The 
lambs  that  were  fed  grain  continuously  from  birth  sheared  a  heaviei 
fleece  of  unwashed  wool  than  either  those  receiving  no  grain  pre- 
vious to  fattening  or  those  not  allowed  grain  until  after  weaning 
This  increased  weight  of  fleece  was  due  to  the  excess  of  yolk  or 
grease  in  the  wool  of  the  lambs  fed  grain  from  birth,  as  all  fleeces 
showed  about  the  same  weight  of  washed  wool. 

1  Ept.  1897. 


460 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


746.  Wheat. — In  the  following  table  are  summarized  the  results 
of  5  trials  at  4  stations  with  whole  wheat  and  hay  for  fattening 
lambs : 

Fattening  lambs  on  whole  wheat  and  hay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration  ': 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  grain 

Whole 
wheat 

Hay 

Wheat 

Hay 

Michigan* 

Lbs. 
1.3 
0.8 
0.9 
1.5 
1.5 

Lbs. 
1.3 
2.0 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 

Lbs. 
0.24 
0.27 
0.19 

0.28 
0.28 

Lbs. 
21.7 
25.3 
17.0 
31.5 
31.5 

Lbs. 
553 
302 
454 
532 
536 

Lbs. 
552 
767 
657 
469 
470 

Montanaf    ---  ---  - 

UtahJ 

South  Dakota  § 

South  Dakota  g 

Average  of  5  trials  

1.2 

1.4 

0.25 

25.4 

475 

583 

*  Bui.  128.    t  Bui.  4:7.    t  Bui.  78.    $  Bui.  86. 

In  round  numbers  the  Michigan  lambs  required  550  Ibs.  each  of 
wheat  and  red  clover  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  Montana  range 
lambs,  in  excellent  condition  when  the  trial  began,  consumed  only 
300  Ibs.  of  good  wheat  and  nearly  800  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  for  100  Ibs. 
gain.  The  South  Dakota  lambs  were  fed  mixed  brome  and  prairie 
hay  with  bread  wheat  in  the  first,  and  good  durum  or  macaroni  wheat 
in  the  second  trial.  Since  both  lots  required  practically  the  same  feed 
for  100  Ibs.  gain,  we  may  conclude  that  these  2  varieties  of  wheat 
have  the  same  feeding  value.  Compared  with  the  corn-fed  range 
lambs  previously  reported,  the  wheat-fed  range  lambs  required  from 
50  to  75  Ibs.  more  grain  and  100  Ibs.  more  of  alfalfa  hay  for  100  Ibs. 
gain.  This  shows  that  wheat  is  less  valuable  than  corn  for  fattening 
lambs.  (161) 

747.  Oats. — The  results  of  3  trials  at  western  stations  with  whole 
oats  and  hay  for  fattening  lambs  are  presented  in  the  following  table : 

Fattening  lambs  on  whole  oats  and  hay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av, 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Whole 
oats 

Hay 

Whole 
oats 

Hay 

Montana* 

Lbs. 
0.8 
0.6 
1.8 

Lbs. 
2.1 
1.8 
1.3 

Lbs. 
0.22 
0.25 
0.25 

Lbs. 
20.9 
23.9 

27.7 

Lbs. 
366 
253 
649 

Lbs. 
959 
738 
535 

Montanaf     ____.. 

South  DakotaJ  .  . 

Average  of  3  trials  

1.0 

1.7 

0.24 

24.2 

423 

744 

*Bul.47.    tBul.59.    |Bul.86. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


461 


For  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain  the  Montana  lambs  consumed  on  the  aver- 
age about  310  Ibs.  of  oats  and  850  Ibs.  of  clover  hay.  The  South 
Dakota  lambs  ate  350  Ibs.  more  oats  and  300  Ibs.  less  prairie  hay  for 
the  same  increase.  Since  on  the  average  these  lambs  consumed  about 
as  much  oats  and  nearly  250  Ibs.  more  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  than 
those  fed  corn  as  reported  in  Article  744,  we  may  conclude  that  oats 
have  somewhat  less  value  than  corn  for  fattening  lambs.  The  great 
importance  of  a  legume  hay  is  emphasized  by  the  high  feed  cost  of  the 
Dakota  lambs  getting  prairie  hay.  (169) 

748.  Barley. — Thruout  the  western  range  district  barley  is  used 
for  fattening  sheep  and  lambs.  Below  are  given  the  results  of  5 
trials  at  western  experiment  stations  with  barley  and  hay  for  fat- 
tening range  lambs. 

Fattening  range  lambs  on  whole  Parley  and  hay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Barley 

Hay 

Barley 

Hay 

Montana* 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.8 
1.8 
1.6 
0.8 

Lbs. 
2.1 
2.1 
1.0 
1.3 
2.8 

Lbs. 
0.27 
0.26 
0.36 
0.26 
0.33 

Lbs. 
23.7 
24.3 
37.9 

28.5 
29.6 

Lbs. 
253 
316 
509 
617 
257 

Lbs. 
763 
819 
263 
518 
834 

Montanaf 

South  Dako  tat              

South  Dakota^  .  

Wyoming||  ..  ._ 

Average  of  5  trials 

1.1 

1.9 

0.30 

28.8 

390 

639 

*Bul.35.    iBul.  47.    JBul.71.    $Bul.  86.    ||Bul.  81. 

In  round  numbers  the  Montana  lambs  consumed  less  than  300  Ibs. 
of  barley  and  800  Ibs.  of  clover  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  while  the 
South  Dakota  lambs  required  from  500  to  600  Ibs.  of  barley  and  only 
400  Ibs.  of  prairie  hay.  It  is  shown  that  the  lambs  fattened  on 
barley  required  about  the  same  amount  of  grain  and  100  Ibs.  more 
hay  than  corn- fed  lambs  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  Whole  barley  was 
satisfactorily  masticated  and  digested  by  the  lambs,  and  the  beards, 
with  rare  exceptions,  caused  no  injury  to  their  mouths.  Whole  bar- 
ley is  only  slightly  less  valuable  than  corn  for  fattening  lambs.  In 
these  trials  prairie  hay  again  gives  poor  returns  with  fattening  ani- 
mals in  comparison  with  legume  hay.  (171) 

749.  Emmer. — Owing  to  the  greatly  increased  production  of 
emmer  (speltz)  in  the  western  states,  this  grain  has  assumed  im- 
portance as  a  food  for  sheep  and  lambs.  In  the  table  on  the  next 
page  are  given  the  results  of  four  trials  at  western  experiment  sta- 
tions with  emmer  for  fattening  range  lambs. 


462 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


In  the  first  Dakota  trial  brome  hay  was  fed  for  roughage,  and  in  the 
second  mixed  prairie  and  brome  hay.  Over  700  Ibs.  of  emmer  and 
500  Ibs.  of  hay  were  required  on  the  average  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 
The  Colorado  lambs  fed  emmer  and  good  alfalfa  hay  gained  0.32  Ib. 
daily  and  consumed  only  300  Ibs.  of  emmer  and  625  of  hay  for  100 
Ibs.  gain — an  unusually  economical  gain.  We  learn  that  with  brome 
and  prairie  hay  for  roughage  emmer  is  much  less  valuable  than  corn, 
while  with  a  legume  hay  it  has  a  satisfactory  feeding  value.  (178) 

Fattening  lambs  on  whole  emmer  and  hay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gaini 

Emmer 

Hay 

Emmer 

Hay 

South  Dakota*  

Lbs. 
1.8 
1.7 
1.0 
0.8 

Lbs. 
1.0 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 

Lbs. 
0.24 
0.22 
0.32 
0.23 

Lbs. 
25.0 
24.9 

28.4 
20.6 

Lbs. 
747 
738 
303 
359 

Lbs. 
399 
596 
626 
1,141 

South  Dakotaf   

Colorado^--  

Wvominorll 

Average  of  3  trials  

1.3 

1.8 

0.25 

24.7 

537 

691 

*Bul.71.    tBul.86.    JBul.75.    ||Bul.  81. 

750.  Various  grains  compared. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Hum- 
phrey and  Kleinheinz  fed  4  lots,  each  of  4  thrifty  140-lb.  yearling 
wethers,  the  following  grain  allowances  during  each  of  two  winters. 
Each  wether  was  given  a  daily  average  of  1.0  Ib.  of  native  hay  and 
2.1  Ibs.  of  roots  or  cabbage.  The  results  of  the  trials,  which  lasted 
98  and  105  days,  are  averaged  below: 

Various  grains  for  fattening  wethers. 


Daily  grain  allowance 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots  or 
cabbage 

Lot  I,  Cracked  corn  and  oats,  1.7  Ibs.  __ 
Lot  II,  Cracked  peas  and  oats,  1.7  Ibs.  __ 
Lot  .777,  Cracked  barley  and  oats,  1.6  lbs._ 
Lot  IF,  Whole  oats,  1  5  Ibs 

Lbs. 
0.36 
0.34 
0.35 
0.32 

Lbs. 
36.9 
34.9 
35.7 
33.8 

Lbs. 
453 
479 
453 

468 

Lbs. 
290 
309 
301 
338 

Lbs. 
573 
604 
592 
663 

The  wethers  getting  whole  oats  made  the  poorest  gains,  but  their 
allowance  of  concentrates  was  also  the  smallest.  As  the  returns  were 
so  nearly  alike  in  all  cases,  we  may  conclude  that  corn,  peas,  barley, 
and  oats,  when  fed  with  the  roughages  named,  have  practically  the 
same  value  for  fattening  mature  sheep.  The  daily  gains  made  by 
these  yearlings  were  no  greater  than  those  which  lambs  make,  and, 

1  Rpt.  1905. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


463 


considering  the  excellence  of  the  combination  of  grain,  hay,  and 
roots  or  cabbage,  they  were  hardly  as  economical. 

751.  Millet,  low-grade  wheat,  weed  seeds. — Below  are  given  the 
results  of  trials  at  several  stations  with  cull  wheat  and  weed  seeds 
compared  with  cracked  corn  for  fattening  lambs: 

Millet,  cull  wheat,  and  weed  seeds  compared  with  cracked  corn  for  fatten- 
ing lambs. 


Station  and  average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Minnesota* 
Lot  I 
Cracked  corn,  1.3  Ibs. 
Timothy  hay,  1.0  Ib. 

Lbs. 

0.25 
0.24 
0.27 
0.28 

0.28 
0.21 

Lbs. 

523 
746 

874 
816 

581 
419 

Lbs. 

402 
367 
189 
249 

474 
650 

Lot  II 

Small  wheat,  1.8  Ibs. 
Timothy  hay,  0  9  Ib. 

Lot  III 
Pigeon  grass,  2.4  Ibs. 
Timothy  hay,  0  5  Ib. 

Lot  IV 
Wild  buckwheat,  2.3  Ibs. 
Timothy  hay,  0.7  Ib. 

South  Dakota} 
Millet.  1.6  Ibs. 
Mixed  hay,  1.3  Ibs.                __        .                

Utah} 
Frosted  wheat,  0.  9  Ib. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.4  Ibs. 

*Rpt.  1893.    tBul.  86.    JBul.  78. 

Apparently  no  advantage  was  gained  from  cracking  corn  for  the 
lambs,  since  it  gave  only  normal  returns.  Small  wheat,  pigeon-grass 
seed,  and  wild  buckwheat,  about  90  per  ct.  pure,  fed  with  hay  pro- 
duced satisfactory  gains  in  each  case,  tho  larger  amounts  were  re- 
quired than  of  cracked  corn  for  a  given  gain.  If  clean  and  free 
from  poorer  stuff,  these  elevator  by-products  may  be  considered  to 
have  about  three-fourths  the  value  of  corn  for  fattening  lambs.  (185) 
In  a  previous  trial  at  the  South  Dakota  Station  it  was  found  that 
lambs  fed  whole  millet  voided  a  large  percentage  of  the  seed  un- 
broken and  undigested.  Accordingly  in  this  trial  the  millet  was 
coarsely  ground,  and  thus  prepared  it  proved  nearly  as  valuable  for 
fattening  lambs  as  cracked  corn.  Frosted  wheat  produced  nearly  as 
large  gain  as  good  wheat,  419  Ibs.  of  wheat  and  650  Ibs.  of  alfalfa 
hay  putting  on  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 


464 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


752.  Wheat  screenings. — Below  are  summarized  the  results  of 
four  trials  at  western  stations  with  wheat  screenings  for  fattening 
range  lambs: 

Fattening  lambs  on  unground  wheat  screenings  and  hay. 


Experiment  station 

Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Unground 
wheat 
screenings 

Hay 

Unground 
wheat 
screenings 

Hay 

Minnesota*  .  -  ... 

Lbs. 
2.4 
0.8 
1.1 
0.9 

Lbs. 
0.8 
2.0 
1.3 
1.5 

T74 

Lbs. 
0.32 
0.29 
0.20 
0.24 

Lbs. 
37.5 
27.2 
18.3 
21.4 

Lbs. 
742 
282 
532 
396 

Lbs. 
251 
773 
623 
622 

Montanaf 

Utaht 

Utahf 

Average  of  4  trials 

1.3 

0.26 

26.1 

488 

567 

*Bul.  44.    fBul.  47.    tBul.  78. 

In  round  numbers  the  Minnesota  lambs  required  740  Ibs.  of  wheat 
screenings  and  250  Ibs.  of  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay  for  100  Ibs. 
gain,  while  the  Montana  lambs  required  300  Ibs.  of  wheat  screenings 
and  nearly  800  Ibs.  of  clover  hay.  In  the  first  Utah  trial  lambs  fed 
chaffy  screenings  and  alfalfa  hay  required  more  screenings  and  100 
Ibs.  less  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  than  the  Montana  lambs.  The  last 
lot  consumed  only  400  Ibs.  of  heavier  screenings  and  625  Ibs.  of 
alfalfa  hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  Comparing  these  returns  with  those 
in  the  previous  articles,  it  is  shown  that  good  wheat  screenings  have 
about  the  same  value  for  fattening  lambs  as  wheat.  Like  wheat, 
screenings  give  the  best  returns  when  fed  with  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay.  (167) 

753.  Soybeans. — At  the  "Wisconsin  Station1  Richards  and  Klein- 
heinz  compared  soybeans  with  oats  as  a  supplement  to  corn  for  feed- 
ing ewe  lambs  averaging  103  Ibs.  per  head.  The  results  of  the  trial, 
which  lasted  84  days,  are  shown  in  the  table: 

Soybeans  compared  with  oats  for  ewe  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Roughage 

Lot  I 
Soybeans  and  corn,  1.2  Ibs. 
Hay,  0.8  Ib. 
Corn  stover,  0  6  Ib. 

Lbs. 
0.19 

0.16 

Lbs. 
16.3 

13.7 

Lbs. 
611 

728 

Lbs. 
711 

862 

Lot  IT 
Oats  and  corn,  1.2  Ibs. 
Hay,  0.8  Ib. 
Corn  stover,  0.6  Ib. 

1  Kpt.  1904. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


465 


As  these  lambs  were  intended  for  breeding  stock  they  were  rather 
lightly  fed.  The  lambs  fed  soybeans  and  corn  made  larger  gains, 
consumed  less  grain  and  roughage  for  100  Ibs.  gain,  and  were  thrift- 
ier than  those  fed  oats  and  corn.  Soybeans  are  evidently  a  most  ex- 
cellent supplement  to  corn  for  lambs.  (201) 

754.  Oil  cakes.— At  the  Edinburgh  and  East  of  Scotland  College 
of  Agriculture1  Bruce  tested  the  relative  value  of  various  concen- 
trates with  4  lots,  each  of  30  yearling  wethers  averaging  93  Ibs.  All 
lots  were  fed  the  concentrates  given  below  with  unlimited  hay  and 
sliced  turnips  for  roughage.  The  results  of  the  trial,  which  lasted 
85  days,  were  as  follows: 

Various  concentrates  for  fattening  yearling  wethers. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
grain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  £ain 

Concen- 
trates 

Hay 

Turnips 

Lot  I 
Cotton  cake,  O.Slb. 
Hay,  0.3  Ib. 
Turnips,  14.2  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.30 

0.34 
0.36 
0.31 

Lbs. 
25.1 

28.6 
30.9 
26.5 

Lbs. 

282 

247 

227 
267 

Lbs. 
95 

112 
115 

92 

Lbs. 
4,797 

4,075 
3,728 
4,376 

Lot  II 
Cotton  cake  and  linseed  cake,  0.8  Ib. 
Hay,  0.4  Ib. 
Turnips,  13.7  lbs._ 

Lotlll 
Linseed  cake,  0.8  Ib. 
Hay,  0.4  Ib. 
Turnips,  13.5  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  0.8  Ib. 
Hay,  0.3  Ib. 
Turnips,  13.6  Ibs. 

The  wethers  fed  linseed  cake  produced  the  largest  gains  and  re- 
quired the  smallest  amount  of  concentrates  and  roughage  for  100  Ibs. 
of  gain.  Cotton-seed  cake  proved  the  least  valuable.  Mixed  cotton- 
seed cake  and  linseed  cake  produced  nearly  as  large  and  as  economi- 
cal gains  as  linseed  cake  alone.  Lot  IV,  fed  dried  distillers'  grains, 
made  satisfactory  gains,  requiring  40  Ibs.  more  concentrates  and  about 
650  Ibs.  more  turnips  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  Lot  III.  The  large 
amount  of  turnips  consumed  shows  how  freely  British  farmers  use 
roots  in  sheep  feeding.  (188,  200,  317) 

755.  Dried  beet  pulp  and  molasses-beet  pulp. — At  the  Michigan 
Station2  Shaw  fed  4  lots,  each  of  18  western  lambs  averaging  67  Ibs., 


1  Bui.  10. 

31 


Bui.  220. 


466 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


on  dried  beet  pulp  or  molassea-beet  pulp  with  other  concentrates  and 
clover  hay,  as  shown  below,  in  trials  which  lasted  85  days: 

Dried  beet  pulp  and  molasses-beet  pulp  for  fattening  range  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Hay 

Lot  I 
Corn,  0.7  Ib. 
Linseed  meal,  0.  2  Ib. 
Bran,  0.  4  Ib. 
Clover  hay,  1.  5  Ibs.     

Lbs. 
0.33 

0.33 
0.34 
0.33 

Lbs. 
28.1 

28.0 
29.2 
28.3 

Lbs. 
385 

387 
372 
383 

Lbs. 
465 

456 

378 
421 

Lot  II 
Dried  beet  pulp,  0.7  Ib. 
Linseed  meal,  0.2  Ib. 
Bran,  0.41b. 
Clover  hay,  1.  5  Ibs. 

Lot  III 

Molasses-beet  pulp,  0.  9  Ib. 
Linseed  meal,  0.  3  Ib. 
Clover  hay,  1.  3  Ibs. 

Lot  IV 
Dried  beet  pulp,  0.  9  Ib. 
Linseed  meal,  0.  3  Ib. 
Clover  hay,  1.  3  Ibs. 

The  table  shows  that  the  several  lots  made  substantially  the  same 
daily  and  total  gains,  all  consuming  practically  the  same  amount 
of  concentrates  and  roughage  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  This  being 
true,  we  may  conclude  that  for  fattening  lambs  dried  beet  pulp  is 
equal  to  the  same  amount  of  corn,  and  that  molasses-beet  pulp  is  no 
more  valuable  than  dried  beet  pulp.  (311-12,  645-6) 

756.  Meat  meal,  dried  blood. — Schenke1  states  that,  when  mixed 
with  better  liked  feed,  sheep  will  readily  consume  a  ration  containing 
from  5  to  10  per  ct.  of  meat  meal.    Meat  meal  produced  larger  but 
less  economical  gains  than  grain  alone,  and  evidently  increased  the 
wool  production. 

Regnard2  obtained  excellent  results  when  feeding  dried  blood  to 
lambs  in  place  of  milk,  supplying  about  0.5  Ib.  daily  for  each  100  Ibs. 
live  weight.  (306,  651) 

757.  Corn  silage  v.  roots. — At  the  Michigan  Station3  Mumford 
compared  corn  silage  with  roots  for  fattening  lambs.     In  the  first 
trial,  lasting  84  days,  sugar  beets  and  corn  silage  were  fed,  and  in 
the  second,  lasting  119  days,  rutabagas  and  corn  silage.     The  concen- 


1  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.,  58, 1903,  pp.  26,  27. 

2  Pott,  Landw.  Futtermittel,  p.  656. 


3Buls.84,107. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


467 


trates  consisted  of  2  parts  of  oats  and  1  part  of  bran  in  the  first 
trial,  and  equal  parts  of  oats  and  bran  in  the  second. 

Corn  silage  compared  with  roots. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Roots  or 
silage 

First 

iMtl 

Sugar  beets,  4.7  Ibs. 
Hay,  1.0  Ib. 

Lot  IT 
Silage,  4.5  Ibs. 
Hay,  0.8  Ib. 

Second 
Lot  I 
Rutabagas,  5.6  Ibs. 
Hay,  1.6  Ibs. 

Lot  II 
Silage,  3.4  Ibs. 
Hay,  0.8  Ib. 

trial 
Grain,  1.0  Ib. 

Lbs. 
0.43 
0.36 

0.25 
0.25 

Lbs. 
233 

282 

398 
400 

Lbs. 
233 
225 

413 
337 

Lbs. 
1,101 
1,266 

2,277 
1,383 

Grain,  1.0  Ib.-  

trial 
Grain,  1.0  Ib. 

Grain,  1.0  Ib. 

In  the  first  trial  sugar  beets  gave  somewhat  better  results  than 
corn  silage,  while  in  the  second  rutabagas  did  not  quite  equal  corn 
silage.  (352) 

758.  Corn  silage  v.  mangels. — At  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College1 
I  Kennedy,  Bobbins,  and  Kildee  fed  79-lb.  lambs  for  112  days  on  corn 
silage  or  mangels  in  combination  with  alfalfa  hay  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  table : 

Corn  silage  compared  with  mangels  for  fattening  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Cost  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Grain 

Boots 
or  silage 

Hay 

Lot  I 
Mixed  grain,  2.0  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  1.4  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.  6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.42 

0.44 
0.37 

Lbs. 
463 

450 
511 

Lbs. 
327 

986 

Lbs. 
367 

357 

464 

Dollars 
5.90 

6.82 
6.33 

Lot  1  1 
Mixed  grain,  2.  0  Ibs. 
Mangels,  4.  3  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.  6  Ibs. 

Lot  III 
Mixed  grain,  1  .  9  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.  7  Ibs  

In  this  trial  the  lambs  were  all  heavily  fed  on  grain  and  made  cor- 
respondingly large  gains.     The  lot  fed  corn  silage  made  almost  as 


Bui.  110. 


468 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


good  gains  as  that  fed  mangels  and  at  considerably  lower  cost  for 
feed  consumed.    (352) 

759.  Wet  beet  pulp. — The  value  of  wet  beet  pulp  with  and  with- 
out grain  for  fattening  range  lambs  was  tested  at  the  Utah  Station1 
during  2  consecutive  winters.  The  results  of  the  2  trials,  the  first 
with  2  lots  of  17  lambs  each  fed  78  days,  and  the  second  with  2  lots 
of  16  lambs  each  fed  107  days,  are  given  below.  Each  lot  was  fed 
an  unlimited  allowance  of  alfalfa  hay  and  wet  beet  pulp.  In  addi- 
tion Lot  II  received  mixed  wheat  screenings  and  bran,  and  Lots  III 
and  IV  mixed  wheat  shorts  and  bran. 

Wet  beet  pulp  with  and  without  grain  for  fattening 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Peed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Beet 
pulp 

Alfalfa 
hay 

Lot  I 
Wet  beet  pulp,  3.7  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay.  1.6  Ibs.  _. 

Lbs. 
0.21 

0.33 
0.21 
0.19 

Lbs. 
16.2 

25.7 
22.0 
20.6 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
1,786 

1,014 
1,120 
1,180 

Lbs. 
797 

423 
530 
590 

Lot  II 
Wet  beet  pulp,  3.  3  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.  4  Ibs. 
Screening's  and  bran,  0.  5  Ib. 

156 
470 
254 

Lot  III 
Wet  beet  pulp,  2.  3  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.0  Ib. 
Shorts  and  bran,  0.  9  Ib. 

Lot  IV 
Wet  beet  pulp,  2.2  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.  1  Ibs. 
Shorts  and  bran,  0.  4  Ib.  _.     

Lot  I  required  about  1,800  Ibs.  of  wet  beet  pulp  and  800  of  alfalfa 
hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  By  feeding  156  Ibs.  of  grain,  about  800  Ibs. 
less  wet  beet  pulp  and  nearly  300  Ibs.  less  alfalfa  hay  were  required 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  feed  about  0.5  Ib.  of  grain 
per  head  daily  when  the  rest  of  the  ration  consists  of  wet  beet  pulp 
and  alfalfa  hay.  (309-10) 

760.  Rape. — At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College2  Shaw  pastured 
on  rape  3  lots,  each  of  15  lambs  averaging  71  Ibs.  in  weight.  Each 
lot  was  confined  to  a  measured  acre  by  hurdles.  Lot  I  was  given 
no  additional  feed;  Lot  II  was  fed  0.5  Ib.  of  oats  each  daily;  and 
Lot  III  had  the  run  of  an  adjoining  grass  pasture  in  addition  to  the 
rape.  The  acre  of  rape  lasted  each  lot  58  days,  during  which  time 
the  lambs  made  the  gains  shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 


1  Buls.  78, 90. 


2  Rpt.  1891. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


469 


The  addition  of  oats  to  the  rape  ration  did  not  prove  economical. 
The  value  and  importance  of  grass  pasture  in  supplementing  rape 
for  sheep  feeding  is  strongly  brought  out  by  the  larger  daily  and 
total  gains  made  by  Lot  III.  It  is  shown  that  an  acre  of  rape  will 
put  from  300  to  400  Ibs.  of  gain  on  lambs  grazed  thereon. 

Returns  from  one  acre  of  rape. 


How  fed 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Gain  in  wt. 
from  1  acre 

Lot     I,  Rape  only 

Lbs. 
0.39 

Lbs. 
22.9 

Lbs. 
344 

Lot   II  j  Rape  and  0.5  Ib.  oats 

0.40 

23.7 

348 

Lot  III,  Rape  and  grass  pasture 

0.47 

28.0 

420 

At  the  Ontario  College1  54  acres  of  rape  pastured  17  steers  and 
537  sheep,  1  acre  lasting  12  lambs  for  2  months.  An  acre  of  rape 
was  estimated  to  be  worth  $16.80.  At  the  Michigan  Station  15  acres 
of  rape  pastured  128  lambs  for  7.5  weeks,  during  which  time  they 
gained  2,890  Ibs.  in  weight.  It  was  estimated  that  1  acre  of  rape 
pastured  9  lambs  7  weeks,  producing  in  that  time  203  Ibs.  of  in- 
crease. (282,  895,  899) 

761.  Rape  v.  blue  grass. — Craig  of  the  Wisconsin  Station2  grazed 
2  lots  of  48  lambs  each,  one  lot  on  a  blue-grass  pasture  and  the  other 
on  rape.  During  the  grazing  period  of  4  weeks  each  lamb  was  fed 
an  average  of  0.7  Ib.  daily  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  peas  and 
corn.  During  this  period  Lot  I  consumed  the  rape  on  0.64  of  an 
acre.  At  the  close  of  the  4-week  period  both  lots  were  placed  in 
pens,  and  the  grain  allowance  was  increased  to  1  Ib.  daily  per  lamb, 
together  with  an  unlimited  allowance  of  hay,  which  amounted  to  0.6 
Ib.  daily  for  each  rape-fed  and  0.7  for  each  grass-fed  lamb.  The  fol- 
lowing table  summarizes  the  results  of  the  trial: 

Relative  value  of  rape  and  "blue-grass  pasture  for  lambs. 


Pasture  period  of  4  weeks 

Pen  period  of  12  weeks 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Lot   /,  On  rape 

Lbs. 
0.37 
0.24 

Lbs. 
10.4 
6.8 

Lbs. 
0.24 
0.22 

Lbs. 
19.8 
17.9 

Lbs. 
429 
476 

Lbs. 
261 
315 

Lot  II  ,  On  blue  grass 

The  table  shows  that  the  lambs  pastured  on  rape  did  much  better 
than  those  pastured  on  blue  grass,  both  while  on  pasture  and  also 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bui.  49. 


2  Ept.  1897. 


470 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


later  when  confined  to  feeding  pens.     This  trial  tends  to  establish  a 
secondary  value  for  rape  in  sheep  feeding. 

762.  Field  peas. — At  the  Wyoming  Station1  Morton  tested  the 
value  of  field  peas  for  fattening  lambs  in  a  98-day  trial  with  2  lots, 
each  of  100  lambs  averaging  58  Ibs.  Lot  I  was  grazed  upon  field 
peas  and  Lot  II  fed  shelled  corn  and  alfalfa  hay,  with  the  results 
given  below: 

Field  peas  for  fattening   lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot  I 
Field  peas,  0.  2  square  rod 

Lbs. 
0.20 

Lbs. 
20.0 

Lbs. 

0.  6  acre  field  peas 

Lot  21 
Shelled  corn,  0.  9  Ib. 
Alfalfa  hay,  2.2  Ibs. 

0.32 

31.2 

292  Ibs.  corn 
682  Ibs.  hay 

Altho  the  lambs  fed  alfalfa  and  corn  gained  about  one-half  more 
than  those  grazed  upon  field  peas,  yet  owing  to  the  lower  cost  of  pro- 
ducing the  peas  the  net  returns  from  the  2  lots  were  nearly  the  same. 
In  a  previous  trial  at  this  Station2  lambs  grazed  on  field  peas  made 
larger  gains  and  went  to  the  market  in  better  condition  than  others 
fed  alfalfa  and  corn.  (205,  805) 

763.  Alfalfa  hay  v.  prairie  hay.— At  the  Nebraska  Station3  Bur- 
nett fed  52-lb.  lambs  alfalfa  hay  in  opposition  to  prairie  hay,  giving 
them  in  addition  all  the  shelled  corn  they  would  eat.  The  results 
of  the  trial  which  lasted  98  days  are  as  follows: 

Alfalfa  hay  compared  with  prairie  hay  for  fattening  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Hay 

Lot  I 

Alfalfa  hay,  1.  4  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  1.  0  Ib. 

Lbs. 
0.33 

0.20 

Lbs. 
31.9 

19.8 

Lbs. 
306 

429 

Lbs. 
411 

424 

Lot  II 
Prairie  hay,  0.  9  Ib. 
Shelled  corn,  0.  9  Ib. 

As  shown  above,  the  lambs  in  Lot  I,  fed  alfalfa  hay,  ate  more  hay 
and  grain,  made  heavier  gains,  and  yet  consumed  123  Ibs.  less  corn 
for  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  They  were  more  thrifty,  had  better  appe- 
tites, and  so  were  able  to  convert  more  feed  into  mutton.  (245) 

764.  Common  fodders. — At  the  Michigan  Station4  Mumford  fed 
6  lots,  each  of  ten  75-lb.  lambs,  for  98  days  to  test  the  value  of  vari- 


Bul.  73. 


2  Bui.  64. 


Bui.  66. 


Bui.  136. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


471 


ous  roughages.  Each  lamb  received  1.4  Ibs.  shelled  corn  and  1.2  Ibs. 
rutabagas  daily,  together  with  the  dry  fodder  shown  below : 

Comparison  of  various  roughages  for  fattening  lambs. 


Daily  allowance  of  dry  roughage 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  given  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Dry  fodder 

Roots 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot     7,  Clover  hay,   1.2  Ibs.  ... 

0.33 

32.4 

423 

362 

365 

Lot    II,  Alfalfa  hay,  1.3  Ibs.  ... 
Lot  III,  Millet  hay,   1.0  Ibs.  ._. 

0.35 
0.26 

34.4 

25.8 

395 
523 

373 
372 

340 
453 

Lot  IV,  Corn  stover,  1.4  Ibs.  ... 

0.31 

30.2 

451 

462 

387 

Lot     F,  Oat  straw,    1.4  Ibs.  ... 

0.29 

28.5 

478 

489 

411 

Lot  VI,  Bean  straw,  1  .  5  Ibs.  _  _  . 

0.30 

29.6 

463 

488 

395 

In  this  trial  alfalfa  hay  proved  slightly  superior  to  clover  hay.  (254) 
Concerning  millet  hay,  which  gave  the  poorest  returns,  Mumford 
writes:  "More  care  is  necessary  in  feeding  millet  hay  to  fattening 
lambs  than  any  other  coarse  fodder.  Unless  fed  in  small  quantities  it 
induces  scouring."  (229)  Lot  IV,  given  corn  stover  cut  into  1.5  to  3 
inch  pieces  with  a  silage  cutter,  made  nearly  as  large  daily  and  total 
gains  as  Lot  I,  fed  clover  hay,  and  consumed  only  a  little  more  feed 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  This  shows  the  high  value  of  good  stover  for 
lambs.  (218)  Oat  straw  proved  inferior  to  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  yet 
Lot  V,  receiving  this  fodder,  made  large  and  economical  gains.  (242) 
Experienced  feeders  will  agree  that  the  fair  returns  from  the  millet 
hay  and  the  good  returns  from  the  corn  stover  and  oat  straw  were 
made  possible  in  this  trial  because  roots  were  fed  with  them.  Bean 
straw  proved  a  good  substitute  for  clover  hay. 

765.  Sorghum  hay.— At  the  Nebraska  Station1  Burnett  fed  3 
lots,  each  of  12  lambs  averaging  about  60  Ibs.,  for  98  days  on  the 
rations  given  below: 

Sorghum  hay  compared  with  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Hay 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.7  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  1.4  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.32 

0.21 
0.27 

Lbs. 
31.3 

20.2 
26.8 

Lbs. 
424 

612 
602 

Lbs. 
519 

818 
617 

Lot  11 
Sorghum  hay,  1.  7  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  1.  3  Ibs.  . 

Lot  III 
Sorghum  hay,  1.  7  Ibs. 
Shelled  corn,  1.  1  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,  0.2  Ib.  ._    ... 

Bui.  71. 


472 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  lambs  fed  sorghum  hay  and  shelled  corn  made  only  two-thirds 
as  large  gains  as  those  fed  alfalfa  hay  and  corn,  and  required  nearly 
200  Ibs.  more  grain  and  300  Ibs.  more  roughage  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 
The  lambs  fed  0.2  Ib.  of  linseed  meal  in  addition  to  sorghum  hay  and 
shelled  corn  made  heavier  and  more  economical  gains  than  those 
getting  no  linseed  meal.  The  report  states  that  during  the  last  2 
weeks  of  the  trial  the  lambs  fed  sorghum  hay  and  corn  tired  of  the 
ration  and  ate  poorly,  while  those  getting  linseed  meal  in  addition  to 
the  sorghum  hay  and  corn  ate  well  and  made  good  gains  thruout  the 
trial.  (222) 

766.  Various  roughages  for  fattening  lambs. — At  the  Oklahoma 
Station1  McDonald  and  Malone  fed  4  lots,  each  of  10  lambs  aver- 
aging about  75  Ibs.,  the  following  rations  for  140  days.  Each  lot 
was  given  all  the  grain  and  roughage  it  would  consume. 

Alfalfa,  cowpea,  and  prairie  hay,  and  corn  stover  for  fattening  range 

lambs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
grain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Hay 

Corn 
stover 

Lot  I 
Alfalfa  hay,  1.5  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  1.6  Ibs.  _ 

Lbs. 
0.36 

0.37 
0.28 

0.34 

Lbs. 
50.3 

52.1 
39.9 

47.7 

Lbs. 
454 

433 

581 

479 

Lbs. 
411 

391 
366 

206 

Lbs. 

Lot  II 
Cowpea  hay,  1.5  Ibs. 
Corn  meal,  1.6  Ibs.  

Lot  III 
Prairie  hay,  1.0  Ib. 
Corn  meal,  1.  2  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.4  Ib. 

Lot  IV 
Corn  stover,  0.  8  Ib. 
Alfalfa  hay,  0.  7  Ib. 
Corn  meal,  1.  2  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.  4  Ib. 

220 

These  lambs  were  fed  for  the  longest  period  coming  under  our 
observation,  and  made  the  largest  total  gains  as  well  as  large  daily 
gains.  They  also  consumed  but  a  small  amount  of  grain  and  rough- 
age for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  Cowpea  hay  proved  fully  equal  to  alfalfa 
hay.  (261)  Prairie  hay  with  corn  meal  and  cotton-seed  meal  pro- 
duced fairly  large  total  and  daily  gains,  but  at  a  greater  consumption 
of  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  ration  fed  Lot  IV,  consisting 
of  alfalfa  hay,  corn  stover,  corn  meal,  and  cotton-seed  meal,  proved 
nearly  as  good  as  that  supplied  either  of  the  first  two  lots. 

1  Bui.  78. 


Experiments  in  Fattening  Sheep. 


473 


767.  Grazing  sheep  on  annual  pastures. — Keeping  sheep  chiefly 
on  pastures  specially  sown  for  them  was  first  practiced  in  America  at 
the  Minnesota  Station1  in  1895  by  Shaw,  who  writes  thus  of  this 
system :  ' l  It  enables  the  flockmaster  to  maintain  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  animals  than  he  otherwise  could.  It  makes  it  possible  for 
him  to  give  them  more  or  less  of  succulent  pasture  from  spring  till 
fall,  which  is  favorable  to  their  development.  It  enables  him  to  de- 
stroy cheaply  and  effectively  nearly  all  kinds  of  weeds  and  to  fer- 
tilize his  land  so  that  it  will  be  in  a  good  condition  to  grow  other 
crops. ' ' 

In  one  trial  Shaw  grazed  2  lots,  each  of  ten  80-lb.  yearling  wethers, 
for  112  days  by  means  of  hurdles  on  the  following  succession  of  pas- 
tures: Winter  rye,  peas  and  oats,  barley  and  oats,  rape,  kale,  peas 
and  oats.  Lot  II  received  0.5  Ib.  of  oats  per  head  daily  in  addition 
to  pasture.  The  results  of  the  trial  are  given  below: 

Grazing  yearling  wethers  on  special  crops  with  and  without  grain. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily  gain 

Av.  total  gain 

Lot   /,  Pasture 

Lbs. 
0.15 

Lbs. 
16.8 

Lot  II,  Pasture  and  0.5  Ib.  oats 

0.24 

26.9 

While  the  gains  were  not  remarkably  large  with  either  lot,  they 
were  all  that  could  be  expected  during  warm  weather.  Lot  II  gained 
60  per  ct.  more  than  Lot  I,  which  received  no  grain,  and  was  in  better 
condition  at  the  close  of  the  trial.  The  increase  in  gain  was  worth 
more  than  the  cost  of  the  grain  fed. 

768.  Sheep  fattening  in  Great  Britain. — Ingle2  has  collated  all 
published  sheep-feeding  trials  reported  in  Britain  between  the  years 
1844  and  1905,  numbering  194.  Prom  his  extended  report  the  fol- 
lowing typical  examples  are  drawn  to  show  the  rations  used  by  British 
farmers  in  fattening  sheep  and  lambs. 

In  his  review  of  these  feeding  trials  Ingle  observes  that:  Clover 
hay  proved  extremely  useful  not  only  because  of  the  nitrogenous 
matter  but  also  of  its  high  content  of  lime  compared  with  phosphoric 
acid.  Linseed  cake  produced  a  given  increase  with  less  than  the 
average  amount  of  feed,  and  the  carcasses  dressed  above  the  average. 
Cotton-cake  gave  average  results.  Oats,  on  the  whole,  were  unsat- 
isfactory. Barley  was  satisfactory  unless  used  in  large  quantity,  when 
it  seemed  to  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  animals.  Whole  barley 


1  Bui.  78. 


2  Trans.  Highl.  and  Agr.  Soc.  Scotland,  1910. 


474 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


was  better  relished  than  barley  meal.  (171)  Wheat  gave  good  results. 
Malt  showed  little  or  no  superiority  over  barley.  (173)  Dried 
brewers*  grains  and  dried  distillers'  grains  proved  very  satisfac- 
tory. (175,  317)  Mangels  gave  better  results  than  swedes,  and  stored 
swedes  proved  better  than  frosted  swedes.  The  best  results  followed 
feeding  from  95  to  100  Ibs.  of  roots  weekly  per  100  Ibs.  of  live 
sheep.  (275) 

Rations  used  by  British  farmers  in  fattening  sheep  and  lambs. 


No.  of 
ani- 
mals 

Length 
of 
feeding 
period 

Breed 

Average  ration 

Av. 

weight 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

20 

Days 
102 

Oxford 

Linseed  cake,  0-3  Ib  .. 

Lbs. 

128 

Lbs. 
0.43 

Lbs. 
42 

10 

108 

Orford— 

Barley,  0.3  Ib. 
Hay,  0.4  Ib. 
Swedes,  22.9  Ibs. 

Linseed  cake,  0.7  Ib. 

130 

0  24 

27 

8 

121 

Hampshire 
Cotswold 

Molasses,  0.1  Ib. 
Clover  hay,  2.1  Ibs. 
Wheat  straw,  0.3  Ib. 

Cotton-seed  cake,  1.6  Ibs 

132 

0  33 

41 

10 
10 

60 
35 

Hay,  1.0  Ib. 
Koots,  15  Ibs. 

Corn,  0.6  Ib  
Oats,  0.5  Ib. 
Swedes,  14.  8  Ibs. 

Decort  cotton-cake  0  6  Ib 

108 
109 

0.23 
0  29 

14 
10 

19 

105 

Leicester— 

Dried  distillers'  grains,  0.4  Ib. 
Turnips,  15  Ibs. 

Corn,  0  7  Ibs. 

97 

0  33 

35 

18 

105 

Blackfaced 

Hay.  0.5  Ib. 
Swedes,  11.5  Ibs. 

Linseed  cake,  0.7  Ib. 

99 

0  36 

37 

15 

38 
19 

72 
93 
105 

Mountain 
Half-bred 
Cross  Bor.  Leices 

Swedes,  12.8  Ibs. 

Decort.  cotton-cake,'0.3  Ib  
Corn,  0.3  Ib. 
Clover  hay,  0.81b. 
Swedes,  13  Ibs. 

Bombay  cotton-cake,  0.3  Ib  
Dried  distillers'  grains,  0.3  Ib. 
Hay,  0.4  Ib. 
Swedes,  16.3  Ibs. 

Hay  0  7  Ib. 

61 
119 
91 

0.19 
0.40 
0  21 

14 
36 
22 

Blackfaced 

Swedes,  15.3  Ibs. 

The  almost  universal  feeding  of  oil  cake  and  roots  in  great  quan- 
tity to  fattening  sheep  by  the  British  farmer  is  shown  in  these 
examples. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

GENEKAL  CAKE  OF  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS— FATTENING— 
HOTHOUSE  LAMBS. 

I.  SHEPHERD  AND  FLOCK. 

The  sheep  is  the  plant-scavenger  of  the  farm.  Because  of  its  dainty 
manner  of  nibbling  herbage  we  might  suppose  that  its  likes  were  few 
and  dislikes  many,  yet  nearly  every  plant  at  some  period  of  its  growth 
seems  palatable  and  is  freely  eaten.  No  domestic  or  wild  animal  is 
capable  of  subsisting  on  more  kinds  of  food.  Grasses,  shrubs,  roots, 
the  cereal  grains,  leaves,  bark,  and  in  times  of  scarcity  fish  and  meat, 
all  furnish  subsistence  to  this  wonderfully  adaptive  animal.  In  the 
great  pine  forests  of  Norway  and  Sweden1  they  will  exist  thru  a 
hard  winter  by  eating  the  pungent  resinous  evergreens.  Among  the 
Laplanders,  when  other  foods  fail,  they  eat  dried  fish,  the  half- 
rotten  flesh  of  the  walrus,  or  even  the  very  wool  off  each  others' 
backs.  Low2  reports  that  the  sheep  of  the  Shetland  Islands  feed 
upon  the  salty  seaweed  during  the  winter  months,  knowing  by  in- 
stinct the  first  ebbing  of  the  tide,  and  that  they  are  fed  dried  fish 
when  normal  foods  are  scarce. 

McDonald3  writes  of  the  Iceland  sheep :  '  *  The  only  kindness  which 
these  animals  receive  from  their  keepers  in  the  winter  is  being  fed 
on  fish-bones  and  frozen  offal,  when  their  natural  food  is  buried  too 
deep  even  for  their  ingenuity  and  patience." 

While  sheep  may  subsist  upon  such  articles,  the  organs  of  mastica- 
tion and  digestion  plainly  indicate  that  plants  in  some  form  con- 
stitute their  natural  food.  The  cutting  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the 
sheep  fit  against  the  cartilaginous  pad  above  in  such  manner  that, 
when  feeding,  the  herbage  is  torn  off  rather  than  cut.  The  feces  of 
the  sheep  show  the  finest  grinding  of  any  of  the  farm  animals,  all 
minute  weed  seeds  being  generally  crushed  and  destroyed.  If  suffi- 
cient numbers  of  sheep  are  confined  to  one  field  for  a  sufficient 
time,  every  green  thing  is  consumed,  many  species  of  plants  being 
entirely  destroyed.  When  closely  pastured  upon  brush  land  they 
will  derive  much  nourishment  from  the  leaves,  bark,  and  twigs. 

1  Sheep  Husbandry,  Killebrew,  p.  6.  3  Cattle,  Sheep  and  Deer. 

2  Domestic  Animals  of  the  British  Islands. 

475 


4:76  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

This  system  of  feeding  cannot,  however,  be  considered  desirable  for 
mutton  sheep. 

769.  Mutton   breeds   and  the  Merinos   compared. — The   Merino 
sheep   is  peculiarly  a  wool-bearer,   and  nearly  all  lines   descended 
from  the  Spanish  stock  have  been  selected  for  that  single  purpose. 
The  story  of  the  Spanish  Merino  in  its  home  country  forms  one  of  the 
most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  live  stock.1    In  their  pil- 
grimage from  South  to  Central  Spain  each  spring  and  their  return 
in  the  fall  the  Spanish  flocks  make  annual  journeys  covering  over 
a  thousand  miles.    Only  the  strongest  and  most  rugged  animals  sur- 
vived the  long,  fatiguing,  perilous  marches.     The  ability  to  exist  in 
enormous  flocks,  to  range  over  a  vast  territory,  and  to  subsist  upon 
scant  food  are  the  leading  of  the  many  remarkable  qualities  wrought 
by  stern  Fate  into  the  very  constitution  of  the  Merino  sheep.  (725) 

Almost  opposite  in  several  characteristics  are  the  English  mutton 
breeds  of  sheep,  which  have  been  reared  in  small  flocks  confined  to 
limited  pastures,  the  best  specimens  being  saved  and  nurtured  each 
year  with  intelligent  attention  to  all  their  wants.  They  have  been 
sheltered  from  storms  and  liberally  fed  with  rich  roughage  and  grain 
from  barn  and  stack  whenever  the  fields  were  scant  of  herbage  or  the 
weather  severe.  In  general  the  life  of  the  English  mutton  sheep  has 
been  one  of  quiet  contentment  and  of  plenty  almost  to  surfeit.  In 
this  country  we  cannot  hope  to  attain  the  wonderful  success  reached 
by  British  sheep-owners  unless  we  closely  follow  or  improve  upon 
their  methods. 

770.  Size  of  the  flock. — The  sheep  is  distinctively  a  gregarious 
animal.     The  improved  American  Merino  of  today  still  shows  in  a 
marked  manner  the  result  of  inheritance  by  its  ability  to  exist  in 
great  flocks  and  thrive  under  the  most  ordinary  conditions  of  care 
and  keep.    With  reasonable  oversight  thousands  of  Merino  sheep  can 
be  held  in  single  bands  where  the  range  is  ample,  and  for  the  brief 
period  of  fattening  tens  of  thousands  can  be  successfully  fed  together, 
as  is  now  commonly  done  with  range  sheep,  carrying  Merino  blood, 
which  are  brought  to  feeding  points  in  the  trans-Missouri  corn-belt 
states. 

Two  hundred  sheep  of  the  mutton  breeds  are  as  many  as  can  be 
successfully  managed  in  one  flock,  and  to  secure  the  best  returns 
from  even  this  number  one  should  have  had  previous  experience  in 
their  management.  The  novice  would  better  begin  with  a  flock  of 
25,  increasing  the  number  as  experience  grows. 

1  Low,  Domestic  Animals  of  the  British  Islands,  Vol.  II. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  477 

771.  Winter  quarters. — Above  every  other  animal  on  the  farm 
the  sheep  should  be  kept  dry  as  to  coat  and  feet.     Inattention  to 
either  of  these  essentials  will  result  disastrously.     With  dry  winter 
quarters  sheep   will  stand  a  great  degree  of   cold   without  incon- 
venience.   Indeed,  their  quarters  in  winter  should  not  be  warm,  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  farm  animals.     One  thickness  of  matched 
boards  will  make  the  barn  or  shed  where  sheep  are  confined  suffi- 
ciently warm  in  the  northern  states  except  for  winter  lambs.    Ample 
ventilation  is  of  great  importance,   and  drafts  should  be  avoided. 
Sunshine,  good  drainage,  and  conveniences  for  feeding  are  the  other 
requisites  of  a  good  sheep  barn.    The  amount  of  shed  space  per  sheep 
will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  animal.     A  ewe  weighing  100  Ibs.  will 
require  about  10  sq.  ft.  of  ground  space,  while  one  weighing  150 
Ibs.  should  have  15  sq.  ft.    A  space  40x40  ft.  sq.,  for  example,  will 
accommodate  about  160  sheep  weighing  100  Ibs.  each,  or  100  weigh- 
ing 160  Ibs.,  not  allowing  for  feed  racks.    A  provision  of  15  inches 
running  length  of  feed  rack  should  be  made  for  each  sheep  weighing 
100  Ibs.,  and  2  ft.  for  those  weighing  200  Ibs.    Breeding  sheep  housed 
in  winter  should  have  access  to  a  dry  yard  having  a  sunny  exposure 
and  well  protected  from  winds  and  storms,  in  which  to  obtain  the 
exercise  so  essential  to  thrift  and  health.  (733-4) 

772.  Winter  care.— The  flock  should  be  so  divided  into  groups  that 
all  the  members  of  each  group  are  of  the  same  age,  sex,  strength,  and 
general  characteristics.     To  give  the  highest  returns  a  division  of 
mutton  sheep  should  not  contain  over  50  members.     Aged  breeding 
ewes  should  constitute  one  band,  shearling  ewes  another,  the  ewe 
lambs  a  third,  and  the  wether  lambs  a  fourth.     These  bands  should 
be  again  divided  if  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  their  strong- 
est and  weakest  members.    The  wise  flockmaster  will  group  his  flock 
so  that  each  member  may  have  an  equal  chance  with  its  fellows  at  the 
feed  trough  and  in  enjoying  comforts  and  attentions  from  his  hand. 
Ewe  lambs  intended  for  the  breeding  flock  should  receive  liberal 
rations  during  the  winter  months  in  order  that  they  may  grow  stead- 
ily during  the  first  year  of  their  lives.    Craig1  writes :    ' '  The  growth 
and  development  of  the  lamb  the  first  year  of  its  life  determines  very 
largely  the  size  and  weight  of  the  fleece  and  the  vigor  and  power  it  will 
attain."     Ram  lambs  should  receive  liberal  rations  of  muscle-build- 
ing foods,  but  never  much  fat-forming  food. 

773.  Feed  for  breeding  ewes. — In  wintering  breeding  ewes  there 
should  be  ample  provision  of  good  bulky  feed,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 

1  Wis  Expt.  Sta.,  Ept.  1897. 


478  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

cowpea,  or  vetch  hay,  along  with  corn  fodder  or  corn  stover  cut  in 
the  fall  when  the  leaves  are  still  green,  good  prairie  hay,  roots,  pea 
straw,  oat  straw,  barley  straw,  etc.  At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  corn 
silage  proved  a  satisfactory  and  economical  roughage  for  breeding 
ewes  when  fed  in  combination  with  hay  or  corn  stover.  Ewes  that 
are  heavily  fed  on  such  nitrogenous  feeds  as  wheat  bran,  clover,  al- 
falfa hay,  etc.,  are  in  danger  of  producing  lambs  that  are  too  large 
at  birth  with  excessive  development  of  bone.2  In  addition  to  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  roughage,  each  ewe  should  receive  0.25  to  0.5  Ib.  daily 
of  such  concentrates  as  oats,  bran,  peas,  or  a  mixture  thereof.  At 
the  Wisconsin  Station3  dried  brewers7  grains  produced  better  results 
than  bran,  oats,  or  corn  when  the  milk  flow  was  considered.  Ewes 
fed  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  will  not  require  as  much  grain  as  those 
given  straw  or  corn  stover.  Oil  meal  or  linseed  meal  is  acceptable, 
and  1  or  2  tablespoonfuls  may  be  given  to  each  ewe  daily.  Corn, 
if  fed  at  all,  should  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  grain  allowance 
of  breeding  ewes  in  winter,  as  it  is  too  fattening.  Breeding  ewes 
should  have  abundant  exercise,  and  should  always  be  kept  in  good 
condition,  carrying  more  flesh  than  most  American  farmers  think 
proper.  To  winter  them  on  straw,  or  straw  and  hay  with  no  grain, 
is  to  perpetuate  a  flock  that  will  gradually  but  surely  degenerate. 

774.  The  ram. — The  ram  is  half  the  flock,  and  money  invested  in 
a  vigorous,  first-class,  pure-bred  specimen  will  be  soon  repaid.     He 
should  be  strong,  well  built,  full  of  vim,  and  a  good  getter.    A  ram 
of  such  character  will  care  for  40  or  50  ewes.    At  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion* yearling  rams  proved  less  prolific  than  2-  or  3-year-old  rams. 
During  the  breeding  season  it  is  best  to  turn  the  rams  with  the  ewes 
for  but  a  short  time  daily,  or  only  at  night.     Rams  should  be  kept 
in  a  good  thrifty  condition  on  muscle-forming  feeds,   but   should 
never  be  made  fat.     All  rams  that  have  won  prizes  at  exhibitions 
should  be  studiously  avoided,  as  should  all  that  have  for  any  reason 
been  made  really  fat,  for  such  high  living  quite  generally  renders 
them  impotent,  or  at  least  greatly  lessens  their  procreative  powers. 

775.  Date  of  lambing. — The  lamb  dropped  in  late  winter  or  early 
spring  is  far  more  valuable  than  one  coming  later.    Under  good  man- 
agement the  early-yeaned  lamb  comes  into  the  world  with  comfort- 
able surroundings  and  a  kind  master  in  attendance  to  give  atten- 
tions conducive  to  comfort  and  growth.    With  the  coming  of  spring 
the  young  thing  is  of  sufficient  size  and  vigor  to  pass  out  with  its  dam 

1  Epts.  1900, 1901.  3  Epts.  1902, 1904. 

2  Wing,  Sheep  Farming  in  America,  p.  106.  *  Kpt.  1907. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  479 

and  make  the  most  of  the  fresh  grass  and  genial  sunshine.  The 
early  lamb  is  much  less  susceptible  to  stomach  worms  and  many  of 
the  evils  which  attack  the  later-dropped  lambs.  Early  farm-raised 
lambs  may  be  fattened  and  sold  before  the  market  is  flooded  with 
western  range  lambs  from  the  feed  lots.  Where  there  are  poor  ac- 
commodations or  cold  quarters  lambs  should  not  be  dropped  in 
northern  latitudes  earlier  than  May,  and  not  until  the  dams  are 
on  pasture. 

776.  Flushing  the  ewes. — With  the   mutton  breeds  twin  lambs 
are  desirable,  and  to  secure  as  many  of  them  as  possible  English 
flockmasters  "flush"  the  ewes  at  breeding  time.     They  are  given  an 
extra  allowance  of  nutritious,  highly  palatable  food  for  two  or  three 
weeks  before  the  desired  date  of  breeding  in  order  that  they  may 
be  rapidly  gaining  in  flesh  at  that  time.     Flushed  ewes  not  only 
produce  more  twins,  but  are  also  more  sure  to  breed.     Craig1  found 
that  ewes  suckling  twins  do  not  lose  any  more  flesh  than  those  with 
one  lamb  only,  and  that  twins  make  as  rapid  gains  as  singles.    Under 
western  range  conditions,  where  less  attention  can  be  given  to  the 
individual  ewes,  one  lamb  to  each  ewe  has  given  the  best  results. 

777.  At  lambing  time. — As  lambing  time  approaches,  the  shep- 
herd should  take  quarters  in  the  sheep  barn  or  close  by,  and  remain 
in  attendance  until  the  season  is  over.    Lambs  of  the  mutton  breeds 
are  often  in  need  of  quick,  intelligent  attention  from  the  shepherd 
as  they  enter  the  world.     A  chilled  new-born  lamb  is  best  warmed 
by  immersion  in  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear.     When  well 
warmed  it  should  be  wiped  dry,  taken  to  its  mother,  and  held  until 
supplied  with  her  milk.2    If  the  young  lamb  is  unable  to  draw  milk 
within  a  few  minutes  after  birth,  it  should  have  patient,  intelligent 
help  at  this  time.    To  this  end  the  ewe  must  sometimes  be  held,  and 
the  lamb  aided,  the  whole  being  accomplished  by  that  patient  skill  so 
characteristic  of  the  good  shepherd,  but  so  impossible  of  description. 
One  twin  is  usually  weaker  than  the  other,  and  frequently  the  mother 
cares  only  for  the  stronger  one.    Here  the  shepherd's  tact  serves  well 
in  promptly  helping  the  weaker  member  to  its  full  share  of  food. 
Lambs  can  be  successfully  reared  on  cow's  milk,  tho  close  attention 
is  necessary  during  the  first  month.     Warm  cow's  milk  with  some 
cream  added  can  be  fed  from  a  teapot  over  the  spout  of  which  a  rub- 
ber "cot"  with  an  opening  in  the  end  has  been  placed,  or  a  nursing 
bottle  may  be  used.    At  first  the  lamb  should  be  fed  15  to  18  times 
a  day,  and  later  half  a  dozen  times.    When  a  ewe  refuses  to  own  her 

1  Wis.  Ept.  1899.  2  Wing,  Sheep  Farming  in  America. 


480  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

lamb,  she  will  usually  own  it  upon  putting  them  together  in  a  small 
pen  out  of  sight  of  the  other  sheep  and  helping  the  lamb  to  suckle  for 
a  few  times.  In  stubborn  cases  the  ewe  may  be  confined  in  stanchions 
so  that  she  cannot  prevent  the  lamb  sucking. 

In  case  a  ewe  loses  her  lamb  she  may  often  be  induced  to  adopt  a 
twin  lamb  by  first  sprinkling  some  of  her  own  milk  over  it.  Still 
more  effective  is  the  practice  of  removing  the  skin  from  the  dead 
lamb  and  tying  it  upon  the  back  of  the  lamb  to  be  adopted. 

The  shepherd,  rooming  close  by  the  lying-in  quarters,  should  be 
in  attendance  every  two  or  three  hours  in  the  night  when  the  lamb- 
ing season  is  on,  in  order  to  help  the  weak  ones  and  see  that  all  are 
prospering.  With  the  first  fill  of  milk  from  the  dam  the  new-born 
lamb  becomes  comfortable,  and  is  usually  able  thereafter  to  take  care 
of  itself.  Lambs  of  the  mutton  breeds  are  often  weak  at  birth,  but 
under  good  management  gain  rapidly  in  strength.  For  two  or  three 
days  after  parturition  the  ewe  should  be  supplied  sparingly  with 
dry  food  of  the  same  character  as  that  given  before  lambing.  Suc- 
culent feed  should  be  added  with  the  demand  for  more  milk  by  the 
young. 

778.  Teaching  the  young  lamb  to  eat. — When  about  two  weeks 
old  the  lusty  young  lamb  will  be  found  nibbling  forage  at  the  feed 
trough  beside  its  dam,  and  the  shepherd  should  provide  specially  for 
its  wants  to  early  accustom  it  to  take  additional  food.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  having  an  enclosure  or  room  adjoining  the  ewe- 
pen,  into  which  the  lambs  find  their  way,  while  the  mothers  are  pre- 
vented from  entering  because  of  the  limited  size  of  the  openings, 
called  the  "  lamb-creep. "  In  this  space,  accessible  to  the  lambs  only, 
should  be  placed  a  low,  flat-bottomed  trough,  with  an  obstruction 
lengthwise  across  the  top  to  prevent  the  lambs  from  jumping  into  it. 
In  the  trough  should  be  sprinkled  a  little  meal  especially  palatable 
to  the  lamb,  such  as  ground  oats,  bran,  corn  meal  or  cracked  corn,  oil 
meal,  soybean  meal — one  or  all, — varying  the  mixture  to  suit  the 
changing  tastes  of  the  young  things.  At  first  they  will  take  but 
little,  but  soon  will  become  regular  attendants  at  the  trough  thru 
habit  impelled  by  appetite.  There  should  not  be  more  feed  in  the 
trough  at  any  time  than  will  be  quickly  consumed,  and  any  left  over 
should  be  removed  and  the  trough  thoroly  cleaned  before  the  next 
allowance  is  given.  All  feed  should  be  fresh  and  have  no  smell  of  the 
stable — that  which  is  left  over  can  be  given  to  the  pigs.  Lambs  will 
drink  a  good  deal  of  water,  and  this  should  be  supplied  fresh  and 
clean. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  481 

779.  Turning  to  pasture. — With  the  springing  of  the  grass,  ewes 
and  lambs  should  be  turned  to  pasture  for  a  short  time  during  the 
warm  part  of  the  day.    It  is  best  to  accomplish  the  change  gradually 
and  while  the  grass  is  short.    After  a  few  hours  spent  in  the  sunshine, 
nibbling  at  the  grass,  the  ewes  and  lambs  should  be  returned  to  shelter, 
where  a  full  feed  awaits  them.  When  the  grass  has  become  ample  and 
nutritious,  stable  feeding  may  be  dropped  for  ewes,  or  both  ewes  and 
lambs,  according  to  the  plan  followed.     With  good  pasture,  breed- 
ing ewes  need  no  grain.     Indeed,  we  may  look  forward  to  the  pas- 
ture season  as  marking  the  time  to  ''draw  the  grain  from  their  sys- 
tems," as  it  is  termed  by  feeders.     In  some  instances  pastures  so 
stimulate  the  milk  flow  of  ewes  that  the  over-supply  of  rich  milk 
causes  digestive  derangement  and  sudden  death  with  young  lambs. 
The  shepherd  should  forestall  such  trouble  by  removing  the  ewes 
from  the  pasture  after  a  few  hours  grazing  each  day,  and  by  giving 
hay  or  other  dry  feeds,  thereby  reducing  the  milk  flow. 

It  is  usually  best  to  feed  the  lambs  concentrates  in  addition  to  what 
they  get  from  dams  and  pasture.  To  this  end,  at  some  convenient 
point  in  the  pasture  let  there  be  a  " lamb-creep/'  and  in  a  space 
accessible  by  way  of  the  creep  a  trough  for  feeding  grain.  When- 
ever the  lamb  passes  thru  the  creep  it  should  find  something  in  this 
trough  tempting  the  appetite, — oats,  bran,  pea  meal,  and  corn  meal 
constituting  the  leading  articles.  Grain  never  gives  such  large  re- 
turns as  when  fed  to  thrifty  young  animals,  and  the  growing  lamb 
is  no  exception. 

780.  At  weaning  time. — Lambs  of  the  mutton  breeds,  more  or 
less  helpless  at  birth,  are  lusty  at  four  months  of  age,  and  will  be 
found  grazing  regularly  beside  their  dams  in  pasture  when  not  at 
rest  or  eating  grain  beyond  the  lamb-creep.     At  this  age,  for  their 
own  good  as  well  as  that  of  the  ewes,  weaning  time  is  at  hand.     If 
possible,  advantage  should  be  taken  of  a  cool  spell  in  summer  to 
wean  the  lambs.    Lambs  weaned  during  excessively  hot  weather  may 
receive  a  serious  setback  because  of  the  heat  and  the  fretting  for 
their  mothers.    The  lambs  should  be  so  far  separated  from  their  dams 
that  neither  can  hear  the  bleating  of  the  other.    For  a  few  days  the 
ewes  should  be  held  on  short  pasture  or  kept  on  dry  feed  in  the  yard. 
The  udders  should  be  examined,  and  if  necessary,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  the  best  mothers,  they  should  be  drained  of  milk  a  few  times 
lest  inflammation  arise.     The  lambs  should  be  put  on  the  best  pas- 
ture and  given  a  liberal  supply  of  grain  in  addition.     New  clover 
seeding  is  especially  relished,  while  young  second-crop  clover  is  also 

32 


482 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


satisfactory.  An  especially  choice  bite  may  always  be  provided  for 
the  lambs  at  this  important  time  by  a  little  forethought  on  the  part 
of  the  stockman. 

Wing  writes:1  "As  a  rule  it  is  not  necessary  to  wean  lambs  be- 
fore they  go  to  market.  If  they  are  fed  right  they  will,  while  suck- 
ing their  mothers,  reach  a  weight  of  75  to  85  Ibs.,  if  of  mutton  breeds." 
Lambs  which  are  to  remain  on  the  farm  should  be  weaned  at  10  to  12 
weeks.  By  separating  them  from  their  dams  before  the  advent  of 
warm  weather,  and  putting  them  on  clean  pasture  free  from  contam- 
ination, they  may  escape  stomach  worms  and  other  parasites. 

781.  Maintenance  ration  for  breeding  ewes  in  winter. — At  the 
Wisconsin  Station2  Carlyle  and  Kleinheinz  recorded  the  amount  of 
feed  eaten  in  winter  by  well-fed,  pregnant  Shropshire,  Dorset,  South- 
down, Merino,  and  Shropshire-Merino  ewes  ranging  in  weight  from 
138  to  157  Ibs.  each  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial.  The  ewes  were 
divided  evenly  as  regards  size  and  breed  into  lots  of  12  each.  The 
mixed  grains  fed  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  corn,  oats,  and  bran. 
The  corn  forage  consisted  of  corn  fodder  and  corn  stover.  The  table 
shows  the  average  amount  of  feed  consumed  daily  by  each  ewe  during 
the  winter  and  the  average  daily  gain  of  each  lot: 

Feed  required  to  maintain  a  breeding  ewe  for  1  day  in  winter. 


Single  trial 


Av. 

daily 
gain 


Average  of  2  other  trials 


Av. 

daily 
grain 


Lot  I 

Shelled  corn,  0. 5  Ib. 
Mixed  hay,  2  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  2.5  Ibs 

Lot  II 

Whole  oats,  0.5  Ib. 
Mixed  hay,  2  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  2.5  Ibs 

Lot  III 

Wheat  bran,  0. 5  Ib. 
Mixed  hay,  2  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  2.5  Ibs 

Lot  IV 

•  Dried  brewers'  grains,  0.5  Ib. 
Mixed  hay,  2  Ibs. 

Corn  silage,  2.5  Ibs 

Lot  V 

Mixed  bran,  corn,  and  oats.  0. 7  Ib. 
Mixed  hay,  2. 3  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  2.7  Ibs 


Lbs. 


0.23 


0.23 


0.20 


0.24 


0.20 


Lot  I 
Mixed  grain,  0.5  Ib. 

Corn.f orage,  3. 3  Ibs. 
Lot  II 

Mixed  grain,  0. 5  Ib. 
Corn  silage,  3  Ibs. 
Corn  forage,  1.8  Ibs. 
Lot  III 

Mixed  grain,  0. 5  Ib. 
Cora  silage,  2. 9  Ibs. 
Mixed  hay,  2. 1  Ibs. 
Lot  IV 

Mixed  grain,  0. 5  Ib. 
Roots,  2. 9  Ibs. 
Mixed  hay,  2. 6  Ibs. 


Lbs. 
0.19 

0.09 
0.16 
0.18 


1  Sheep  Farming  in  America. 


2  Epts.  1900-1903. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  483 

We  learn  from  the  table  that  breeding  ewes  weighing  about  145 
Ibs.  each  can  be  so  maintained  when  carrying  their  lambs  in  winter  as 
to  gain  steadily  in  weight  on  a  daily  allowance  of  2  Ibs.  of  mixed  hay, 
2  to  3  Ibs.  of  corn  silage,  corn  forage,  or  roots,  and  0.5  Ib.  of  grain 
or  other  concentrates.  All  of  the  rations  tested  were  highly  satis- 
factory. The  daily  cost  of  maintaining  these  large  ewes  was  2  cents 
per  head  or  less  according  to  the  value  of  the  feeds  used. 

In  previous  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Craig  considers  alsike 
clover  hay  one  of  the  best  dry  roughages,  as  it  was  eaten  with  relish 
and  comparatively  small  waste.  Corn  fodder  and  oat  hay  also  proved 
satisfactory.  Cut  (chaffed)  oat  hay  gave  poor  results,  as  the  pieces 
gathered  in  the  wool  about  the  necks  of  the  sheep  and  it  was  not  well 
eaten.  Of  succulent  fodders  corn  silage  gave  the  best  results.  It 
should  not  contain  too  much  corn,  however,  which  is  injurious  to 
breeding  ewes. 

782.  Cost  of  keep  at  the  South. — Grey  and  Ridgeway  of  the  Ala- 
bama Station,2  in  studying  the  cost  of  maintaining  pregnant  ewes 
during  the  winter,  report  the  following: 

Cotton-seed  meal  compared  with  soybean  hay  for  wintering  pregnant  ewes. 


Average  ration 

Total 
gain 

Cost  of  feed 
per  month 

Lot    I,  Cotton-seed  meal  0.5  Ib.,  cotton-seed  hulls  1.3  Ibs. 
Lot  //,  Soybean  hay  1.9  Ibs.                  

Lbs. 
1.8 
1.6 

Cents 
30 
35 

It  is  shown  that  on  the  given  feeds  ewes  can  be  maintained  at  the 
South  for  from  30  to  35  cents  per  month.  After  lambing  it  required 
75  per  ct.  more  cotton-seed  meal  and  81  per  ct.  more  hulls  to  maintain 
the  ewe  and  her  lamb  than  before. 

783.  Water  and  salt. — Opinions  as  to  the  amount  of  water  neces- 
sary for  sheep  vary  more  than  with  any  other  domestic  animal.  In 
countries  with  heavy  dews  and  ample  succulent  feed  in  summer,  and 
where  root  crops  are  largely  used  in  winter,  water  may  possibly  be 
denied  sheep,  but  under  most  conditions  it  is  a  necessity  and  should 
never  be  withheld.  A  sheep  needs  from  1  to  6  quarts  of  water  daily, 
according  to  feed  and  weather.  The  best  results  are  secured  when 
they  have  free  access  to  fresh,  pure  water.  On  the  arid  ranges  of 
the  Southwest  when  grazing  on  certain  succulent  plants,  like  singed 
cacti,  sheep  sometimes  go  60  days  without  water.3  (87) 

1  Rpt.  1893.  3  Wilcox  and  Smith,  Farmer 's  Cyclopedia  of  Live  Stock,  p.  590. 

2  Bui.  148. 


484:  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Sheep  require  salt,  and  it  should  be  supplied  them  at  regular  in- 
tervals. In  winter  it  may  be  given  in  a  trough  used  only  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  summer  salt  may  be  rendered  doubly  useful  by  scattering 
it  on  the  sprouts  growing  about  the  stumps,  on  brush  patches,  or  over 
noxious  weeds.  Some  western  sheep  raisers  never  salt  their  sheep 
but  allow  them  to  eat  alkali,  which  is  safe  for  them  when  it  contains 
80  per  ct.  of  salt.1  It  is  believed  that  salted  sheep  are  less  liable  to 
become  locoed.  (91) 

784.  The  stomach  worm. — In  the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river  the  stomach  worm,  Strongylus  contortus,  is  a  serious  menace  to 
sheep  raising,  lambs  being  especially  susceptible  to  attack.  The  eggs 
of  the  parasite  pass  in  the  droppings  of  the  sheep  and  are  scattered 
about  the  pastures,  where  they  soon  hatch.  Sheep  become  infested 
only  by  swallowing  the  worms  while  grazing.  Fields  on  which  no 
sheep,  cattle,  or  goats  have  grazed  for  a  year,  and  those  that  have  been 
freshly  plowed  and  cultivated  since  sheep  grazed  thereon,  are  prac- 
tically free  from  infection.  Old  blue-grass  pastures  are  especially 
to  be  avoided.  During  warm  weather,  otherwise  clean  pastures  may 
become  infested  in  from  3  to  14  days  by  grazing  sheep  thereon. 

To  remove  the  worms  from  the  intestinal  tract  of  sheep,  various 
drenches  are  recommended  by  breeders,  such  as  1  tablespoonful  of 
turpentine,  benzine,  or  gasoline,  thoroly  mixed  with  5  to  6  ounces  of 
fresh  cow's  milk,  with  a  tablespoonful  of  raw  linseed  oil  added.  The 
above  dose,  suitable  for  a  lamb  of  average  size,  should  be  increased 
for  older  sheep.  Creosote  has  been  highly  recommended,  8  ounces 
of  a  1  per  cent  solution  in  water  being  a  dose  for  young  lambs.  Wing2 
advocates  feeding  dried  tobacco,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  salt,  to 
lambs  and  ewes  as  a  preventive  and  remedy,  but  breeders  disagree  on 
the  value  of  this  treatment. 

Tho  these  remedies  are  of  value,  prevention  of  infection  has 
proved  more  successful.  Kleinheinz,  the  shepherd  of  the  Wisconsin 
Station,  recommends  the  following  system  of  handling  sheep  and 
lambs:  In  the  northern  United  States  worm-free  and  infested  sheep 
may  graze  together  in  a  clean  field  at  any  time  from  the  last  of 
September  until  May  with  little  danger.  From  June  to  Septem- 
ber change  to  fresh,  clean  pasture  every  2  or  3  weeks.  Annual  pas- 
tures, as  rape,  clover  seeding,  etc.,  are  well  adapted  to  this  system. 
This  effective  method  requires  several  separate,  clean  pasture  lots. 
In  the  warmer  sections  the  sheep  should  be  changed  to  clean  pasture 

1  Wilcox  and  Smith,  Farmer 's  Cyclopedia  of  Live  Stock,  p.  590. 
"  Sheep  Farming  in  America. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  485 

earlier  in  the  spring  and  more  frequently  during  the  summer. 
Thoroly  treating  the  ewes  with  some  vermifuge  will  remove  most  of 
the  worms,  and  aid  in  preventing  infection.  Farmers  often  make 
the  serious  mistake  of  allowing  the  lambs  to  remain  with  their  dams 
after  weaning.  Instead,  they  should  at  once  be  placed  on  fresh, 
clean  pasture  on  which  no  sheep  have  previously  grazed  that  season. 
Nothing  is  better  than  turning  the  lambs  into  a  field  of  well-matured 
rape  connecting  with  a  fresh  grass  pasture.  Well-fed  thrifty  sheep 
and  lambs  can  much  better  resist  parasites  than  those  getting  poor 
feed  and  care. 

II.  FATTENING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS. 

785.  Mature  sheep. — It   is   generally  conceded  unwise   to   feed 
yearlings  for  the  block,  since  they  are  shedding  teeth  and  therefore 
are  not  in  condition  to  give  good  returns  for  feed  and  care.    Unless 
prices  for  wool  rule  high  the  stockman  cannot  afford  to  carry  wethers 
past  the  period  when  they  may  be  fed  off  as  lambs.  (732)      Culls 
from  the  flock  can  be  prepared  for  the  butcher  at  any  time  by  the 
use  of  a  little  extra  grain.     In  the  vicinity  of  cities  profitable  sales 
can  be  made  of  fat  culls  at  times  when  regular  feeders  have  failed 
to  supply  the  market. 

786.  Fattening    lambs. — The    demand    for    well-fattened    lambs 
steadily  increases,  the  tender,  juicy,  high-flavored  meat  finding  favor 
among  Americans.     Not  only  do  prices  for  fat  lambs  rule  high  as 
compared  with  mature  sheep  and  farm  animals  generally,  but  there 
are  other  advantages  in  feeding  off  lambs  before  they  reach  maturity. 
A  given  weight  of  feed  goes  further  with  lambs  than  with  mature 
sheep,  the  money  invested  is  sooner  turned,  and  there  is  less  risk  from 
death  and  accident.     Thus  everything  tends  toward  marketing  the 
lambs  as  rapidly  as  they  can  be  disposed  of  to  secure  the  highest 
prices.     If  they  are  not  sufficiently  fat  in  late  summer  or  early  fall 
to  meet  the  reasonable  demands  of  the  market,  it  shows  that  there  has 
been  a  lack  of  feed  and  care  or  that  parasites  have  destroyed  profits. 

787.  Quarters  for  winter  fattening. — Fattening  sheep  should  be 
protected  from  wet  coats  and  feet  at  all  times.     Ideal  quarters  in 
the  Northern  states  are  a  dry,  littered  yard,  with  a  sunny  exposure, 
provided  with  a  well-bedded,  comfortable  shed  opening  to  the  east 
or  south  and  extending  along  the  windward  side  to  break  the  cold 
winds  and  driving  storms.     In  such  quarters  the  air  is  bracing,  the 
sunshine   invigorating.     Here   the   animals,    covered   with   a   heavy 
coat  and  filled  with  rich  grain  and  roughage,  are  warm  and  com- 


486  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

fortable,  and  comfort  is  essential  to  the  highest  gains.  When  suc- 
culent feeds  such  as  beet  pulp  are  fed,  the  quarters  must  be  espe- 
cially well  drained  and  the  shed  well  bedded.  If  confined  in  quar- 
ters sufficiently  warm  for  dairy  cows,  sheep  sweat  badly  in  winter. 
Stone  basements  are  unsatisfactory,  and  if  used  ample  ventilation 
must  be  provided.  Damp  walls  are  a  sure  indication  of  lack  of 
ventilation  and  impending  trouble.  (733-4) 

788.  Feed  racks. — Grain  and  roughage  should  be  fed  separately, 
and  there  should  be  racks  in  the  yards  sufficiently  large  to  hold  rough- 
age for  several  days.     If  sheep  are  fed  in  close  quarters  the  hay 
should  be  supplied  daily,  since  they  dislike  feed  that  has  been  '  *  blown 
on,"  as  shepherds  say.     Grain  troughs  should  have  a  wide,  flat  bot- 
tom, forcing  the  sheep  to  consume  the  grain  slowly.    Fifteen  inches 
of  linear  trough  space  should  be  provided  for  each  animal.     Tho 
sheep  can  be  successfully  fattened  when  the  grain  is  supplied  by  a 
self-feeder,  they  make  smaller  and  less  economical  gains  than  where 
the  feed  is  given  at  each  meal  time. 

789.  The  various  grains  for  fattening. — Corn  is  the  best  single 
grain  for  fattening  sheep,  causing  them  to  put  on  fat  rapidly  and 
not  forcing  the  growth  of  lambs,  as  is  the  case  with  some  other  con- 
centrates.   For  eastern  lambs  500  Ibs.  of  corn  and  400  Ibs.  of  clover 
hay,  and  for  western  lambs  450  Ibs.  of  corn  and  500  Ibs.  of  alfalfa 
hay,  should  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain  where  the  conditions  are  rea- 
sonably favorable  and  the  fattening  period  not  too  extended.  (744; 
From  these  data  the  feeder  can  readily  calculate  the  cost  and  possible 
profits  of  fattening  lambs. 

Thruout  the  western  range  district,  where  corn  is  not  raised  in 
large  quantities,  barley  is  extensively  used  for  fattening  sheep  and 
lambs.  This  grain  produces  nearly  as  large  and  economical  gains 
as  corn.  (748) 

Wheat  is  worth  about  10  per  ct.  less  than  corn  for  sheep,  tending 
to  produce  growth  rather  than  fat.  It  should  not  be  fed  to  sheep 
except  when  off  grade  or  low  in  price.  Durum  or  macaroni  wheat 
has  proved  equal  to  bread  wheat  for  fattening  lambs.  In  tests  at 
the  Utah  Station,  frosted  wheat  produced  as  large  and  more  econom- 
ical gains  than  marketable  wheat.  (746)  The  value  of  wheat  screen- 
ings from  the  elevators  and  mills  depends  entirely  on  their  quality, 
the  light,  chaffy  grades  having  little  value.  Good  wheat  screenings 
produce  as  large  gains,  pound  for  pound,  as  corn,  when  fed  with 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  They  should  be  fed  close  to  the  mills  or  ele- 
vators where  they  can  be  obtained  without  the  payment  of  heavy 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  487 

freight  bills.  If  possible,  corn  should  be  mixed  with  screenings  or 
wheat  for  lamb-fattening,  since  they  tend  to  growth  as  well  as  to 
fattening.  (752) 

Where  oats  are  low  in  price  they  may  be  used  for  sheep  feeding 
and  will  produce  excellent  mutton.  Like  wheat,  oats  conduce  to 
growth,  and  hence  it  is  best  to  mix  corn  with  them  for  fattening 
lambs.  (747) 

Lamb-feeding  trials  in  the  Western  states  show  that  emmer  (speltz) 
has  nearly  as  great  feeding  value,  pound  for  pound,  as  corn  when 
fed  with  alfalfa  hay.  At  the  South  Dakota  Station1  when  fed  with 
mixed  brome  and  prairie  hay  emmer  was  worth  about  two-thirds  as 
much  as  barley  for  lambs.  (749) 

Experiments  at  the  Kansas  Station2  show  that  kafir  has  about  the 
same  feeding  value  as  corn  for  sheep.  Where  extensively  grown  it 
is  a  valuable  and  economical  substitute  for  that  grain.  (183) 

790.  Feeds  rich  in  protein. — Linseed  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  and 
gluten  feed  are  concentrates  rich  in  crude  protein,  which  may  some- 
times be  profitably  mixed  with  corn  or  other  grains  for  fattening 
lambs.    Lambs  should  never  receive  more  than  half  a  pound  of  lin- 
seed or  cotton-seed  meal  per  head   daily,    and   one-eighth   or  one- 
fourth   lb.,    in   combination   with   other   concentrates,   would   prove 
much  more  satisfactory.  (754) 

Field  peas  and  soybeans,  also  rich  in  crude  protein,  are  usually 
too  expensive  to  form  the  entire  concentrate  allowance  for  fattening 
lambs.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  mixing  either  of 
these  feeds  with  corn  or  other  grains.  (750,  753) 

Experiments  show  that  bran  is  not  especially  suitable  for  fatten- 
ing sheep,  a  large  quantity  being  required  for  a  given  gain.  Like 
wheat  and  oats,  bran  induces  growth  rather  than  fattening,  and  its 
bulky  character  is  also  against  it,  tho  a  limited  quantity  may  be  use- 
ful, as  it  is  greatly  relished  by  sheep. 

791.  Grinding  grain. — Of  all  the  farm  animals  the  sheep  is  best 
able  to  do  its  own  grinding,  and  with  few  exceptions  whole  grain 
only  should  be  furnished.     The  common  saying  of  feeders,  "a  sheep 
which  cannot  grind  its  own  grain  is  not  worth  feeding,"  is  a  truth- 
ful one.    Valuable  breeding  sheep  with  poor  teeth  may  be  continued 
in  usefulness  by  being  fed  ground  grain.     In  certain  cases  grinding 
may  prove  beneficial.     At  the  Colorado  Station3  Cooke,  when  feed- 
ing western  sheep  on  wheat,  observed  that  much  of  the  grain  passed 
thru  the  animals  unbroken.     At  the  South  Dakota  Station4  Wilson 

1  Buls.  71,  86.  3  Bui.  32. 

2  Breeder  Js  Gazette,  Vol.  51.  *  Bui.  86. 


4:88  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  Skinner,  on  feeding  millet  seeds,  which  are  small  and  have  a 
hard  covering,  to  lambs,  found  that  a  large  percentage  was  voided 
undigested.  On  grinding  the  millet  it  proved  highly  satisfac- 
tory. (342) 

792.  Roughage. — The  legumes  are  the  prime  source  of  roughage 
for  sheep — clover  and  alfalfa  in  the  East,  alfalfa  in  the  irrigated 
regions  of  the  West,  and  the  cowpea,  beggar  weed,  and  other  plants 
in  the  South.    Clover,  one  of  the  best  of  roughages  for  sheep,  should 
be  cut  early  in  order  to  secure  the  leaves  and  heads,  which  are  the 
parts  desired.    Alfalfa  hay  is  superior  even  to  red  clover  in  palata- 
bility  and  in  the  nutriment  it  carries.    "When  of  good  quality  it  not 
only  answers  for  roughage,  but  because  of  its  abundant  nutriment  it 
serves  as  a  partial  substitute  for  grain,  thus  materially  reducing  the 
cost  of  feeding  and  fattening.     At  the  Oklahoma  Station1  cowpea 
hay  proved  equal  to  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  lambs.     So  long  as 
there  is  an  ample  supply  of  good  legume  hay  of  any  kind,  sheep 
show  little  desire  for  other  varieties  of  forage. 

Next  in  value  to  hay  from  the  legumes  come  the  dry  leaves  of  the 
corn  plant.  For  sheep  feeding,  corn  should  be  cut  early  and  cured 
in  well-made  shocks.  The  sheep  will  eat  a  little  more  of  the  stalks 
if  shredded,  but  cutting  will  not  induce  them  to  eat  any  of  the 
coarser  parts. 

793.  Succulent  feeds. — One  of  the  advantages  of  feeding  silage 
or  roots  to  sheep  is  the  tonic  and  regulating  effect.    Both  corn  silage 
and  roots  are  greatly  relished,  and  feeding  trials  show  them  to  be 
about  equal  in  nutritive  value.     The  low  cost  of  producing  silage 
should  lead  to  its  more  common  use.     Roots  are  universally  fed  to 
sheep  in  Great  Britain,  and  no  other  farmer  compares  with  the  Brit- 
ish farmer  in  producing  high-quality  mutton.     Wet  beet  pulp  has 
proved  a  valuable  feed  for  lambs,  especially  when  combined  with  al- 
falfa hay. 

794.  Dipping. — In  all  cases  before  sheep  are  admitted  to  the  fat- 
tening pens  they  should  be  examined  by  an  experienced  shepherd, 
and  if  any  evidence  of  skin  disease  or  vermin  is  found  the  flock 
should  be  dipped  in  the  most  thoro  manner.    At  the  West  scab,  and 
in  the  East  lice  and  ticks,   are  common  troubles.     To  attempt  to 
fatten  sheep  afflicted  with  any  of  these  pests  is  to  court  disaster. 
Sheep  having  any  ticks  show  increased  irritability  and  restlessness 
as  soon  as  fattening  begins. 

795.  Length  of  feeding  period. — The  feeding  period  with  sheep 
and  lambs  which  have  never  received  grain  while  on  pasture  should 

1  Bui.  78. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  489 

last  from  12  to  14  weeks,  according  to  their  condition  in  the  begin- 
ning and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  gain.  The  tables  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  show  that  lambs  increase  in  weight  at  least  a  quar- 
ter of  a  pound  per  day  when  gaining  normally.  For  a  feeding 
period  of  100  days  the  gains  should  run  from  25  to  30  Ibs.  per  head. 
This  weight,  mostly  fat,  added  to  the  carcass  of  a  lamb  weighing  orig- 
inally 60  to  90  Ibs.,  brings  it  to  the  size  desired  by  the  market. 
Formerly  the  market  called  for  a  large  lamb,  but  now  the  demand  is 
for  plump  ones  weighing  from  80  to  90  Ibs.,  or  even  less  if  they  are 
from  the  western  ranges.  As  soon  as  lambs  are  ripe,  or  when  the 
backs  and  the  region  about  the  tail  seem  well  covered  with  fat,  they 
should  be  sold,  for  further  gains  cannot  be  made  at  a  profit.  Ripe 
lambs  fed  a  heavy  grain  ration  at  the  North  Dakota  Station1  gained 
only  0.8  Ib.  each  in  4  weeks,  returning  a  heavy  loss  instead  of  profit. 

796.  Feed   consumed.— As   shown   in   Chapter  XXIX,   fattening 
lambs  weighing  from  60  to  80  Ibs.  each  will  consume  from  0.7  to  2.0 
Ibs.  of  grain  and  0.9  to  2.0  Ibs.  of  hay,  the  entire  ration  containing 
from  1.5  to  3.5  Ibs.  of  dry  matter.    The  addition  of  silage,  roots,  or 
beet  pulp  will  somewhat  increase  the   weight  of  dry   matter  con- 
sumed, on  account  of  the  increased  palatability  of  the  ration. 

797.  Rate  of  increase. — The  experiments  reported  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter  show  that  well-fed  lambs  gain  from  2  to  3.25  per  ct. 
each  week  upon  their  initial  weight.    From  8  to  10  Ibs.  of  dry  mat- 
ter is  required  to  produce  each  pound  of  increase  in  live  weight. 
The  quantity  of  feed  required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  vari- 
ous rations  is  shown  in  the  numerous  trials  reported  in  the  previous 
chapter. 

798.  Cost  of  gain. — The  data  given  in  the  last  chapter  will  en- 
able the  feeder  to  calculate  the  feed  cost  of  producing  100  Ibs.  of 
gain  with  lambs  fattened  on  nearly  any  available  feed  combination. 
For  example,  if  it  requires  500  Ibs.  of  corn  and  400  Ibs.  of  clover 
hay  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  and  corn  is  worth  56  cents  a  bushel,  or  $1 
per  100  Ibs.,  and  hay  $10  a  ton,  or  50  cents  per  100  Ibs.,  then  the 
feed  cost  of  100  Ibs.  of  gain  will  be : 

500  Ibs.  of  corn  at  $1  per  100 _ _.    $5.00 

400  Ibs.  of  hay  at  50  cents  per  100 2.00 

Cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain  _. $7.00 

The  above  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  cost  of  feed  required  to  pro- 
duce 100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  eastern  lambs  fed  in  small  lots  on  corn 

1  Bui.  28. 


490  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

and  clover  hay  at  the  prices  given.  The  feed  required  for  a  given 
gain  will,  for  various  reasons,  often  exceed  the  amount  here  stated, 
and  it  may  fall  somewhat  below  under  skillful  management.  The 
cost  of  gain  with  other  combinations  of  feed  may  easily  be  worked 
out  in  the  same  manner  from  data  in  the  tables.  Comparing  the 
cost  of  gains,  it  will  be  found  that  lambs  give  better  returns  for 
the  feed  supplied  than  do  steers.  Mature  sheep  will  cost  from  25  to 
30  per  ct.  more  for  a  given  gain  than  lambs. 

799.  Hints  on  sheep  feeding. — Sheep  feeders  do  not  begin  opera- 
tions at  an  early  hour  in  winter,  preferring  not  to  disturb  the  ani- 
mals until  after  daybreak.     Usually  grain  is  first  given,   followed 
by  hay  and  water.    The  trough  in  which  grain  is  fed  should  be  kept 
clean  at  all  times,  and  there  should  be  ample  space,  so  that  each 
animal  may  get  its  share  of  grain.     Nowhere  does  the  skill  of  the 
feeder  show  more  plainly  than  in  getting  sheep  to  full  grain  feed 
without  getting  a  single  one  ''off  feed."     Western  sheep  may  not 
be  able  at  first  to  take  over  0.1  Ib.  of  grain  per  day.     If  so,  2 
months  or  10  weeks  may  be  required  in  getting  the  flock  to  full 
feed.     English  mutton  sheep  take  grain  more  readily,  and  in  some 
cases  no  more  than  3  or  4  weeks  need  intervene  between  placing  the 
lambs  on  feed  and  full  feeding.     In  no  case  should  this  operation 
be  hurried,  for  it  means  waste  of  feed  and  injury  to,  if  not  loss  of, 
some  of  the  animals. 

While  regularity  and  quiet  are  of  importance  at  all  times  in  the 
management  of  all  farm  animals,  they  are  paramount  with  fatten- 
ing sheep.  The  flock  should  always  be  cared  for  by  the  same  at- 
tendant, who  should  move  among  them  quietly,  giving  notice  of  his 
approach  by  speaking  in  a  low  voice  and  closing  doors  and  gates 
gently.  Dogs  and  strangers  should  be  kept  from  the  feeding  pens 
at  all  times.  (93) 

HI.  FATTENING  PLAINS  SHEEP. 

800.  The  Colorado  system. — Fattening  range  sheep  and  lambs  on 
grain  and  alfalfa  is  a  vast  industry  in  Colorado,  where  in  1907  about 
2,000,0001  were  fed.    Some  locally  grown  barley  or  wheat  is  fed  when 
low  enough  in  price,  but  shelled  corn  from  further  eastward  and 
locally  grown  alfalfa  hay  form  95  per  ct.  of  the  feed  used.     The 
whole  western  range  is  drawn  on  for  feeders,  and  the  small  fine- 
wool  type  of  earlier  times  has  been  largely  replaced  by  the  cross- 

1  Breeder  'a  Gazette,  51,  p.  348. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  491 

bred  lamb  of  better  mutton  quality.    Formerly  many  mature  wethers 
were  fed,  but  now  mostly  lambs  are  fattened. 

In  feeding  plants  the  corral  or  enclosure  is  divided  into  two  rows 
of  lots  with  a  lane  between,  each  lot  accommodating  from  400  to  500 
lambs.  No  shelter  is  provided,  but  windbreaks  are  desirable.  The 
hay  is  fed  in  the  lanes,  12  to  14  feet  wide,  extending  between  the 
lots.  The  low  fences  bordering  the  lanes  have  a  7-inch  space  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  boards,  thru  which  the  lambs  feed  on  the 
hay.  About  1  running  foot  of  lane  fencing  and  feed  trough  is  al- 
lowed each  sheep.  The  hay  from  the  stacks  is  hauled  down  the 
lanes,  and  is  piled  along  the  fences,  being  pushed  up  to  them  2  or  3 
times  a  day  as  it  is  eaten  away. 

All  lots  are  provided  with  flat-bottomed  troughs  for  feeding  grain. 
There  is  an  extra  or  vacant  lot  at  one  end  of  each  row  of  lots,  like- 
wise provided  with  troughs.  At  feeding  time  grain  is  placed  in  the 
troughs  of  this  extra  lot  and  the  lambs  from  the  adjoining  lot  are 
turned  in.  As  soon  as  a  lot  is  vacated,  grain  is  put  in  the  troughs 
of  this  lot,  and  the  lambs  enter  from  the  next  lot,  and  so  on.  At 
the  next  meal  feeding  begins  by  using  the  vacant  lot  at  the  other 
end  of  the  row,  reversing  the  process.  After  a  week  or  more  of  pre- 
liminary hay  feeding,  corn  feeding  is  begun.  At  first  only  a  very 
little  corn  is  sprinkled  in  the  troughs,  but  as  the  lambs  get  used  to 
it  the  amount  is  gradually  increased  until  after  about  2  months  the 
lambs  are  on  full  feed,  which  is  from  2  to  3  bushels  of  corn  per  100 
head  daily.  The  feeding  yards  are  usually  located  on  streams  or 
ditches  which  supply  running  water.  Those  on  high  ground  have 
watering  troughs  into  which  the  water  is  pumped.  Salt  is  liberally 
furnished  in  troughs. 

Most  of  the  Colorado  lambs  are  marketed  unshorn.  If  feeding 
continues  until  late  in  the  spring  the  lambs  are  usually  shorn  6 
weeks  before  shipping.  They  will  then  gain  enough  more  to  make 
up  the  weight  of  the  wool  removed,  will  pack  more  closely  in  the 
car,  and  will  shrink  less  in  shipping.  Gains  of  from  15  to  30  Ibs. 
per  head  are  secured  by  this  method  of  fattening.  With  favorable 
markets  and  low-priced  feed  enormous  profits  are  made,  but  some- 
times heavy  losses  occur. 

801.  Fattening  on  beet  pulp. — In  the  vicinity  of  beet  sugar  fac- 
tories, especially  near  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  and  Logan,  Utah,  wet 
beet  pulp  has  proved  a  valuable  addition  to  the  ration  of  alfalfa  hay 
and  corn.  The  pulp  is  most  valuable  when  fed  with  a  moderate  al- 
lowance of  grain,  and  the  corn-alfalfa-beet  pulp  ration  has  proved 


492  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

ideal,  producing  high  quality  mutton.  The  Colorado  Station1  found 
1  ton  of  beet  pulp  equal  to  200  Ibs.  of  corn  in  fattening  lambs,  tho 
when  fed  in  large  quantities  it  produced  soft  flesh.  Griffin  of  that 
station  concludes  that,  owing  to  the  excessive  shrinkage  of  pulp-fed 
lambs,  they  should  be  finished  off  on  grain  and  hay  without  pulp. 
There  is  little  bone-forming  material  in  beet  pulp,  and  lambs  long 
fed  on  it  are  said  to  be  weak-boned.  It  would  seem  that  alfalfa  hay 
should  make  good  this  deficiency.2  (89,  759) 

802.  Fattening   on   wheat   screenings. — During   the   last   decade 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  Montana  sheep  and  lambs  were  annually 
fed  on  wheat  screenings  in  Minnesota  near  St.  Paul.    The  screenings 
were  fed  in  sheds,  usually  from  self-feeders.    Bits  of  chaff  and  straw 
in  the  feed  render  it  so  bulky  that  little  or  no  hay  is  required,  and 
the  lambs  do  not  surfeit  as  easily  as  on  corn.     During  the  season  of 
19023  about  330,000  sheep  and  lambs  were  fattened  in  these  feed- 
lots.     Two  years  later  the  number  fell  below  200,000,  and  at  the 
present  time,  because  of  prohibitory  prices  for  screenings  and  their 
poor  quality,  Minnesota  has  ceased  to  be  a  factor  of  importance  in 
the  winter  mutton  supply.  (752) 

803.  In  the  corn  belt.— During  the  winter  of  1899-19004  over  a 
million  "Plains"  sheep  were  fattened  in  Nebraska  alone.     The  sys- 
tem is  similar  to  that  described  for  Colorado,  20,000  to  30,000  head 
often  being  fed  at  a  single  point.    From  2  to  3  bushels  of  corn  are 
required  per  day  for  100  sheep.    To  this  may  be  added  a  few  pounds 
of  oil  meal  or  other  protein-rich  concentrate.     Alfalfa,  sorghum,  or 
wild  hay  and  corn  stover  are  the  roughages  fed.    During  the  feeding 
period  of  about  100  days  the  sheep  usually  gain  somewhat  over  15 
Ibs.  per  head.    The  industry  is  an  irregular  and  uncertain  one,  the 
profits  depending  upon  the  price  of  corn  and  the  market. 

804.  Feeding  small  bands. — Fattening  great  numbers  of  lambs  at 
a  single  point  reached  its  zenith  nearly  a  decade  ago  when  corn  and 
wheat  screenings  ruled  low  in  price,  and  the  large  operator  suffered 
little  competition  from  the  ranchman  or  farmer  in  finishing  range 
lambs  for  the  market.    Now  conditions  have  changed.     The  price  of 
feed  has  increased,  and  the  fattening  of  range  lambs  in  the  grazing 
districts  is  fast  developing.     In  Montana  and  many  other  localities 
sheep  are  put  in  a  fair  condition  by  feeding  alfalfa  hay  and  roots 
without  grain.5     In  South  Dakota  lambs  are  extensively  fattened  on 
local   grains — barley,   macaroni  wheat,   and  emmer — along  with   al- 

1  Bui.  76.  4  Neb.  Bui.  66. 

*  Wing,  Sheep  Farming  in  America.  5  Wilcox,  Farm  Animals,  p.  262. 

3  Breeder 's  Gazette,  Vol.  46,  p.  1000. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  493 

falfa  hay  or  other  roughages.  Most  fortunately  for  a  conservative 
agriculture,  the  large  operator,  who  receives  no  benefit  from  the 
great  accumulation  of  rich  manure  in  the  feed-lot,  cannot  compete 
with  the  farmer  who  fattens  one  or  more  carloads  of  lambs  and  uses 
the  manure  for  enriching  his  land.  Prudent  farmers  rightly  hold 
that  enough  fertility  is  returned  to  their  land  thru  the  feed-lot  to  pay 
the  entire  labor  cost  of  feeding.  As  sheep  and  lamb  fattening  on 
range  and  farm  increases,  the  gradual  decline  of  the  old  feed-lot  is 
assured. 

805.  Pasturing  upon  field  peas. — The  fattening  of  lambs  thru 
grazing  on  field  peas  has  grown  to  great  proportions  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  West,  especially  in  the  San  Luis  valley  in  Colorado, 
where,  it  is  estimated,1  over  380,000  lambs  were  fattened  on  peas 
alone  in  1906.  Mexican  peas,  similar  to  the  common  Canadian  field 
peas,  are  sown  at  the  rate  of  30  to  50  Ibs.  per  acre,  together  with  a 
small  quantity  of  oats  or  barley  to  act  as  a  support  for  the  vines 
and  furnish  additional  feed.  About  November  1,  as  soon  as  most 
of  the  peas  have  matured,  lambs  or  sheep  are  turned  into  the  field, 
and  without  other  feed  are  fattened  in  from  70  to  120  days.  An  acre 
of  such  peas  will  fatten  from  8  to  15  lambs,  each  making  a  gain  of 
from  6  to  8  Ibs.  per  month.  One  acre  of  peas  produces  about  $15 
worth  of  lamb  mutton  at  no  expense  for  harvesting  the  crop.  Con- 
fining the  lambs  to  small  areas  by  hurdles  gives  better  results  than 
allowing  them  to  roam  over  the  entire  field.  (762) 

IV.  HOTHOUSE  LAMBS. 

During  recent  years  an  increasing  demand  has  developed  for  win- 
ter or  ''hothouse"  lambs.  The  greatest  obstacles  to  success  in  this 
specialty  are  getting  the  ewes  to  breed  sufficiently  early,  and  pro- 
ducing carcasses  which  meet  the  exactions  of  the  epicure.  The  de- 
mand for  winter  lambs  prevails  between  the  last  of  December  and 
the  middle  of  March.  The  condition  of  the  carcasses  of  such  lambs 
is  more  important  than  their  size.  They  must  be  fat  and  present 
a  well-developed  leg  of  mutton  with  plenty  of  tender,  juicy  lean  meat 
and  a  thick  caul  to  spread  over  the  exposed  flesh  of  the  carcass  when 
on  exhibition.  Winter  lambs  should  weigh  alive  from  30  to  45  Ibs. 
Large  but  lean  and  bony  ones  present  a  staggy  appearance  and 
bring  unsatisfactory  prices.  Early  in  the  season  small  lambs  top 
the  market,  but  later  the  heavier  ones  are  in  demand. 
1  Breeder's  Gazette,  49,  p.  244. 


494  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

806.  Breeding  for  winter  lambs. — Only  the  ewes  of  two  breeds — 
the  Dorset  and  the  Tunis — can  be  depended  on  to  breed  sufficiently 
early  to  produce  winter  lambs.     Dorsets  excel  in  milk  production — 
a   vital  factor  in  this  industry.    Other  breeds,   as   the   Hampshire. 
Shropshire,  Southdown,  and  Merino,  are  occasionally  recommended, 
tho  ordinarily  they  cannot  be  relied  on  for  this  purpose.     At  the 
Minnesota  Station1  thru  trials  covering  six  years,  Shaw  found  that 
the  breeding  habit  of  common  grade  ewes  which  usually  drop  their 
lambs  in  the  spring  may  be  so  changed  by  two  or  three  generations 
of  judicious  crossing  and  the  selection  of  the  early  yeaned  lambs  for 
breeders  that  they  will  drop  lambs  in  fall  and  early  winter.     This 
change  can  be  hastened  and  more  permanently  fixed  by  mating  the 
ewes  with  pure-bred  Dorset  rams.     Where  the  ewes  have  the  early 
breeding  habit  well  fixed,  superior  lambs  may  be  obtained  by  using 
dark-faced  rams,  such  as  Shropshire  and  Southdown.     Shaw  further 
found  that  ewes  which  have  suckled  winter  lambs  breed  more  readily 
before  being  turned  to  grass  than  subsequently,  especially  when  fed 
a  stimulating  grain  ration  while  still  in  the  shed.    At  the  New  York 
(Cornell)    Station2  Dorset  ewes  bred  earlier,   stood  forced  feeding 
better,  and  were  less  affected  by  unfavorable  weather  than  Shrop- 
shire ewes,   and  their  lambs  made  more  rapid  gains.     Miller  and 
Wing3  advise  using  a  young  ram,  well  fed  during  service  but  not  too 
fat,  turning  him  with  the  ewes  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  March 
nor  later  than  the  middle  of  May.    The  ewes  should  be  in  good  con- 
dition and  so  fed  as  to  be  gaining  in  flesh.     Even  with  favorable 
conditions,  all  the  ewes  will  not  breed  at  the  desired  time,  and  to 
secure  400  winter  lambs  about  500  ewes  are  necessary.     Ewes  which 
fail  to  breed  are  sold  early,  and  those  breeding  late  drop  lambs  useful 
for  later  sales.    Ewes  which  are  successful  breeders  are  kept  as  long 
as  possible,  since  those  lambing  in  November  are  likely  to  breed  at 
the  right  time  the  following  year. 

807.  Care  of  the  ewe. — During  the  summer  the  ewes  need  abun- 
dant pasture,  water,  and  shade.    Should  the  grass  become  scant,  they 
should  receive   additional   feed — rape,    pumpkins,   etc.     If  in  good 
condition  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  feed  grain  before  lambing,  and 
then  only  in  small  amount.     The  ewes  should  be  shorn  in  the  fall  or 
as  early  in  winter  as  possible,  the  object  being  to  keep  them  cool 
and  allow  more  space.     At  weaning  time  the  ewes  should  be  re- 
moved to  the  lambing  pen  and  fed  lightly  for  a  few  days.     The 
Limbing  pen  should  be  warm  so  that  the  new-born  lambs  may  not 

1  Bui.  78.  2  Bui.  88.  3  The  Winter  Lamb,  p.  6. 


General  Care  of  Sheep  and  Lambs.  495 

be  chilled.  Alfalfa  and  clover  hay  serve  best  for  roughage,  while 
oats,  bran,  oil  cake,  and  corn  prove  suitable  concentrates.  The  object 
at  all  times  is  to  produce  the  largest  possible  flow  of  milk  to  hasten 
the  lamb's  growth. 

808.  The  lambs. — A  creep  should  be  provided  and  the  lambs 
taught  to  eat  from  a  trough  as  soon  as  possible.  To  this  end,  a 
little  sugar  may  at  first  be  sprinkled  on  the  grain  to  render  it 
specially  palatable.  The  lambs  begin  to  eat  freely  when  2  or  3 
weeks  old,  and  are  forced  on  bran,  cracked  corn,  linseed  meal, 
ground  oats,  barley,  gluten  feed,  etc.  They  should  be  induced  not 
only  to  eat,  but  to  eat  a  large  quantity,  and  to  keep  eating,  and 
varying  the  kinds  and  proportions  of  the  feeds  supplied  is  conducive 
to  this  end.  Alfalfa,  clover,  or  soybean  hay  is  indispensable,  while 
roots  and  silage  are  helpful.  The  feed  troughs  should  be  cleaned 
each  morning,  and  the  grain  and  hay  supply  be  changed  2  or  3 
times  a  day.  When  necessary,  lambs  are  fed  new  milk  from  a  teapot 
having  a  punctured  rubber  cot  placed  on  the  spout.  Ewes  bereft 
of  their  lambs  thru  sale  are  given  one  of  a  pair  of  twin  lambs.  Thus 
forced,  the  best  lambs  weigh  from  40  to  47  Ibs.  alive  at  6  weeks, 
and  as  much  as  34  Ibs.  dressed.  They  are  dressed  in  a  special 
manner,  the  stomach  and  intestines  being  removed,  while  the  head 
and  feet  remain,  and  the  pluck  is  left  undisturbed.  The  caul  fat  is 
carefully  spread  over  the  exposed  parts,  and  the  carcass  sewed  up 
in  muslin  after  thoroly  cooling.  To  be  profitable,  winter  lambs  must 
bring  not  less  than  $5  per  head,  and  the  best  ones  often  bring  as 
much  as  $12.  This  specialty  can  be  conducted  with  profit  only  by 
experts  who  have  gained  their  experience  thru  patient  and  discreet 
effort,  and  who  have  near-by  markets  that  will  pay  the  high  prices 
such  products  must  command. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


INVESTIGATIONS  WITH  SWINE. 
I.  MISCELLANEOUS  STUDIES. 

809.  Period   of  gestation. — According  to   Coburn,1  young  sows 
carry  their  pigs  from  100  to  108  days  and  old  sows  from  112  to  115, 
the  average  for  all  being  112  days.     Spencer,2  writing  of  English 
pigs,  says:    "The  variations  in  the  time  which  a  sow  will  carry  her 
pigs  are  very  slight,  and  these  are  pretty  well  regulated  by  the  age 
and  condition  of  the  sow;   thus,   old  and  weakly  sows  and  yelts 
(young  sows)  will  most  frequently  bring  forth  a  day  or  two  before 
the  expiration  of  the  16  weeks.    Sows  in  fair  condition  will  generally 
farrow  on  the  112th  day,  while  strong  and  vigorous  sows  will  fre- 
quently go  a  few  days  over  time." 

810.  Birth  weight. — In  a  study  by  the  author  at  the  Wisconsin 
Station,3  each  pig  as  soon  as  farrowed  was  marked  and  its  weight 
and  condition  recorded.     The  weights  of  the  pigs  of  3  litters  are 
presented  in  the  table  which  follows: 

Weight  of  pigs,  when  farrowed,  in  the  order  of  their  birth. 


Breed 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

No.  7 

No.  8 

No.  9 

No.  10 

Total 

Pure-bred  Berkshire  _.. 
Cross-bred  Pol.-Chester 
White 

Lbs. 
2.1 

2.7 
2.1 

Lbs. 
1.9 

2-4 

2.7 

Lbs. 
2.2 

2.3 
2-5 

Lbs. 
2-0 

2.6 

2.8 

Lbs. 
*1.5 

2.0 
3-0 

Lbs. 
1-8 

2.7 
3.0 

Lbs. 
1.9 

3-1 
2-6 

Lbs. 
*1.9 

2.1 

Lbs. 
2.6 

2.3 

Lbs. 
*1.3 

Lbs. 
19  2 

22-5 
18-7 

Pure-bred  Pol.-China  _„ 

*Farrowed  dead. 

It  is  shown  that  the  individual  pigs  when  farrowed  weighed  from 
1.3  to  3.1  Ibs.,  the  litter  aggregating  from  18.7  to  22.5  Ibs.  The  first- 
farrowed  pig  was  neither  heavier  nor  stronger,  and  the  last  was 
neither  lighter  nor  weaker  than  the  others.  The  so-called  "titman," 
or  weakling,  found  in  a  litter,  is  probably  such  thru  lack  of  food  or 
other  extraneous  cause,  for  if  given  good  food  and  care  it  not  infre- 
quently outgrows  its  mates. 

Carlyle4  found  that  4-  and  5-year-old  sows  bore  9  pigs  to  the  litter 
on  the  average,  the  litter  weighing  26  Ibs.,  while  1-year-old  sows  aver- 


1  Swine  in  America. 

2  Pigs,  Breeds  and  Management. 


3  Ept.  1897. 

4  Bui.  104. 


496 


Investigations  ivith  Swine. 


497 


aged  less  than  8  pigs,  weighing  but  15  Ibs.  From  the  records  of 
1,477  pure-bred  sows  of  8  breeds  Rommel1  found  that  on  an  average 
there  were  9  pigs  to  the  litter,  50.1  per  ct.  males  and  49.9  per  ct. 
females. 

811.  Milk  yield. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  Carlyle  studied  the 
milk  of  12  sows  of  3  breeds.  The  pigs  were  kept  from  the  dam  ex- 
cept for  short  periods  at  2-hour  intervals  by  day  and  4  by  night, 
when  they  were  put  with  her  to  suckle.  They  were  weighed  collect- 
ively before  and  after  that  operation,  and  the  increase  credited  as 
milk  drawn  from  the  dam.  With  extreme  difficulty  samples  of  milk 
were  obtained  for  analysis.  The  average  yield  of  milk  of  4  sows  of 
each  breed  during  84  days  between  farrowing  and  weaning,  deter- 
mined in  the  above  manner,  is  given  below: 

Yield  of  milk  by  sows  between  farrowing  and  weaning. 


Breed 

Av.  wt. 
per  sow 

Av.  no. 

pigs  in  litter 

Av.  daily 
milk  yield 

A  v.  total 
milk  yield 

Berkshire 

Lbs. 
390 

7.7 

Lbs. 
6.3 

Lbs. 
532 

Poland  China 

393 

7.5 

4.9 

429 

Texas  "Razorback" 

247 

6.3 

5.2 

434 

We  learn  that  these  sows  gave  from  4.9  to  6.3  Ibs.  of  milk  daily, 
the  total  for  84  days,  by  which  time  they  went  dry,  ranging  from 
429  to  532  Ibs.  A  4-yr.-old,  532-lb.  sow  with  10  pigs  gave  669  Ibs. 
of  milk,  while  a  5-yr.-old,  490-lb.  sow  with  8  pigs  gave  only  337  Ibs. 
Carlyle  states  that  some  sows  yield  almost  twice  as  much  milk  as 
others. 

812.  Composition  of  sow's  milk. — On  analysis  the  milk  of  the 
sows  reported  in  the  preceding  article  showed  the  composition  re- 
corded in  the  following  table,  average  cow's  milk  being  added  for 
comparison : 

Average  composition  of  sow's  milk. 


Breed 

Fat 

Casein  and 
albumin 

Milk 
sugar 

Ash 

Total 
solids 

Specific 
gravity 

Berkshire  __  _ 

Per  ct. 
7.25 

Per  ct. 
5.74 

Per  ct. 
5.63 

Per  ct. 
0.97 

Per  ct. 
19.59 

Per  ct. 
1.040 

Poland  China 

6  79 

5.94 

5  74 

0  98 

19  19 

1  041 

Texas  "Razorback  "  .  .  . 
Cow's  milk  (Babcock).. 

6.64 
3.69 

6.50 
3.55 

5.56 

4.88 

1.01 
0.71 

19.70 
12.83 

1.043 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Cir.  112. 
33 


2  Bui.  104. 


498 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


It  is  shown  that  in  all  constituents  sow's  milk  is  richer  than  that 
of  the  cow.  Woll1  found  the  fat  globules  of  sow's  milk  only  one- 
fourth  as  large  as  those  of  cow's  milk,  but  8  times  as  numerous.  (594) 

813.  The  sow  as  a  milk  producer. — Woll2  found  that  a  sow  weigh- 
ing 438  Ibs.  gave  7.7  Ibs.  of  milk  in  1  day,  consuming  in  that  time  4 
Ibs.  of  corn  meal,  4  Ibs.  of  wheat  middlings,  and  8  Ibs.  of  skim  milk. 
Such  findings  show  that  sows  good  for  breeding  purposes  rank  with 
good  dairy  cows  in  their  ability  to  convert  feed  into  milk.  (590-91) 

814.  Gain  of  young  pigs. — To  show  the  rate  of  gain  by  young 
pigs  before  and  after  weaning,  the  following  table  is  taken  from  a 
study  by  the  author  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,3  the  data  covering  70 
days  before  and  49  days  after  weaning: 

Weight  of  a  litter  of  pigs  at  birth  and  gains  before  and  after  weaning. 

Before  weaning" 


Date 

Days 
from 
birth 

wt. 

of 
sow 

Weight  of  pigs 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

No.  7 

No.  8 

May  24 

Lbs. 
332 

290" 
285 
277 
278 
280 
293 
280 
278 
268 
261 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

May  25 

0 

7 
14 
21 
28 
35 
42 
49 
56 
63 
70 

3.6 
7.1 
10.7 
19.0 
19.4 
24.2 
28.0 
32.5 
40.5 
47.0 
50.5 

3.2 
5.1 
7.7 
11.5 
14.5 
16.4 
18.7 
19.0 
22.5 
24.5 
25.0 

3.3 

5.9 
9.9 
13.5 
17.4 
22.2 
25.5 
30.0 
37.0 
44.0 
50.0 

3.2 

6.4 
9.4 
13.5 
17.8 
23.1 
26.5 
32.5 
43.5 
51.0 
60.5 

3.4 
6.3 
9.5 
12.5 
15.6 
20.6 
23.5 
29.0 
38.0 
45.5 
50.0 

3.2 

5.8 
9.2 
12.5 
16.0 
20.9 
24.2 
29.5 
38.0 
45.0 
51.0 

2.8 
4.8 
7.5 
10.8 
14.1 
18.2 
22.0 
26.0 
35.5 
42.5 
47.0 

1.9 
3.0 
5.1 
7.6 
10.4 
14.4 
16.5 
21.0 
26.5 
31.0 
37.5 

May  31  

June  7  

June  14      

June  21  

June  28  

July  5  

July  12  

July  19 

July  26 

August  2  
Gain 

-29 

46.9 

21.8 

46.7 

57.3 

46.6 

47.8 

44.2 

35.6 

After  weaning1 


August  2 

0 

50.5 

25.0 

50.0 

60.5 

50.0 

51.0 

47.5 

37.5 

August  9  
August  16 

7 
14 



53.0 
57.0 

25.0 
27.5 

57.5 
63.5 

68.0 
75.0 

57.5 
61.0 

55.0 
59.0 

54.5 
61.0 

44.0 
50.0 

August  23 

21 

62.5 

33.5 

72.5 

86.5 

67.0 

69.0 

72.0 

56.0 

September  6 

35 

69.0 

43.0 

84.0 

101.0 

80.0 

76.0 

79.0 

64.0 

September  13 

42 

77.5 

48.0 

94.0 

105.0 

86.0 

88.0 

88.0 

74.0 

September  20 

49 



85.5 

56.0 

104.0 

114.0 

92.0 

93.0 

93.0 

82.0 

Gain  

35.0 

31.0 

54.0 

53.5 

42.0 

42.0 

45.5 

44.5 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  sow  lost  29  Ibs.  in  weight  while  suckling 
her  pigs,  which  gained  from  21.8  to  57.3  Ibs.  each  in  10  weeks  be- 
tween farrowing  and  weaning.  For  the  7  weeks  succeeding  wean- 
ing the  individual  gains  ranged  from  31  to  54  Ibs.  It  is  possible  for 


1  Rpt.  1897. 


2  Loc.  cit. 


3  Rpt.  1890. 


Investigations  with  Swine. 


499 


a  suckling  pig  to  weigh  70  Ibs.  when  70  days  old,  and  sometimes,  tho 
rarely,  it  may  exceed  that  high  figure. 

815.  Gain  from  birth  to  maturity. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1 
the  author  recorded  the  average  gains  of  12  litters,  containing  84 
pigs,  during  10  weeks  between  farrowing  and  weaning  time.  The 
figures  below  the  bar,  derived  from  Article  819,  are  appended  to 
show  the  decreasing  rate  of  gain  until  the  pig  is  ready  for  the 
market. 

Weekly  rate  of  gain  of  pigs  from  "birth  to  maturity. 


Affe 

Average 
weight 

Av.  gain 
in  7  days 

Per  cent 
gain 

At  birth 

Lbs. 
2.5 

Lbs. 

First  week 

4.4 

1.9 

76 

Second  week 

7.0 

2.6 

59 

Third  week                             _      

9.8 

2.8 

40 

Fourth  week           _             ._. 

12.5 

2.7 

28 

Fifth  week                               

15.6 

3.1 

25 

Sixth  week 

18.6 

3.0 

19 

Seventh  week      ___     _.  _         _        

22.6 

4.0 

22 

Eighth  week 

27.8 

5.2 

23 

Ninth  week 

33.  1 

5.3 

19 

Tenth  week 

38.5 

5.4 

16 

Under  100  pounds  _      

78 

5.8 

7.4 

Under  150  pounds...  __ 

128 

7.7 

6.0 

Under  200  pounds  

174 

8.7 

5.0 

Under  250  pounds.     _     __        _  .... 

226 

9.3 

4.1 

Under  300  pounds 

271 

10.2 

3.8 

Under  350  pounds.  _ 

320 

9.8 

3.1 

It  is  shown  that  the  average  pig,  weighing  2.5  Ibs.  at  farrowing, 
gained  .1.9  Ibs.,  or  76  per  ct.  of  its  birth  weight,  during  the  first 
week.  During  the  second  week  it  gained  2.6  Ibs.,  but  the  per  cent  of 
gain  reckoned  on  the  weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  week  dropped 
to  59.  The  average  320-lb.  pig  gained  9.8  Ibs.  in  1  week,  which  was 
but  3.1  per  ct.  of  its  initial  weight.  It  thus  appears  that  pigs  gain 
more  and  more  in  pounds  each  week  until  they  are  mature  and  fat, 
while  there  is  a  steady  decrease  in  the  ratio  of  gain  to  body  weight. 

816.  Economy  of  young  pigs. — In  trials  by  the  author  at  the 
Wisconsin  Station,2  5  sows  and  litters  were  fed  70  days  on  corn  meal, 
wheat  middlings,  and  sour  skim  milk.  The  un weaned  pigs  were  also 
given  all  of  the  same  food  they  would  consume  at  a  separate  trough. 
At  10  weeks  the  pigs  were  weaned,  and  the  feeding  continued  for 
7  weeks  with  the  sows  and  weaned  pigs  separately.  While  suckling 


1  Rpts.  1889, 1890, 1897. 


2  Ept.  1897. 


500 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


their  pigs,  1  sow  lost  and  2  gained  in  weight.  The  table  shows  the 
feed  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  net  gain  with  sows  and  pigs  before  and 
after  weaning: 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain  ~by  sows  and  pigs  before  and  after  weaning. 


Meal 

Milk 

Meal  equivalent 

By  sows  and  pigs  10  weeks  before  weaning  
By  pigs  only,  7  weeks  after  weaning 

Lbs. 
237 

288 

Lbs. 
475 
576 

Lbs. 
316 
384 

By  sows  only,  7  weeks  after  weaning 

710 

1,420 

947 

It  is  shown  that  237  Ibs.  of  grain,  together  with  475  Ibs.  of  sepa- 
rator skim  milk,  produced  100  Ibs.  of  combined  net  gain  with  sows 
and  their  unweaned  pigs.  Reckoning  6  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  equal  to  1 
of  the  mixed  meal,  it  is  shown  that  316  Ibs.  of  meal  equivalent  pro- 
duced 100  Ibs.  net  gain  with  sows  and  their  unweaned  pigs.  For 
the  7  weeks  following  weaning  the  pigs  required  384  Ibs.  of  meal 
equivalent,  or  27  per  ct.  more  feed,  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  than  before 
weaning.  It  thus  appears  that  young,  unweaned  pigs  are  fed  more 
economically  thru  the  sow  than  after  weaning.  The  table  shows 
that,  after  their  pigs  were  weaned,  the  sows  required  the  surpris- 
ingly large  amount  of  947  Ibs.  of  meal  equivalent  to  make  good  each 
100  Ibs.  of  flesh  lost  while  suckling  their  pigs.  The  prudent  stock- 
man always  feeds  both  sows  and  pigs  liberally  before  weaning,  realiz- 
ing that  the  sows  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  thin  thru  scant 
feeding.  The  good  brood  sow  will  usually  lose  weight  despite  the 
best  of  feed  and  care.  (472,  722) 

817.  Maintenance  of  sow. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Davies,  re- 
cording the  feed  eaten  by  a  394-lb.  Berkshire  sow  and  her  7  suck- 
ling pigs  10  weeks  between  farrowing  and  weaning,  obtained  the  fol- 
lowing results: 

Concen-          Skim 

trates  milk 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

Total  feed  consumed  by  sow 660  1,381 

Calculated  amount  needed  to  maintain  sow  alone  __  242  484 


Feed  given  to  sow  that  went  to  nourish  her  pigs 418 

Additional  feed  given  to  pigs 100 


897 
313 


Total _ 518  1,210 

Feed  to  sow  and  pigs  for  100  Ibs.  gain  by  pigs 146  339 

Feed  required  to  maintain  sow  1  day 3.5  6. 


Rpt.  1904. 


Investigations  with  Swine. 


501 


The  concentrates  fed  consisted  of  half  ground  corn  and  half  wheat 
middlings.  Davies  estimates  that  the  equivalent  of  1  per  ct.  of  the 
weight  of  the  sow  in  concentrates  would  support  her  for  1  day,  and 
that  but  one-third  of  what  she  ate  went  for  the  support  of  her  own 
body,  while  two-thirds  was  used  in  the  elaboration  of  milk  for  her 
young.  (592)  It  required  but  146  Ibs.  of  grain  and  336  Ibs.  of  skim 
milk  fed  to  sow  or  pigs  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  by  the  pigs — an  exceed- 
ingly small  allowance. 

By  weighing  the  pigs  at  6:30  a.  m.  and  6:30  p.  m.  daily,  Davies 
found  that  they  increased  84  Ibs.,  or  29  per  ct.,  in  daytime  and  202 
Ibs.,  or  71  per  ct.,  in  the  night.  These  figures  seem  to  indicate  that 
most  of  the  body  increase  of  young  pigs  occurs  at  night. 

818.  Food  and  maintenance. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  Dietrich 
gradually  reduced  the  feed  of  four  50-lb.  pigs  during  2  weeks  until 
they  were  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight.  They  were  held  on 
this  allowance  for  7  days  to  confirm  the  figures  and  then  gradually 
brought  back  to  full  feed  again.  When  the  pigs  averaged  100  Ibs. 
the  process  was  repeated,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table: 

Feed  required  to  maintain  a  pig  at  different  weights. 


Standard  weight 

Corn 
meal 

Wheat 
middlings 

Skim 
milk 

Water 

Dry 
matter 

When  weighing1    50  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.15 

Lbs. 
0.15 

Lbs. 
1.2 

Lbs. 
2.3 

Lbs. 
0.37 

When  weighing  100  Ibs. 

0.40 

0.40 

1.6 

2.0 

0.87 

When  weighing  150  Ibs.  _ 

0.80 

0.80 

1.6 

3.0 

1.54 

When  weighing  200  Ibs.  

0.67 

1.33 

6.5 

1.76 

The  table  shows  that  a  50-lb.  pig  held  its  weight  on  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  but  0.15  Ib.  each  of  corn  meal  and  wheat  middlings  and  1.2 
Ibs.  of  skim  milk,  drinking  2.3  Ibs.  of  water.  This  quantity  of  food 
supplied  only  0.37  Ib.  of  dry  matter.  The  maintenance  require- 
ments for  other  weights  follow  in  the  table.  From  these  data  Diet- 
rich concludes  that  the  pig  can  be  maintained  for  1  day  on  about 
1  per  ct.  of  its  live  weight  of  food  in  the  form  of  wheat  middlings. 

After  each  maintenance  period  the  pigs  were  gradually  returned 
to  full  feed,  which  was  continued  until  the  next  maintenance  period 
was  reached.  The  dry  matter  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  in  the 
intermediate  stages  is  given  in  the  table,  together  with  the  estimated 
food  of  support  and  gain. 

The  table  shows  that  the  50-lb.  pig,  when  gaining  nearly  1  Ib.  a 
day,  used  only  18  per  ct.  of  this  food  for  the  support  of  the  body, 

1  Rpt.  1899. 


502 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


leaving  82  per  ct.  of  all  it  consumed  for  gain  in  body  weight.  The 
food  required  for  the  support  of  the  body  gradually  increased  per- 
centagely  as  the  animal  grew  in  size,  until  the  200-lb.  pig  was  found 
to  require  36  per  ct.  of  all  it  ate  for  the  support  of  the  body,  leav- 
ing but  64  per  ct.  of  its  food  for  gain  in  body  weight.  Here  is  an- 
other example  showing  that  young  animals  make  the  most  economi- 
cal gains  for  a  given  amount  of  food.  (95) 

The  food  of  gain  and  food  of  support  of  the  pig. 


Av. 
daily 
gain 

Dry  matter 
for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Percentage  of  food— 

To  support 
body 

For 
gain 

When  pig  weighed   50  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.93 
1.66 
1.85 
1.22 

Lbs. 
224 
208 
312 
396 

Per  cent 
18 
25 

27 
36 

Per  cent 
82 
75 
73 
64 

When  pig1  weighed  100  Ibs. 

When  pig-  weighed  150  Ibs. 

When  pig-  weighed  200  Ibs. 

819.  Rate  of  gain  and  feed  consumed. — The  following  data,  con- 
densed by  the  author  from  over  500  feeding  trials  with  over  2,200 
pigs  at  many  American  experiment  stations,  show  the  feed  consumed 
daily  by  pigs  of  different  weights,  as  well  as  the  rate  of  gain,  and 
gain  from  a  given  quantity  of  feed.  In  compiling  this  table  6  Ibs. 
of  skim  milk  or  12  Ibs.  of  whey  were  rated  as  equal  to  1  Ib.  of  con- 
centrates. 

The  relation  of  weight  of  pigs  to  feed  consumed  and  rate  of  gain. 


Wt.  of  pigs 

Actual 
av.  wt. 

No.  of 
animals 
fed 

Av.  feed 
eaten  per 
day 

Feed  eaten  daily 
per  100  Ibs. 
live  weight 

Av.  gain 
pen  day 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

15  to    50 

38 

174 

2.2 

6.0 

0.8 

293 

50  to  100 

78 

417 

3.4 

4.3 

0.8 

400 

100  to  150 

128 

495 

4.8 

3.8 

1.1 

437 

150  to  200 

174 

489 

5.9 

3.5 

1.2 

482 

200  to  250 

226 

300 

6.6 

2.9 

1.3 

498 

250  to  300 

271 

223 

7.4 

2.7 

1.5 

511 

300  to  350 

320 

105 

7.5 

2.4 

1.4 

535 

The  table  shows  that  pigs  weighing  under  50  Ibs.  consumed  on  the 
average  2.2  Ibs.  of  feed  daily,  while  300-lb.  pigs  consumed  7.5  Ibs. 
daily.  Based  on  weight,  the  50-lb.  pigs  consumed  6.0  Ibs.  of  feed 
per  100  Ibs.  of  body,  while  300-lb.  pigs  consumed  only  2.4  Ibs.  per 
100  Ibs.  In  other  words,  young  pigs  consume  far  more  feed  for 
their  weight  than  do  large  ones.  The  average  gain  per  day  started 


Investigations  with  Swine. 


503 


at  0.8  Ib.  for  pigs  under  50  Ibs.  each,  and  gradually  increased  until 
those  weighing  250  Ibs.  showed  a  daily  gain  of  1.5  Ibs.  The  last 
column  shows  that  pigs  weighing  less  than  50  Ibs.  each  gained  100 
Ibs.  for  every  293  Ibs.  of  feed  or  feed  equivalent  consumed,  and  that 
the  quantity  of  feed  required  for  100  Ibs.  gain  steadily  increased  as 
the  pigs  became  larger,  until  at  300  Ibs.  weight  it  required  535  Ibs. 
of  feed  to  make  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  great  economy  of  young,  grow- 
ing pigs  over  older  and  more  mature  ones  for  making  gain  from  a 
given  quantity  of  feed  is  plainly  brought  out  by  the  table.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  flesh  of  the  young  pig  contains 
much  more  water  and  usually  less  fat  than  that  of  more  mature 
ones. 

820.  Danish  studies  of  feed  and  gain. — The  following  table  shows 
the  grain  or  its  equivalent  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  as  found  in 
studies  with  355  animals  in  16  experiments  by  the  Copenhagen  (Den- 
mark) Station.1  These  trials  were  with  pigs  ranging  from  35  to 
315  Ibs.,  live  weight: 

Grain  or  equivalent  required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  gain  with  pigs. 


Average  weight  of  pigs 

35-75 
Ibs. 

75-115 
Ibs. 

115-155 
Ibs. 

155-195 
Ibs. 

195-235 
Ibs. 

235-275 
Ibs. 

275-315 
Ibs. 

No.  of  experiments 

3 

376 

10 
435 

13 
466 

15 
513 

14 
540 

11 
614 

3 

639 

Av.  feed  required,  lbs._. 

We  notice  a  steady  increase  in  the  feed  required  to  produce  100 
Ibs.  of  gain  as  the  weight  of  the  animals  increased.  Pigs  weighing 
over  275  Ibs.  required  nearly  twice  as  much  feed  for  100  Ibs.  of  in- 
crease as  those  weighing  from  35  to  75  Ibs. 

821.  Grinding  grain. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  during  each  of 
10  consecutive  winters  the  author,  at  first  alone  and  later  with  Otis, 
fed  ground  corn  in  comparison  with  shelled  corn  to  fattening  pigs 
during  periods  ranging  from  63  to  98  days  each.  Iowa  No.  3,  year- 
old  shelled  corn  was  used,  part  of  which  was  ground  in  a  buhrstone 
mill  to  the  usual  fineness,  while  part  was  fed  unground,  as  shelled 
corn.  Since  pigs  do  not  thrive  on  corn  alone,  in  all  cases  the  ration 
was  made  up  of  one-third  wheat  middlings  and  two-thirds  ground1 
or  shelled  corn.  The  mixed  ground  corn  and  middlings  were  fed 
wet  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  while  the  shelled  corn  was  fed 
dry  and  alone,  the  middlings  having  first  been  fed  as  a  slop.  Salt 


1  Ept.  30, 1895. 


2  Rpt.  1906. 


504 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  wood  ashes  were  supplied  at  all  times  to  both  lots.     The  results 
are  condensed  in  the  table : 

Summary  of  10  winters'  feeding  ground  corn  and  shelled  corn. 


Feed  given 

Total  feed  given 

Total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Whole 
corn 

Corn 
meal 

Wheat 
middlings 

140  pigs  fed  shelled  corn  and 
wheat  middlings 

Lbs. 
46,  736 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 
22,  590 

24,  189 

Lbs. 

13,828 

15,891 

Lbs. 
501 

471 

140  pigs  fed  ground  corn  and 
wheat  middlings  

50,  647 

In  11  out  of  18  trials  conducted  during  the  10  years  the  saving 
from  grinding  corn  ranged  from  2.5  to  18.5  per  ct.,  and  in  7  cases 
there  was  a  loss  by  grinding,  ranging  from  1.1  to  11.1  per  ct.  Divid- 
ing the  total  feed  consumed  by  the  total  gains,  it  required  501  Ibs. 
of  whole  corn  and  wheat  middlings  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  and  only  471 
Ibs.  of  ground  corn  and  middlings,  a  saving  of  6  per  ct.  This  means 
that  when  corn  is  worth  50  cts.  per  bushel  there  is  a  saving  of  3  cts. 
on  each  bushel  by  grinding,  allowing  nothing  for  labor  or  expense. 
It  was  observed  that  the  pigs  getting  ground  corn  ate  more  feed  in  a 
given  time  and  gained  more  rapidly  than  did  those  getting  shelled 
corn,  which  fact  no  doubt  explains  the  general  impression  among 
farmers  that  pigs  do  better  on  ground  corn  than  on  shelled. 

Rommel,1  summarizing  9  trials  at  5  stations  where  whole  or  ground 
grains — peas,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley — were  fed,  either  dry  or 
soaked,  to  fattening  pigs,  found  that  it  required  approximately  473 
Ibs.  of  whole  grain  or  415  Ibs.  of  ground  grain  to  produce  100  Ibs. 
of  gain — a  saving  of  12  per  ct.  by  grinding.  We  may  then  conclude 
that  it  pays  to  grind  the  small  grains  always,  and  to  grind  corn  only 
when  it  is  desirable  to  fatten  pigs  quickly.  It  is  further  probable 
that  when  pigs  have  been  fed  whole  corn  for  a  long  time  and  have 
become  quite  fat,  they  then  do  better  on  finely  ground  corn  than  on 
whole  corn. 

822.  The  Iowa  studies  on  corn  preparation. — Kennedy  and  Rob- 
bins  of  the  Iowra  Station-  conducted  thoro,  extensive,  and  conclusive 
studies  on  the  value  of  corn  prepared  in  various  ways  and  fed  to  a 
total  of  312  pigs  of  all  ages.  The  last  crop  of  corn  was  always  used. 
Shelling  corn  cost  1  ct.  per  bu. ;  grinding  shelled  corn  to  meal,  2  cts., 
and  grinding  ear  corn  twice  to  fine  corn-and-cob  meal,  6  cts.  All 
statements  made  are  on  the  basis  of  56  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn  to  the 


3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  47. 


-  Bui.  106. 


Investigations  with  Swine. 


505 


bushel.  Ear  corn  was  fed  on  the  ground  in  a  clean  place,  and  corn 
meal  in  V-shaped  troughs  frequently  moved.  The  corn  was  ground 
each  week  that  it  might  be  fresh.  When  given  wet  the  shelled  corn 
or  meal  was  usually  soaked  for  12  hours  before  feeding,  but  some- 
times for  24  hours,  in  fresh  water  so  that  it  never  soured.  The 
meat  meal  fed  contained  60  per  ct.  protein. 

Feeding  corn  prepared  in  different  ways  to  swine. 


Average  ration 

Feed 
for  100 
Ibs.gain 

Return 
from 
bushel 
of  corn 

Corn 

Meat 
meal 

Total 
Ifeed 

3-months  spring  pigs,  at  weaning,  on  pasture 
Lot     I,  Fed  dry  ear  corn  

Lot   II,  Fed  soaked  shelled  corn 

Lbs. 

4.0 
4.1 
4.1 
4.4 

5.7 
5.3 
5.2 
6.2 

7.4 
7.9 

8.2 
8.4 

7.1 

Lbs. 

0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 

0.7 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 

Lbs. 

4.2 
4.3 
4.3 

4.6 

6.2 
5.8 
5.6 
6.8 

8.1 
8.7 
9.0 
9.2 

7.1 
7.2 

8.7 
9.9 
9.7 
9.9 

Lbs. 

439 
450 

498 
493 

465 
442 
463 
445 

468 
449 
452 
461 

544 
504 

427 

398 
401 
405 

Cents 

60 
58 
50 
52 

56 
58 
53 
56 

55 
56 
54 
53 

50 
53 

62 
66 
64 
63 

Lot  III,  Fed  dry  corn  meal    ___ 

Lot  IV,  Fed  soaked  corn  meal  _    

6-months  pigs,  fed  in  spring  and  summer  in  dry 
yards 
Lot     I,  Fed  dry  ear  corn  

Lot   II,  Fed  soaked  shelled  corn 

Lot  III,  Fed  dry  corn  meal 

Lot  IV,  Fed  soaked  corn  meal 

10-months  200-lb.  hogs,  fed  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer in  dry  yards 
Lot     I,  Fed  dry  ear  corn 

Lot    II,  Fed  soaked  shelled  corn    

Lot  III,  Fed  dry  corn  meal.      

Lot  IV,  Fed  soaked  corn  meal  

Same  grade  hogs  as  above,  fed  in  summer,  on 
pasture 
Lot   I,  Fed  dry  ear  corn 

Lot  II    Fed  soaked  shelled  corn 

7.2 

28-months  old  thin  225-11.  sows,  fed  in  fall  in 
dry  yards 
Lot     I,  Fed  dry  ear  corn        

8.1 
9.2 
9.0 
9.2 

0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

Lot   II,  Fed  soaked  shelled  corn  

Lot  III,  Fed  dry  corn  meal  .  

Lot  IV,  Fed  soaked  corn  meal 

The  first  column  of  the  table  describes  the  pigs  and  the  form  of 
corn  fed.  The  last  column  gives  the  returns  from  a  bushel  of  corn 
with  live  hogs  valued  at  $5  per  100  Ibs. 

The  last  column  shows  plainly  that  in  most  cases  the  farmer  would 
best  feed  dry  ear  corn  to  fattening  hogs.  When  the  pigs  were  6 
months  of  age  or  older  and  were  fed  in  dry  yards,  soaked  shelled 
corn  gave  somewhat  better  returns  than  dry  ear  corn.  In  no  case 
did  the  returns  justify  grinding  corn  to  meal.  In  general,  as  those 
who  conducted  these  trials  point  out,  *  *  The  scoop  shovel  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  prepare  corn  for  feeding  to  swine." 


506 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Iowa  farmers  feed  not  less  than  100,000,000  bu.  of  corn  annually 
to  pigs.  To  shell  and  grind  this  amount  at  3  cts.  per  bu.  would  cost 
$3,000,000,  besides  a  vast  amount  of  labor.  And  in  most  cases  the 
meal  so  made  would  have  less  value  than  the  ear  corn  from  which  it 
is  made! 

823.  Cooking  feed. — The  early  agricultural  authorities  uniformly 
and  strongly  advocated  cooking  feed  for  swine.  The  first  definite 
results  in  opposition  came  from  the  Maine  Agricultural  College1  in 
1876,  which  reported  that  as  the  average  of  9  years  of  continuous 
experimentation  it  had  found  that  89.9  Ibs.  of  raw  corn  meal  was 
as  valuable  for  putting  gains  on  fattening  pigs  as  was  100  Ibs.  of 
corn  meal  that  had  been  cooked.  In  not  a  single  trial  at  this  Col- 
lege in  the  9  years  did  a  given  weight  of  corn  meal  on  being  cooked 
by  steam  prove  as  satisfactory  as  the  same  weight  of  uncooked  meal. 
These  results  were  so  at  variance  with  popular  opinion  that  the  mat- 
ter was  soon  tried  out  at  a  number  of  stations,  some  of  the  findings 
of  which  are  as  follows: 

Results  of  feeding  cooked  and  uncooked  grain  to  "fattening  hogs. 


Station  reporting: 

No.  of 
trials 

Kind  of  feed 

How  prepared 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
£rain 

Cooked 

Uncooked 

Wisconsin*  

4 
2 
2 
3 
2 

1 

1 
1 
1 

Ground  barley  
Ground  corn  

Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 

Steamed 
Not  stated 
Not  stated 

.  Steamed 

Lbs. 
628 
517 
564 
597 
475 

750 
538 
562 

417 

Lbs. 
589 
463 
484 
574 
360 

630 
443 
445 

425 

Wisconsin*.  __ 

Wisconsin*  _._    __ 

Whole  corn,  shorts. 
Corn  meal,  shorts.. 
Peas 

Wisconsin* 

Ontario  Collegef  _ 
Kansas  Agr.  Col- 
lege J 

Whole  corn       

Iowa  Agr.  Col'gei 
Iowa  Agr.  Col'gel 
Ottawa  ||  _ 

Shelled  corn  

Ground  corn  

Ground    peas,    bar- 
ley, rye  

*4thAn.Rpt.    +2dAn.  Rpt.    t  Rpt.  1885.    gCoburn,  Swine  in  America.    ||Rpt.  1891. 

The  trials  above  reported,  which  are  but  a  fraction  of  all  that 
have  been  made  in  this  country,  show  that  in  most  cases  there  is  an 
actual  loss  of  food  value  by  cooking  the  various  grains  for  fattening 
swine.  Some  few  feeds,  such  as  potatoes,  are  improved  by  cooking, 
but  as  a  rule  there  is  no  gain  and  usually  a  loss  by  such  opera- 
tion. (334,  337) 

824.  Soaking  feed. — Rommel2  has  summarized  the  work  of  the 
stations  with  wet  and  dry  feeds  for  swine.  In  some  cases  the  feed 

1  An.  Rpt.  Trustees  Maine  State  Col.  of  Agr.,  1876. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  47. 


Investigations  ivith  Swine. 


507 


was  only  wet  with  water,  but  generally  it  was  soaked  from  12  to  36 
hours  before  it  was  fed.  Many  kinds  were  used — corn  meal,  chopped 
wheat,  barley  meal,  whole  wheat,  whole  barley,  peas,  etc.  The  aver- 
age of  all  the  trials  at  8  stations  shows  the  amount  of  feed  required 
for  100  Ibs.  gain  to  be : 

Dry  grain  or  meal  required  for  100  Ibs,  of  gain 444  Ibs. 

Wet  or  soaked  grain  or  meal  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain 434  Ibs. 

Amount  of  grain  saved  by  soaking 10  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  10  Ibs.,  or  but  2  per  ct.,  of  the  food  was  saved 
in  making  100  Ibs.  of  gain  by  wetting  or  soaking  whole  or  ground 
grain  before  it  was  fed.  It  is  safe  to  hold  that,  if  not  unusually 
dry  and  hard,  such  large  grains  as  corn  and  peas  are  at  best  but 
slightly  improved  by  soaking,  while  all  small,  hard  grains,  such  as 
wheat  and  rye,  are  materially  improved  thereby.  Any  grain  so 
hard  as  to  injure  the  mouths  of  animals  during  mastication  should 
always  be  ground  or  soaked.  (339) 

825.  Water  in  slop.— Plumb  and  Van  Norman  of  the  Indiana  Sta- 
tion1 fed  4  lots,  each  of  four  60-lb.  pigs,  for  146  days,  first  on  corn 
meal  and  shorts,  equal  parts,  and  later  on  shorts  and  hominy  feed. 
Lot  I  was  given  dry  feed,  and  the  others  increasing  amounts  of 
wrater.  All  lots  had  water  in  separate  troughs. 

Effect  of  varying  amounts  of  water  in  the  slop  of  pigs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

Av. 

Feed  for 

daily 

total 

100  Ibs. 

gain 

gain 

grain 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot 

I, 

Dry  meal. 

3.  9  Ibs. 

Water 

without  limit  .- 

1.1 

159 

359 

Lot 

II, 

Meal, 

4.2 

Ibs. 

Water 

in 

slop, 

4.  2  Ibs.. 

1.1 

161 

380 

Lot 

III, 

Meal, 

4.2 

Ibs. 

Water 

in 

slop, 

8.  4  Ibs.. 

1.1 

163 

374 

Lot 

iv, 

Meal, 

3.9 

Ibs, 

Water 

in 

slop, 

11.  7  Ibs. 

1.1 

154 

375 

The  table  shows  that  the  lot  fed  dry  meal  did  rather  better  than 
the  others,  and  that  increasing  amounts  of  water  in  the  feed  did  not 
affect  the  gains.  At  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station2  in  several 
trials  with  pigs  getting  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  along  with  grain, 
adding  1  to  2  times  their  volume  of  water  to  the  skim  milk  or  but- 
termilk had  no  effect  on  the  gains  produced.  (87,  924) 

826.  Light  v.  heavy  feeding. — In  experiments  at  the  Copenhagen 
(Denmark)  Station3  with  sixty  35-lb.  pigs,  the  influence  of  the  in- 
tensity of  feeding  on  gain  was  specially  studied.  One  experiment 


Bui.  86. 


2  Ept.  10, 1887. 


3  Ept.  30, 1895. 


508 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


lasted  120  days  and  the  other  210  days,  the  feeds  used  being  barley, 
buttermilk,  skim  milk,  and  whey. 

Results  from  heavy  and  light  feeding. 


Character  of  feeding 

Grain 
fed  daily 

Av.  grain 
per  day 

Grain  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Liffht 

Lbs. 
3.61 

Lbs. 
0.92 

Lbs. 
391 

Medium 

4.23 

1.07 

397 

Heavy 

4.51 

1.12 

404 

These  results  indicate  a  tendency  toward  a  poorer  utilization  of 
the  feed  in  the  heavier  feeding,  tho  the  difference  is  not  great. 

827.  Winter  v.  summer  feeding. — While  there  are  no  available 
data  on  the  comparative  economy  of  summer  and  winter  swine  feed- 
ing for  America,  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station1  records  199 
trials  with  about  2,500  summer-  and  winter-fed  pigs.  In  these 
Danish  trials  all  the  skim  milk,  whey,  roots,  etc.,  fed  have  been  re- 
duced to  their  grain  equivalent  to  facilitate  the  comparison. 

Feed  required  to  fatten  Danish  pigs  in  winter  and  in  summer. 


Weight 

Grain  equivalent  per 
day  per  head 

Grain  equivalent  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Summer 

35  to    75  Ibs.* 

Lbs. 
2.66 
3.96 
5.26 

Lbs. 
2.65 
3.92 
5.25 

Lbs. 
371 

446 
516 

Lbs. 
346 
397 
457 

75  to  115  Ibs. 

115  to  155  Ibs. 

Average   _    

3.96 

3.94 

444 

400 

*Danish  pound=l.l  avoirdupois  Ibs. 

It  is  shown  that  winter-fed  pigs  required  444  Ibs.  feed  for  100 
Ibs.  gain,  or  11  per  ct.  more  than  summer-fed  pigs.  In  Denmark 
the  summers  are  cool,  and  the  winters  more  or  less  damp  but  not 
excessively  cold.  It  is  fair  to  hold  that  in  the  northern  parts  of 
America  the  difference  between  winter  and  summer  feeding  is  some- 
what greater  than  the  Danish  figures  indicate,  while  over  the  greater 
part  of  our  country  there  is  no  greater  difference  and  often  no  dif- 
ference at  all.  (503) 

828.  Wintering  pigs  in  single-board  cabins. — At  the  Ottawa  Sta- 
tion2 Grisdale  kept  lots,  each  of  from  4  to  7  pigs  weighing  about 
70  Ibs.  per  head,  during  60  days  in  winter  in  small  board  houses. 


1  Rpt.  30, 1895. 


-  Ept.  1904. 


Investigations  with  Swine. 


509 


such  as  that  Station  used  for  summer  shelter  in  the  pastures.  Check 
lots  were  kept  in  the  well  built  Station  piggery,  which  afforded  much 
greater  protection.  Wheat  shorts  and  gluten  and  oil  meals  were  fed 
all  lots  with  the  following  results: 

Open  compared  with  closed  winter  quarters  for  pigs  in  Canada. 


Where  sheltered 

Av.  daily  gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

In  small  single-board  houses 

Lbs. 
0.68 

Lbs. 
526 

In  the  Station  piggery 

0.70 

366 

It  is  shown  that,  while  both  lots  made  about  the  same  daily  gain, 
the  pigs  in  the  colder  quarters  required  160  Ibs.  more  concentrates 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  or  44  per  ct.  more  feed  than  those  in  warm 
quarters.  Grisdale  reports  that  brood  sows  in  the  board  houses  re- 
quired only  25  per  ct.  more  feed,  showing  that  large  animals  can 
withstand  severe  cold  better  than  small  ones.  The  health  of  the 
animals  was  good  under  both  conditions.  Shelton  of  the  Kansas 
Agricultural  College1  found  that  during  a  cold  winter  large  hogs  in 
warm  quarters  likewise  required  25  per  ct.  less  feed  than  those  in 
exposed  quarters.  (495,  734) 

829.  Wintering  old  brood  sows. — Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experi- 
mental  Farms,2    wintering   27    mature   brood   sows   in   single-board 
cabins,  found  the  average  total  food  consumed  per  head  from  No- 
vember 1  to  March  31  (133  days)  to  be: 

Bran 221  pounds 

Shorts 106  pounds 

Boots — -.-  1,260  pounds 

Clover  hay ___ 69  pounds 

Grisdale  reports  that  if  young  sows  are  to  be  kept  thrifty  and 
growing  in  winter  they  must  get  more  meal  than  older  sows. 

830.  Length  of  fattening  period. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station3  the 
author  fed  in  pens  18  pigs  of  good  breeding  and  high  feeding  powers 
a  ration  consisting  of  one  part  wheat  middlings  and  two  parts  ground 
corn,  with  salt  and  wood  ashes/ additional.     The  gains  by  weeks  and 
by  4-week  periods  were  as  shown  on  the  next  page. 

It  is  seen  that  the  heaviest  and  most  economical  gains  were  made 
early,  and  that  as  the  trial  progressed  the  weekly  gains  diminished 
and  the  feed  consumed  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  steadily  increased. 
Grouping  the  results  into  4-week  periods,  we  find  that  for  the  first 


1  Ept.  Prof.  Agr.,  1883. 


2  Kpt.  1909. 


Rpt.  1897. 


510 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


4  weeks  418  Ibs.  of  feed  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  During  the 
second  4  weeks  461  Ibs.  feed,  or  10  per  ct.  more,  was  required  for 
100  Ibs.  of  gain,  and  during  the  last  4  weeks  559  Ibs.  or  33  per  ct. 
more  than  was  required  during  the  first  4  weeks. 

Influence  of  the  length  of  the  fattening  period  on  the  rate  of  gain. 


Week  of  trial 

Average 
weight 

Average 
weekly 
gain 

Peed  eaten 
during  week 
per  pig 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

By 
weeks 

By  four-week 
periods 

First  week 

Lbs. 
222 
235 
246 
257 

Lbs. 
11.4 
13.3 
10.5 
10.7 

Lbs. 
41 
48 
50 
50 

Lbs. 
362 
362 
475 
473 

First 
four  weeks, 
418  Ibs. 

Second  week 

Third  week 

Fourth  week 

Fifth  week 

270 
281 
294 
303 

13.9 
10.1 
13.1 

8.9 

51 
51 
51 
51 

368 
510 
391 
574 

Second 
four  weeks, 
461  Ibs. 

Sixth  week 

Seventh  week 

Eighth  week 

Ninth  week    __  

313 
322 
332 
340 

10.5 
8.9 
9.6 

8.8 

52 
52 
52 
52 

499 
587 
549 
598 

Third 
four  weeks, 
559  Ibs. 

Tenth  week.  _  

Eleventh  week 

Twelfth  week 

831.  Effects  of  feed  on  teeth  and  skull.— Schwartzkopff  of  the 
Minnesota  Station,1  treating  of  the  influence  of  feed  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  the  skull  and  the  dentition  of  pigs,  writes: 

"1.  The  order  of  succession  of  teeth  in  our  precocious  pigs  runs 
the  same  as  in  the  primitive  hog. 

"2.  The  times  when  the  teeth  appear  are  variable,  according  to 
race,  feeding,  and  health.  The  same  breeds  raised  under  the  same 
conditions  will  show  the  same  appearance. 

"3.  The  form  of  the  skull  depends  upon  nutrition,  health,  and 
more  or  less  employment  of  certain  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck. 
Skulls  of  poorly  nourished  pigs  are  more  long  and  slender  than  from 
those  well  nourished.  Pigs  which  are  prevented  from  rooting  will 
acquire  a  short,  high,  and  rounded  head,  while  those  that  are  forced 
to  root  to  secure  a  portion  of  their  food  will  develop  a  long  and 
slender  form  of  head." 

832.  Length  of  intestines. — Darwin2  states  that  the  nature  of  the 
food  supplied  the  pig  by  man  has  evidently  changed  the  length  of 
the  intestines.    He  quotes  Cuvier  as  reporting  the  total  length  of  the 
intestines  of  the  wild  boar  to  be  9  times  the  body  length;  in  the 
domestic  boar  13.5   to  1;  in  the  Siam  boar  16  to  1.     The  writer3 


1  Bnl.  7 ;  Breeder  's  Gazette,  1889,  pp.  536-7. 
'-  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication. 


3  Ept,  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.,  1889. 


Investigations  with  Swine.  511 

measured  the  intestines  of  39  fattened  hogs  and  found  that  the  large 
intestine  varied  from  13  to  16  ft.,  and  the  small  intestine  from  54 
to  60  ft.,  in  length.  The  average  extreme  body  length  of  these  ani- 
mals was  3.5  ft.  This  makes  the  small  intestine  alone  from  16  to  19 
times  the  length  of  the  body,  and  the  large  and  small  intestines  com- 
bined about  21  times  the  body  length.  From  these  figures  it  appears 
that  the  intestines  of  pigs  of  the  improved  breeds  are  longer  in 
proportion  to  the  body  than  those  given  by  Cuvier.  This  may  in- 
dicate that  the  modern  pig  can  digest  his  food  more  thoroly  than  his 
ancestors,  and  also  that  he  can  eat  a  larger  quantity  of  food  in  a 
given  time.  (28) 

833.  Breed  tests. — Rommel,1  collecting  the  data  relative  to  the 
feed  required  for  a  given  gain  from  8  American  experiment  sta- 
tions with  6  breeds  of  swine,  gives  the  following  summary: 

Feed  tests  with  6  breeds  of  swine  at  8  American  experiment  stations. 


Breed 

No.  of  tests 

Total  no.  of  pigs 

Peed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Tamworth 

16 

92 

Lbs. 
344 

Chester  White 

13 

71 

347 

Poland  China  .  . 

22 

96 

357 

Berkshire  _  _ 

23 

121 

369 

Large  Yorkshire 

11 

67 

407 

Du  roc-  Jersey 

11 

66 

418 

Unprejudiced  study  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no 
best  breed  of  swine,  tho  some  one  breed  is  usually  better  than  others 
for  a  given  farmer  or  for  a  given  region  of  country.  In  deciding 
which  breed  of  swine  to  keep  on  a  given  farm,  there  are  many  factors 
to  be  taken  into  account  besides  the  single  one  of  the  amount  of  feed 
consumed  for  a  given  gain.  Studies  of  4  breeds  at  the  Copenhagen 
(Denmark)  Station2  revealed  no  difference  save  that  the  Poland- 
China  breed  gave  firmer  pork  than  the  native  swine. 

834.  Feral  swine.— Carlyle  of  the  Wisconsin  Station3  procured 
feral  or  semi-wild  swine,  styled  "  razorbacks, "  from  Texas  and  the 
Indian  Territory.  In  one  trial  6  unmixed  descendants  from  the 
original  pair  of  razorbacks  were  fed  in  comparison  with  the  same 
number  of  pigs  obtained  by  crossing  razorbacks  on  improved  Berk- 
shires  or  Poland  Chinas. 

The  razorbacks  made  slower  gains  and  required  more  feed  for  a 
given  gain  than  did  the  cross-breds.  Carlyle  reports  that  they  were 
also  fickle  in  appetite.  At  one  time  they  would  gorge  themselves, 

1 U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  47.        2  Rpt.  15, 1889.          3  Ept.  1903. 


512 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


and  then  eat  sparingly,  only  to  follow  with  another  gorge.  They 
seemed  to  thrive  best  with  abundant  pasture  and  bulky  food.  The 
second  cross  with  the  improved  breeds  produced  pigs  of  fine  form 
that  were  good  feeders.  None  were  immune  from  hog  cholera,  the 
original  pair  dying  of  that  disease.  Carlyle  writes:  "These  trials 
show  that  this  cross  with  razorbacks  is  capable  of  improving  certain 
weaknesses  in  our  pure-bred  Berkshires  and  Poland  Chinas/' 

Unmixed  razorbacks  compared  with  cross-breds. 


Breeding 

Av.  grain 
consumed  daily 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Grain 

Skim  milk 

Razorback__  

Lbs. 
4.2 
5.6 

Lbs. 
1.02 
1.52 

Lbs. 
420 
366 

Lbs. 
565 
530 

Cross-bred 

Stockbridge  of  the  Florida  Station,1  comparing  razorbacks  with 
pure-bred  Duroc-Jerseys,  found  that  the  natives  gained  equally  well 
and  gave  a  larger  percentage  of  meat,  which  was  superior  in  qual- 
ity. (100) 

835.  Spayed  and  unspayed.  sows.— At  the  Utah  Station2  Foster 
and  Merrill  secured  a  daily  gain  of  0.82  Ib.  with  spayed  sows  and 
0,86  Ib.  with  unspayed  sows,  no  difference  in  their  appetites  being 
noticed. 

836.  Barrows  v.  sows. — In  feeding  trials  mostly  by  the  author  at 
the  Wisconsin  Station,3  the  weights  and  gains  of  98  sows  and  an 
equal  number  of  barrows  were  as  follows : 

Sows      Barrows 
144 
107 


Av.  weight  at  beginning  of  feeding  period,  pounds 136 

Av.  gain  per  animal  during-  feeding  period,  pounds  _._    102 


It  is  shown  that  the  barrows,  weighing  somewhat  more  than  the 
sows,  made  slightly  better  gains.  Data  obtained  in  feeding  1,216 
pigs  at  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station4  showed  practically  no 
difference  between  barrows  and  sows  as  to  gain,  shrinkage,  or  quality 
of  carcass.  (507) 

837.  Proportion  of  carcass.— Coburn5  gives  the  following  in  re- 
lation to  the  percentage  of  dressed  carcass  that  pigs  will  yield  on 
slaughtering  after  being  deprived  of  feed  for  12  hours: 


Live  weight,  100  lbs.__. 
Live  weight,  150  lbs._. 
Live  weight,  200  lbs.._ 


Per  ct.  Per  ct. 

carcass  carcass 

72  Live  weight,  250  Ibs 77 

73  Live  weight,  300  Ibs 79 

75  Live  weight,  350-500  Ibs.  __    80-87 


1  Ept.  1901. 
*  Bui.  70. 


3  Rpts.  1897-1906. 

4  Rpt.  1895. 


Swine  in  America,  p.  535. 


Investigations  with  Swine.  513 

It  is  shown  that  the  small,  immature,  unfinished  pig  yields  the 
least,  and  the  large,  mature  fat  one  the  greatest  per  cent  of  dressed 
carcass.  For  each  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight  over  the  first  100  Ibs.  the 
yield  is  approximately  4  per  ct.  more  dressed  carcass. 

838.  Tuberculosis  thru  feeding. — At  the  Iowa   Station1  Kennedy, 
Bobbins,  and  Bouska  selected  40  pigs  believed  to  be  free  from  tuber- 
culosis.    Two  lots  of  10  pigs  each  were  kept  on  separate  pastures 
and  2  other  lots  of  10  pigs  each  confined  in  dry  yards.     Corn  and 
creamery  skim  milk  which  had  been  pasteurized  to  destroy  all  dis- 
ease germs  was  fed  to  all  alike.    The  milk  of  one  lot  on  pasture  and 
one  lot  in  the  yard  was,  before  feeding,  infected  with  the  germs  of 
tuberculosis.  When  the  pigs  were  slaughtered  at  the  end  of  196  days 
it  was  found  that  all  that  had  been  fed  on  infected  milk,  20  in 
number,    were   tuberculous.     Of   those   not   given   infected   milk,    2 
proved  tuberculous  and  18  were  free  from  the  disease. 

This  experiment  shows  the  supreme  necessity  of  pasteurizing  all 
creamery  by-products  before  they  are  returned  to  the  farm  for  feed- 
ing purposes,  a  practice  required  by  law  in  Denmark,  and  now  fol- 
lowed by  some  creameries  in  this  country. 

Kennedy  and  Dinsmore  of  the  same  Station2  grain-fed  a  carload 
of  tuberculous  cattle  on  pasture  from  October  to  December.  Thirty 
healthy,  vigorous  pigs  followed  the  cattle  to  work  over  the  droppings, 
while  6  less  thrifty  pigs  from  the  same  lots  were  kept  in  a  separate 
enclosure  as  a  check.  When  the  pigs  were  slaughtered  in  February, 
80  per  ct.  of  those  that  had  run  with  the  steers  were  found  tuber- 
culous, while  all  in  the  check  lot  were  free  from  the  disease.  This 
shows  that  pigs  running  with  tuberculous  cattle  may  thereby  become 
quickly  infected  with  the  disease. 

II.  BACON  PRODUCTION. 

839.  Canadian  bacon  requirements. — The  "Wiltshire  side"  of  the 
English  bacon  trade  is  the  entire  half  of  the  dressed  pig,  minus  the 
head  and  feet.    Day  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College3  states  that 
to  produce  a  good  Wiltshire  side  requires  in  the  pig  "certain  definite 
peculiarities  as  to  weight,  condition,  and  conformation."     He  places 
the  live-weight  limits  at  between  160  and  200  Ibs.,  preferably  175  to 
190  Ibs.     The  bacon  pig  should  be  long  from  shoulder  to  ham,  and 
light  in  the  shoulders,  neck,  and  head.     The  fat  should  be  so  placed 
that  when  the  carcass  is  split  lengthwise  along  the  back  the  layer  of 

1  Bui.  92.  2  Bui.  107.  3  Swine,  p.  13. 

34 


514  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

fat  will  run  uniformly  from  1  to  1.5  inches  in  thickness,  without 
excess  over  the  shoulder.  The  proportion  of  lean  to  fat  is  much 
greater  than  in  the  lard  hog.  (926) 

840.  Soft  pork. — In  bacon  production  a  varying  number  of  car- 
casses are  usually  rejected  by  the  packers  after  slaughter  because 
too  soft  for  the  requirements  of  the  bacon  market.     Olein,  palmitin, 
and  stearin  are  the  three  principal  oils  in  the  fat  or  lard  of  the  pig. 
Olein  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  while  the  others  are  solid. 
Shutt  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1  concludes  that  soft  pork 
is  largely  caused  by  an  undue  proportion  of  olein  in  the  fat  of  the 
carcass.    He  finds  that  the  fat  of  firm  pork  carries  68  per  ct.  olein  or 
less,  and  that  of  soft  pork  75  per  ct.  or  more.    Pigs  fattened  exclu- 
sively on  corn  give  a  lard  carrying  as  much  as  92  per  ct.  of  olein, 
while  an  oats-peas-barley  ration  produces  a  lard  with  only  67  per  ct. 
olein. 

841.  Causes  of  soft  pork. — From  the  extensive  studies  of  Fjord 
and  Friis  of  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station,2  and  those  of  Day, 
Grisdale,  and  Shutt  of  the  Canadian  Stations,3  we  learn  that  soft 
pork  unsuited  to  the  production  of  high  quality  bacon  is  due  on  the 
part  of  the  animal  to  unthriftiness  and  lack  of  exercise,  and  only  in 
a  small  way  to  the  breed.    Imperfect  feeding,  marketing  before  being 
finished,  holding  too  long  after  finishing,  and  undue  forcing — espe- 
cially when  immature — are  other  causes.     In  a  large  way,  improper 
feeding  stuffs  and  feeds  improperly  combined  tend  to  produce  low- 
quality  bacon. 

Feeding  too  much  Indian  corn  to  young  pigs  is  always  objection- 
able. Corn  produces  a  soft  pork  when  forming  over  half  the  finish- 
ing ration  and  tends  to  unduly  thicken  the  layer  of  fat  over  the 
shoulder — a  common  defect.  Wheat  and  rye  middlings  are  unsatis- 
factory, and  beans,  soybeans,  peanuts,  and  acorns  produce  a  soft, 
oily  pork.  Barley  ranks  first  for  producing  the  highest  grade  of 
bacon,  while  oats  and  peas  follow.  Skim  milk  and  whey  in  combi- 
nation with  the  cereal  grains,  including  corn,  make  a  solid  flesh  that 
is  particularly  desirable.  Rape,  roots,  and  clover  are  helpful,  but 
these  and  other  succulent  feeds  should  be  judiciously  used.  Exercise 
favors  firmness  of  flesh.  Pigs  that  have  been  properly  fed  and  have 
had  freedom  until  they  weigh  100  Ibs.,  if  in  thin  condition  may  be 
finished  on  almost  any  of  the  common  meal  mixtures  and  produce 
fine  bacon.  They  should  be  fed  slightly  less  than  the  full  ration. 

1  Bui.  38. 

2  Bpts.  1884,  et  seq. 

3  Epts.  and  Buls.  Ont.  and  Ottawa  Expt.  Stations,  1890-96. 


Investigations  with  Swine.  515 

Indian  corn  is  so  economical  and  so  generally  valuable  for  pig 
feeding  in  this  country  that  its  prohibition  would  often  work  hard- 
ship to  the  bacon  producer.  In  feeding  for  bacon  it  is  not  recom- 
mended that  corn  be  entirely  withheld,  for  both  the  Danes  and  the 
Canadians  use  it.  A  little  corn  can  be  used  at  all  times,  and  a  very 
considerable  amount  when  finishing,  if  combined  with  dairy  by-prod- 
ucts and  such  grains  as  barley3  peas,  oats,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 


VALUE  OF  THE  YAEIOUS  FEEDING  STUFFS  FOE  SWINE. 
I.  CEREAL  GRAINS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS. 

842.  Corn. — Indian  corn,  the  grain  of  the  maize  plant,  is  the  com- 
mon swine  food  in  the  great  pork-producing  districts  of  America. 
It  is  most  proper,  then,  that  in  our  study  of  feeds  for  swine  we  first 
of  all  consider  the  value  of  unground  shelled  corn  in  pork  produc- 
tion. The  results  of  feeding  trials  at  9  stations  in  as  many  states 
are  condensed  in  the  following  table : 

Returns  from  a  bushel,  56  Ibs.,  of  shelled  corn. 


Station  reporting 

No. 
of 
pigs 

No.  of 
days 
fed 

Av.  wt. 
at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Corn  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Gain  per 
bushel 
of  com 

Alabama,  Bui.  93 

3 

42 

Lbs. 
51 

Lbs. 
0.4 

Lbs. 

586 

Lbs. 
9.6 

Colorado,  Bui.  74  .    

4 

101 

95 

0.7 

540 

10.4 

Illinois,  Bui.  16 

2 

42 

210 

1.3 

500 

11.1 

Kansas,  Bui.  95 

3 

84 

123 

1.2 

479 

11.7 

Kentucky,  Bui.  101 

4 

70 

139 

0.7 

587 

9.5 

Missouri  Agr.  Col.,  Bui.  1  ... 
Nebraska,  Bui.  94 

4 
6 

78 
56 

150 
170 

1.9 
1.2 

482 
530 

11.6 
10.7 

Ontario,  Rpt.  1899 

77 

0.7 

547 

10.2 

West  Virginia,  Bui.  59 

3 

28 

239 

1.7 

579 

9.7 

Average 

537 

10.5 

The  table  shows  that  it  required  from  479  to  587  Ibs.  of  shelled 
corn,  or  an  average  of  537  Ibs.,  for  100  Ibs.  gain  with  fattening  hogs. 
A  bushel,  56  Ibs.,  of  shelled  corn  made  9.5  to  11.7  Ibs.  of  gain,  the 
average  for  all  being  10.5  Ibs. 

Article  821  shows  that,  on  the  average,  shelled  corn  ground  to  a 
meal  is  about  6  per  ct.  more  valuable  for  fattening  hogs  than  whole 
corn,  a  sum  too  small  in  most  cases  to  pay  for  grinding.  As  is 
pointed  out  in  that  article,  pigs  eat  more  corn  meal  than  whole  corn 
in  a  given  time  and  consequently  gain  faster,  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance in  some  cases. 

In  the  corn  belt  most  of  the  corn  is  fed  on  the  cob,  a  commend- 
able practice  since  it  involves  the  least  labor  by  the  feeder  and  is 
satisfactory  to  the  animals.  (822)  Where  early  fall  feeding  is  de- 
sirable, corn  in  the  roasting-ear  stage  may  be  supplied,  stalks  and 

516 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


517 


all,  but  in  limited  quantity  at  first,  for  if  much  is  eaten  digestive 
derangements  follow.  As  the  kernels  harden,  the  corn  may  be  more 
liberally  supplied.  Pigs  that  have  grazed  on  clover,  alfalfa,  or 
other  pasture  incur  the  least  risk  from  new  corn.  Coburn1  quotes 
Atkinson  as  stating  that  a  given  area  of  standing  corn  will  go  three 
times  as  far  after  it  begins  to  dent  as  it  will  if  fed  off  when  in  the 
roasting-ear  condition.  (16)  The  Virginia  Station2  found  that  pigs 
fed  new  ear  corn  made  as  good  gains  as  others  fed  old  corn. 

843.  Soft  corn. — Coburn3  states  that  soft  corn  is  considered  ex- 
cellent for  swine  and  especially  for  young  pigs,  many  breeders  be- 
lieving they   can   obtain   better  gains  from   soft  than   from  sound, 
hard  corn.    As  soft  corn  contains  less  starch  than  mature  corn,  it  is 
advisable  to  feed  some  old  corn  for  finishing.    Soft  corn  may  be  used 
during  cold  weather  without  danger,  but  should  not  be  carried  over 
into  the  warm  season,  as  it  will  ferment  and  thereby  become  unfit  for 
use.  (154) 

844.  Field  feeding  corn. — Gaumnitz,  Wilson,  and  Bassett  of  the 
Minnesota  Station4  turned  1  lot  of  pigs  into  ripe  standing  corn  and 
fed  another  lot  ear  corn  in  a  yard,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table.     Rape  sown  broadcast  in  the  corn  field  before  the  last 
cultivation  furnished  succulent  feed  to  the  foraging  lot,  and  both  lots 
received  an  allowance  of  wheat  shorts.     The  amount  of  corn  eaten 
in  the  field  was  carefully  estimated. 

Field  feeding  of  corn  compared  with  feeding  corn  in  yard. 


How  fed 

No.  of 
Ptes 
fed 

Length 
of  trial 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Ear  corn  and 
shorts  for 
100  Ibs.  grain 

First  trial 
Lot    I,  foraging  corn                    

26 

Days 
49 

Los. 
1.3 

Lbs. 
835* 

Lot  11,  fed  ear  corn                      

13 

49 

1.0 

1,042* 

Second  trial 
Lot   I,  foraging  corn                ___  _  _  ___ 

32 

61 

1.4 

635 

Lot  II,  fed  ear  corn  

8 

61 

1.1 

677 

•Weight  of  green  corn  used. 

The  table  shows  that  the  foraging  pigs  made  larger  gains  and  re- 
quired less  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  those  fed  ear  corn. 
The  foraging  pigs  wasted  no  more  corn  than  those  fed  in  the  yard, 
picking  it  up  as  close  as  is  usually  done  in  husking.  The  cost  of  an- 
nually fencing  off  the  cornfields  into  small  areas,  $1  to  $2.50  per 


1  Swine  in  America,  p.  287. 

2  Bui.  167. 


3  Swine  in  America,  p.  276. 

4  Bui.  104. 


518 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


acre,  is  less  than  that  of  husking  the  corn.  Pigs  weighing  from  100 
to  140  Ibs.  are  best  for  foraging,  and  those  reared  on  pasture,  being 
more  active,  are  better  than  pen-reared  pigs.  It  was  found  best  to 
so  confine  the  pigs  that  they  would  clean  up  a  fenced  portion  of  the 
field  in  20  or,  better,  14  days,  tho  some  farmers  prefer  to  let  the 
pigs  range  the  whole  field.  The  following  table  shows  the  days  re- 
quired by  125-lb.  pigs  to  forage  an  acre  yielding  various  amounts 
of  marketable  corn: 

Number  of  days  required  ~by  pigs  to  clean  up  1  acre  of  corn. 


Number  of  pigs 

Yield  of  corn  per  acre 

40  bu. 

50  bu. 

60  bu. 

70  bu. 

When  20  pigs  forage  

Days 
15 
8 
5 
4 

Days 
19 
9 
6 
5 

Days 

23 
11 

8 
6 

Days 
26 
14 

9 

7 

When  40  pigs  forage  

When  60  pigs  forage 

When  80  pigs  forage 

Field  feeding  of  corn  is  most  successful  when  the  weather  is  dry. 
It  is  not  judicious  to  keep  pigs  in  the  fields  after  heavy  rains,  for 
they  then  waste  corn  and  injure  the  land.  Pumpkins  and  rape  are 
helpful  and  economical  in  field-feeding  pigs,  since  there  is  no  cost 
for  harvesting,  and  these  feeds  supplement  the  corn  and  add  variety 
to  the  ration. 

845.  Corn-and-cob  meal. — The  studies  of  the  stations  on  the  merits 
of  corn-and-cob  meal  for  swine  feeding  have  shown  widely  discor- 
dant results.  Those  of  Kennedy  and  Robbins  of  the  Iowa  Station,1 
which  are  by  far  the  most  detailed,  complete,  and  satisfactory,  are 
condensed  in  the  following  table : 

Corn-and-cob  meal  compared  with  whole  corn  and  corn  meal  for  pigs. 


Kind  of  corn  fed 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Corn  for 
Ibs.  100 
gain 

Lbs.  gain  per 
bu.  of  corn 

Dry  ear  corn                             

Lbs. 
148 

Lbs. 
0.74 

Lbs. 
456 

Lbs. 
12.3 

Soaked  shelled  corn     

134 

0.63 

513 

10.9 

Dry  corn  meal 

128 

0.61 

595 

9.4 

Soaked  corn  meal 

145 

0.72 

555 

10.1 

Dry  corn-and-cob  meal 

118 

0.51 

604 

9.3 

Soaked  corn-and-cob  meal 

123 

0.56 

583 

9.6 

1  Bui.  106. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


519 


The  corn-and-cob  meal  used  was  twice  ground  in  order  to  reduce 
it  to  proper  fineness.  The  table  shows  that  all  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense required  in  grinding  ear  corn  to  corn-and-cob  meal  was  more 
than  lost.  This  seems  reasonable  in  the  case  of  the  pig,  which  has 
a  digestive  tract  that  can  at  best  but  poorly  utilize  a  hard,  fibrous 
material  such  as  the  corn  cob,  even  after  it  is  ground.  Where  the 
pig's  food  is  limited  in  quantity  the  cob  particles  may  be  useful 
in  distending  the  digestive  tract.  Even  in  such  cases  the  feeder 
should  supply  woody  matter  of  better  character,  such  as  clover  and 
alfalfa  hay  furnish.  With  the  other  farm  animals,  where  the  rough- 
age supply  is  costly  or  scant,  corn-and-cob  meal  may  possibly  be  of 
advantage  at  times,  as  pointed  out  elsewhere.  (156-7,  523) 

846.  Gluten  meal. — At  the  Cornell  Station1  Clinton  compared 
gluten  meal  and  skim  milk  with  corn  meal  and  skim  milk,  feeding  2 
lots,  each  of  8  pigs  averaging  70  Ibs.,  for  50  days  with  the  results 
shown  below: 

Gluten  meal  compared  with  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 
total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Meal 

Milk 

Lot  I 
Gluten  meal,  2.4  Ibs. 
Skim  milk,  6.4  Ibs  

Lbs. 
0.9 

1.3 

Lbs. 
46 

65 

Lbs. 
255 

206 

Lbs. 
684 

569 

Lot  II 
Corn  meal,  2.  7  Ibs. 
Skim  milk,  7.3  Ibs. 

Gluten  meal  gave  the  poorer  results  with  skim  milk,  probably  be- 
cause it  is  excessively  rich  in  protein  and  poor  in  carbohydrates,  so 
valuable  in  pork  production.  At  the  same  Station2  a  mixture  of  1 
part  gluten  meal  and  4  parts  corn  meal  proved  7  per  ct.  more  val- 
uable than  wheat  meal  when  both  were  fed  with  skim  milk.  Gris- 
dale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms3  states  that  gluten  meal 
seems  unpalatable  and  produces  soft  bacon.  (158) 

847.  Hominy  feed.— At  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Station4  Lind- 
sey  found  hominy  meal  or  hominy  feed  as  valuable,  pound  for  pound, 
as  corn  meal  for  fattening  pigs  when  both  feeds  were  fed  in  combi- 
nation with  skim  milk.  (159) 

848.  Wheat.— About  the  year  1893,  when  the  price  of  wheat  ruled 
excessively  low,  several  stations  compared  the  value  of  wheat  with 


Bui.  199. 


2  Bui.  89. 


3  Bui.  51. 


4  Ept.  1899. 


520 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


that  of  corn  for  fattening  pigs,  obtaining  the  results  shown  in  the 
table  given  below: 

Wheat  meal  for  fattening  pigs. 


Station  and  reference 

Av.  ration 

Av.  daily  gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 
meal 

Wheat 
meal 

Corn 
meal 

Wheat 
meal 

Corn  meal 

Wheat 
meal 

Kansas,  Bui.  53. 

Lbs. 
1.5 
6.0 
6.4 
6.4 
8.0 

Lbs. 
7.3 
5.9 
6.4 
6.4 
8.0 

Lbs. 
1.70 
1.29 
1.40 

1.28 
1.60 

Lbs. 
1.78 
1.39 
1.32 
1.22 
1.72 

Lbs. 
439 
453 
458 
499 
496 

Lbs. 
411 
438 
481 
522 
465 

Ohio* 

South  Dakota,  Bui.  38  __.  . 

Wisconsin,  Rpt.  1895  

Wisconsin,  Rpt.  1895  

Average 

469 

463 

*Kan.  State  Bd.  Agr.,  1894. 

Averaging  the  trials  we  find  that  it  required  6  Ibs.  more  corn 
meal  than  wheat  meal  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  The  difference 
being  small,  we  may  conclude  that  wheat  and  corn  are  equally  valu- 
able for  fattening  swine.  At  the  Oregon  Station1  Withycombe  found 
that  528  Ibs.  of  whole  wheat,  445  Ibs.  of  finely  ground  wheat,  and  410 
Ibs.  of  crushed  wheat  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  fattening  pigs. 
Grinding  to  a  meal  saved  16  per  ct..  and  crushing  or  rolling  29  per 
ct.,  over  the  whole  grain. 

Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms2  found  that  from  360 
Ibs.  to  400  Ibs.  of  frozen  wheat  were  required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of 
gain  with  fattening  pigs — a  most  favorable  showing  for  such  grain. 
Frozen  wheat  alone  produced  as  satisfactory  gains  as  2  parts  of 
frozen  wheat  and  1  part  of  wheat  middlings,  corn,  or  barley.  (161) 

849.  Red-dog  flour. — At  the  Virginia  Station3  54-lb.  pigs  were  fed 
soaked  red-dog  flour  and  corn  meal,  equal  parts,  for  58  days.     They 
gained  1.3  Ibs.  daily,  requiring  but  390  Ibs.  of  the  mixture  for  100 
Ibs.  of  gain,  while  on  the  same  feed  given  dry  490  Ibs.  were  required. 
The  high  value  of  red-dog  flour  when  properly  fed  is  here  shown. 
This  feed  serves  its  highest  purpose  with  quite  young  pigs,  which 
need  a  highly  digestible,  palatable  feed,  containing  little  fiber.  (164) 

850.  Wheat  middlings.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station4  the  author  fed 
3  lots,  each  of  3  pigs  averaging  60  Ibs.,  giving  to  the  first  corn  meal, 
to  the  second  high-grade  wheat  middlings,  and  to  the  third  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  the  two.    The  feeding  period  covered  6  weeks,  with 
the  results  shown  on  the  following  page. 

It  will  be  seen  that  high  quality  wheat  middlings  fed  alone  proved 
somewhat  superior  to  corn  meal.  From  trials  extending  over  several 


Bui.  80. 


2  Rpt.  1908. 


Bui.  167. 


4  Ept.  1885. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


521 


years,  Sanborn  of  the  Missouri  Station1  held  that  good  wheat  mid- 
dlings were  worth  8  per  ct.  more  than  corn  meal  when  each  is  fed 
alone.  In  the  above  trial  the  mixture  of  corn  meal  and  wheat  mid- 
dlings proved  16  per  ct.  superior  to  wheat  middlings  alone,  and  18 
per  ct.  superior  to  corn  meal  alone.  Wheat  middlings  should  never 
be  fed  alone  to  pigs,  but  always  in  combination  with  corn  or  other 
starchy  feeds,  and  only  the  best  grades  should  be  used.  (166) 

Comparative  value  of  high-grade  wheat  middlings  and  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot     I,  Corn  meal,  4.4  Ibs.         _ 

Lbs. 
0.8 

Lbs. 
35 

Lbs. 
537 

Lot   II  Wheat  middlings,  4.0  Ibs. 

0.8 

32 

522 

Lot  HI,  Corn  meal  and  middlings,  3.8  Ibs.  .. 

0.9 

36 

439 

851.  Wheat  shorts. — In  a  60-day  trial  at  the  New  Hampshire  Sta- 
tion2 Shaw  compared  wheat  shorts  with  corn  meal  as  a  feed  for 
47-lb.  pigs,  obtaining  the  results  shown  below: 

Low-grade  wheat  shorts  compared  with  corn. 


Av. 
riaii  XT- 

Feed  for  100  1 

bs.  gain 

gain 

Concentrates 

Skim  milk 

Lotl 
Wheat  shorts,  2  2  Ibs 

Lbs. 
0  3 

Lbs. 
787 

Lbs. 

Lot  11 
Corn  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

0.5 

591 

Lot  III 
Wheat  shorts,  2.1  Ibs. 
Skim  milk,  8.3  Ibs. 

0.5 

412 

1,647 

Lot  IV 
Corn  meal,  3  .  2  Ibs. 
Skim  milk,  13.0  Ibs. 

1.3 

255 

1,019 

In  this  trial  the  wheat  shorts  proved  unsatisfactory  for  young  pigs 
whether  fed  alone  or  with  skim  milk.  They  were  doubtless  ground- 
over  bran  with  mill  dust  and  sweepings  added,  judging  by  the  re- 
sults. Such  feed  has  little  value  compared  with  cost  and  should  be 
avoided  by  the  pig  feeder.  (166) 

852.  Wheat  bran.— At  the  Maine  Station3  Jordan  fed  200-lb.  pigs 
either  wheat  bran  and  skim  milk  or  wheat  middlings  and  skim  milk 
for  72  days  and  found  that: 

413  Ibs.  wheat  middlings  and  1,126  Ibs.  skim  milk  made  110  Ibs.  gain 
413  Ibs.  wheat  bran  and  1,126  Ibs.  skim  milk  made 54  Ibs.  gain 


1  Bui.  14. 


2  Bui.  113. 


3  Rpt.  1889. 


522 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


It  is  shown  that  the  wheat  middlings  proved  twice  as  valuable 
as  wheat  bran. 

The  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station1  found  that  bran  alone  did 
not  produce  as  good  results  as  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  bran  and 
grain.  In  several  instances  bran-feeding  caused  sickness  among  the 
pigs.  The  pork  from  wheat  bran  was  poorer  than  that  from  grain, 
and  the  pigs  shrank  more  in  dressing.  Where  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
roots,  or  other  better  bulky  feeds  are  not  available,  a  limited  amount 
of  wheat  bran  is  helpful  in  adding  nutriment  and  volume  to  the 
otherwise  meager  ration  usually  given  brood  sows  and  shotes  not 
being  fed  for  gain.  (165) 

853.  Rye. — Extensive  trials  by  the  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Sta- 
tion2 showed  that  rye  meal  ranks  a  little  below  corn  meal  and  about 
equal  to  barley  meal  as  a  feed  for  swine.     The  pork  from  rye-fed 
pigs  was  satisfactory,  especially  when  the  ground  rye  was  fed  with 
other  grains,  milk,  or  whey.    Bye  shorts  and  middlings  had  a  lower 
feeding  value  than  rye  meal  and  produced  a  poorer  quality  of  pork. 
In  1  trial  pigs  fed  rye  meal  became  sick.     Coburn3  recommends 
feeding  ground  rye  as  a  thin  slop,  since  dry  rye  meal  forms  a  sticky 
paste  in  the  pig's  throat  on  which  he  is  liable  to  choke.    A  field  of 
rye  may  often  be  profitably  harvested  by  turning  pigs  into  it  to 
forage  at  will.     The  waste  of  grain  in  such  cases  will  usually  be 
small.  (177) 

854.  Barley. — The  value  of  barley  as  a  pig  feed  has  been  studied 
at  a  number  of  stations  with  the  results  summarized  below: 

Ground  barley  compared  with  corn. 


Station  and  average  ration 

Length 
of  period 

Av.  wt.  at 

beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100 
Ibs.  gain 

Ottawa1 
Lot   I,  Barley  meal,  4.  3  Ibs. 

Days 
112 

Lbs. 
73 

Lbs. 
1.0 

Lbs. 
435 

Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  3.6  Ibs. 

112 

74 

0.9 

416 

Ontario* 
Lot   I,  Barley  meal,  5.3  Ibs. 

77 

121 

1.2 

456 

Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  3.8  Ibs. 

77 

122 

0.7 

547 

South  Dakota* 
Lot   I  Barley  meal,  7  0  Ibs 

56 

109 

1.5 

458 

Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  7.0  Ibs. 

56 

126 

1.5 

453 

Wisconsin* 
Lot   I,  Barley  meal,  10.1  Ibs  
Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  11.1  Ibs  

56 
56 

208 
209 

2.1 
2.5 

471 
435 

1  Bui.  33.    *Rpt.  1899.    3  Bui.  63.    <Rpt.  1890. 


1  Ept.  26, 1892. 


2  Rpts.  1887, 1890. 


3  Swine  in  America,  p.  347. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


523 


Two  of  the  trials  show  that  the  barley-fed  pigs  made  as  rapid 
gains  as  those  on  corn,  but  in  three  cases  it  required  more  barley 
than  corn  for  a  given  gain.  Fed  alone,  barley  has  about  10  per  ct. 
less  value  than  corn  for  fattening  swine.  However,  barley  should 
never  be  fed  separately,  but  always  in  combination  with  corn,  wheat 
middlings,  skim  milk,  roots,  alfalfa,  etc.,  when  it  will  be  found  one 
of  the  best  of  feeds  for  pork  production.  Barley  kernels,  being 
small  and  hard,  should  always  be  ground  or,  better,  rolled  before 
feeding.  (171) 

855.  Oats. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station1  the  author  fed  whole  and 
ground  oats  with  corn  meal  to  115-lb.  pigs  for  60  days  with  the 
following  results: 

Whole  oats  compared  with  ground  oats. 


Feed 

Av. 
ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot    I, 

Whole  oats 
%  oats,  X  corn  meal 

Lbs. 
3.8 

Lbs. 
0.68 

Lbs. 
564 

Lot  11, 

%  oats,  %  corn  meal 

4.0 

0.82 

492 

Lot    L 

Ground  oats 
%  oats,  %  corn  meal 

4.4 

1.03 

429 

Lot  II, 

%  oats,  %  corn  meal 

5.1 

1.27 

402 

We  observe  that  the  pigs  getting  whole  oats  ate  less  feed  and 
gave  poorer  returns  than  those  fed  ground  oats.  The  best  returns 
were  with  a  ration  of  one-third  ground  oats  and  two-thirds  ground 
corn.  In  both  trials  the  feed  requirements  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  were 
very  low  where  ground  oats  were  used,  showing  the  high  value  of 
ground  oats  when  combined  with  corn. 

Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms2  found  that  pigs  fed 
soaked  shelled  corn  and  skim  milk  made  49  per  ct.  greater  gains 
than  those  fed  soaked  whole  oats  and  skim  milk — a  good  example 
of  the  great  waste  which  follows  the  wrong  combination  of  feeding 
stuffs.  Oats  and  corn,  or  skim  milk  and  corn,  are  proper  combina- 
tions, while  oats  and  skim  milk  are  not.  Again,  oats  must  be  ground 
if  they  are  to  be  fed  in  quantity  to  swine,  especially  when  the  pigs 
are  young.  For  pigs  while  still  quite  small  there  is  nothing  more 
helpful  than  ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sieved  out.  For  breeding 
stock  and  for  shotes  not  being  fattened,  there  is  no  more  useful  feed 
than  whole  oats,  fed  by  scattering  thinly  on  the  ground  or  on  a 
feeding  floor.  (169) 


Kpt.  1889. 


2  Bui.  51. 


524 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


856.  Buckwheat. — In  a  trial  lasting  77  days  at  the  Ottawa  Ex- 
perimental Farms1  Robertson  fed  lots  of  five  100-lb.  pigs  on  ground 
buckwheat  and  ground  wheat  soaked  30  hours  before  feeding,  with 
the  results  given  below: 

Buckwheat  meal  compared  with  wheat  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot   I  Ground  buckwheat,  5  5  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1.2 

Lbs. 
95 

Lbs. 
445 

Lot  II,  Ground  wheat,  3.3  Ibs. 

0.8 

62 

410 

It  is  shown  that  while  buckwheat  has  a  high  value  it  is  hardty 
equal  to  wheat  as  a  feed  for  pigs — a  reasonable  conclusion,  for  wheat 
is  one  of  the  most  potent  of  grains.  In  another  trial  R.  Robertson 
of  the  Nappan,  Nova  Scotia,  Experimental  Farm2  found  that  buck- 
wheat, fed  with  skim  milk  to  85-lb.  pigs,  was  a  little  lower  in  feed- 
ing value  than  the  same  weight  of  wheat  middlings.  Grisdale  of 
the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms3  states  that  buckwheat  produces  a 
poor  quality  of  bacon.  (180) 

857.  Emmer  (speltz). — In  a  trial  at  the  Nebraska  Station*  lasting 
94  days,  Burnett  and  Snyder  compared  emmer  meal  with  corn  and 
barley  meal  as  a  feed  for  fattening  pigs.  In  a  second  trial,  lasting 
42  days,  an  allowance  of  half  emmer  and  half  corn  meal  was  fed 
against  one  of  corn  meal  only.  In  both  trials  alfalfa  hay  was  fed 
to  the  pigs  in  addition  to  the  meal : 

Emmer  meal  compared  with  corn  and  barley  meal  for  pigs. 


Daily  grain  allowance 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Grain  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

First  trial 
Lot     J,  Corn  meal,  4.8  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

82 

Lbs. 
1.02 

Lbs. 
470 

Lot  II)  Barley  meal,  4.8  Ibs. 

80 

0.81 

590 

Lot  III,  Emmer  meal,  4.8  Ibs. 

81 

0.77 

618 

Second  trial 
Lot    I,  Corn  meal,  7.  2  Ibs.  

160 

1.53 

470 

Lot  II,  Corn  meal  and  emmer,  6.6  Ibs.. 

146 

1.35 

482 

The  table  shows  that  in  the  first  trial  it  required  148  Ibs.,  or  31 
per  ct.,  more  emmer  meal  than  corn  meal,  and  5  per  ct.  more  emmer 
meal  than  barley  meal,  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  In  the  second 


1  Rpt.  1894. 

2  Ottawa  Expt.  Farms,  Kpt.  1901. 


3  Bui.  51. 
*  Bui.  99. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


525 


trial  emmer  meal  combined  with  corn  meal  proved  nearly  equal  to 
corn  meal  alone.  For  swine  emmer  should  always  be  ground  and 
fed  with  other  feeds,  such  as  corn,  barley,  wheat  middlings,  and 
alfalfa  hay.  (178) 

858.  Kafir. — At  the  Kansas  Station1  Georgeson  conducted  2  trials 
with  lots  of  3  or  4  pigs  each  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  kafir 
meal  and  corn  meal,  with  the  following  results: 

Kafir  meal  compared  with  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

First  trial 
Lot  I 
Kafir  meal,  7.1  Ibs.  _ 

Lbs. 
153 

Lbs. 
1  4 

Lbs. 
515 

Lot  II 
Corn  meal,  7.  4  Ibs.  _ 

152 

1.7 

439 

Second  trial 

Lotr 

Kafir  meal.  3.  1  Ibs. 

63 

0  5 

621 

Lot  II 
Corn  meal,  3.  9  Ibs. 

64 

0.8 

482 

Lot  III 
Kafir  meal,  3.  8  Ibs. 
Ground  soybeans,  1.  9  Ibs. 

62 

1.4 

396 

Lot  IV 
Corn  meal,  3.  6  Ibs. 
Ground  soybeans,  1.  8  Ibs.    _    __  

62 

1.5 

369 

The  table  shows  that  when  fed  alone,  kafir  meal  falls  from  17  to  29 
per  ct.  below  corn  meal  in  feeding  value  for  pigs.  Kafir,  tho  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  lacks  protein,  is  constipating,  and  pigs,  especially 
young  ones,  tire  of  it  sooner  than  of  corn.  For  pigs,  kafir  should 
always  be  ground  and  mixed  with  some  laxative  protein-rich  supple- 
ment, such  as  ground  soybeans,  wheat  middlings,  etc.  In  the  last 
trial  the  pigs  fed  kafir  meal  and  soybean  meal  made  nearly  as  large 
gains  as  those  fed  corn  meal  and  soybeans.  The  great  advantage  of 
using  a  protein-rich  supplement  when  either  corn  or  kafir  is  fed  is 
forcefully  shown  by  the  large  and  remarkably  economical  gains 
made  by  the  last  2  lots  of  pigs  in  the  second  trial.  (183) 

859.  Milo.— According  to  Cottrell  of  the  Colorado  Station,2  100 
Ibs.  of  milo  is  equal  to  90  Ibs.  of  corn  for  fattening  hogs.  The  grain 
should  always  be  ground  or  soaked  before  it  is  fed.  Milo  is  con- 
stipating, and  some  such  laxative  feed  as  alfalfa  hay,  sorghum  fod- 
der, cured  when  green,  tankage,  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal,  or  soybean 
meal  should  be  given  with  it.  (184) 


1  Buls.  53, 61. 


2  Bui.  146. 


526 


Feeds  and  Feeding, 


860.  Millet.— Wilson  and  Skinner  of  the  South  Dakota  Station1 
fed  "hog"  millet  (Panicum  Miliaceum)  meal  against  barley  and 
wheat  meal  to  lots  of  2  pigs  each  for  84  days,  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  table : 

Millet  meal  compared  with  wheat  and  barley  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning 

Daily  gain  per  head 

Feed  for  100 
Ibs.  gain  for 
both  periods 

1st  period, 
56  days 

2d  period, 
28  days 

Lot     I, 
Lot   II, 
Lot  III, 

Millet  meal, 
Barley  meal, 
Wheat  meal, 

6.  8  Ibs... 
6.  2  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
116 
125 
168 

Lbs. 
1.32 
1.34 

1.75 

Lbs. 
0.76 
1.07 
1.51 

Lbs. 
595 
495 

487 

8.2  Ibs  

For  the  first  8  weeks  the  pigs  fed  millet  meal  gave  substantially 
as  good  returns  as  those  fed  barley  meal,  but  during  the  next  4 
weeks  they  made  poorer  gains.  Combining  both  periods,  it  re- 
quired about  20  per  ct.  more  millet  than  barley  to  produce  a  given 
gain.  Millet  meal  should  never  be  fed  alone,  but  always  in  com- 
bination with  some  other  grain,  such  as  corn  or  barley,  or,  better. 
\\ith  some  protein-rich  concentrate,  such  as  soybeans,  linseed  meal, 
heavy  wheat  middlings,  alfalfa  hay,  etc.  It  is  not  so  useful  for 
fattening  hogs  in  cold  weather  as  wheat  or  barley,  and  produces  a 
softer  pork  than  those  grains.  (185) 

861.  Sorghum  seed. — Erf  and  Kinzer  of  the  Kansas  Station2  found 
a  mixture  of  4  parts  sorghum-seed  meal  and  1  part  soybean  meal 
almost  equal  to  corn  meal  alone  as  a  feed  for  pigs,  but  33  per  ct. 
poorer  than  a  mixture  of  4  parts  kafir  meal  and  1  part  soybean  meal. 
Heavy,  clean  sorghum  seed  should  rank  but  little  below  kafir  or 
milo  in  feeding  value.  (181) 

862.  Dried    distillers'    grains. — May    of    the    Kentucky    Station3 
found  that  pigs  did  not  relish  dried  distillers'   grains   and  would 
not  eat  them  if  they  could  get  corn.     Fed  with  an  equal  amount  of 
corn  the  grains  produced  average  daily  gains  of  only  0.14  Ib.    When 
1  part  distillers'  grains  and  4  parts  of  corn  was  fed  the  pigs  made 
larger  gains  than  on  corn  alone.     Distillers'  grains  should  not  form 
over  20  per  ct.  of  the  ration  when  fed  with  corn.     The  low  value  of 
this  feed  when  much  of  it  is  fed  is  due,  as  is  the  case  with  bran,  to 
the  large  amount  of  fiber  contained.  (317) 

863.  Rice  by-products. — At  the  Massachusetts   (Hatch)    Station4 
Lindsey  divided  a  litter  of  six  10-weeks-old  pigs  into  2  lots  and  fed 


Bui.  83. 


Bui.  136. 


Bui.  101. 


4  Kpt.  1897. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs.  527 

them  the  following  rations  for  92  days  to  determine  the  value  of 
rice  meal: 

Rice  meal  compared  with  corn  meal. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Meal 

Milk 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot   7,  Rice  meal,  3.  1  Ibs.      Skim  milk,  13.  0  Ibs.  .  . 
Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  3.  1  Ibs.    Skim  milk,  13.  0  Ibs.  .  . 

1.4 

1.4 

225 
225 

914 
914 

This  trial  shows  that  'rice  meal  is  equal  to  corn  meal  when  both 
are  fed  with  skim  milk.  Connor  of  the  South  Carolina  Station1 
found  rice  meal  slightly  superior  to  corn  meal.  He  stated,  however, 
that  some  feeders  have  noticed  that  the  excessive  use  of  rice  meal 
tends  to  weaken  the  intestines  of  pigs  to  which  it  is  fed. 

Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station2  found  79  Ibs.  of  rice  polish  equal 
to  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  for  fattening  pigs.  (179) 

864.  Pigeon-grass   seed. — Western   grain   elevators   screen   great 
quantities  of  pigeon-grass  seed  from  wheat.     At  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion3 the  author  tested  its  value  as  a  food  for  swine.    Since  the  pigs 
refused  to  eat  any  large  quantity  of  the  raw  pigeon-grass  seed  meal, 
it  was  cooked,  after  which  treatment  it  was  readily  consumed.     A 
ration  containing  2  parts  cooked  pigeon-grass  seed  meal  and  1  part 
corn  meal  was  found  to  be  fully  equal  to  one  of  corn  meal  for  fatten- 
ing pigs.    A  lot  fed  1  part  raw  pigeon-grass  seed  meal  and  2  parts 
corn  meal  gave  poorer  returns,  tho  still  justifying  the  use  of  this 
weed  seed  when  it  can  be  had  at  low  cost  or  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.     To  be  satisfactory  for  pigs,  pigeon-grass  seed  should  be 
both  ground  and  cooked. 

865.  Lamb's  quarter  or  pig  weed. — Lamb's  quarter,  Chenopodium 
album,  is  a  common  weed  in  the  wheat  fields  of  Manitoba  and  the 
North- West  Territories.     In  a  trial  at  the  Manitoba  Experimental 
Farms4  100  Ibs.  of  lamb's  quarter  seed  screened  from  wheat  was 
found  to  be  equal  to  60  Ibs.  of  mixed  grain  when  constituting  one- 
fifth  of  the  ration  for  pigs. 

II.  LEGUMINOUS  AND  OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

866.  Canada  field  pea. — On  the  next  page  are  given  the  results  of 
trials  at  the  Utah,5  South  Dakota,6  and  Wisconsin7  Stations  in  which 
pea  meal  or  whole  peas  were  fed  to  fattening  pigs. 

1  Bui.  55.  *  Ottawa  Expt.  Farms,  Rpt.  1902.  •  Bui.  38. 

2  Bui.  122.  °  Bui.  34.  » Ept.  1902. 
3Ept.l894. 


528 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  table  shows  pea  meal  superior  to  corn  meal  whether  fed  alone 
or  in  combination  with  wheat  bran.  This  is  made  especially  plain 
in  the  long  feeding  period  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  where  both 
feeds  were  severely  tested. 

Feeding  Canada  -field  peas. 


Station  and  average  ration 

No.  of 
piers 

Av.  wt. 
at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Utah  Station 
Lot  I,  Pea  meal,  2.  0  Ibs.     Wheat  bran,  2.  0  Ibs. 
Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  1.  4  Ibs.    Wheat  bran,  1.  4  Ibs. 

South  Dakota  Station 
Lot  I,  Soaked  whole  peas,  5.  0  Ibs. 

3 
3 

2 

Lbs. 

Ill 
112 

82 

Lbs. 

1.1 
0.6 

1.2 

Lbs 

363 
455 

421 

Lot  II,  Soaked  corn  meal,  6.  4  Ibs. 

2 

96 

1.4 

458 

Wisconsin  Station 
Lot  I,  Pea  meal,  3.  8  Ibs.    .      

12 

60 

0.8 

474 

LotH,  Corn  meal,  3.  2  Ibs.  _.     

12 

60 

0.6 

549 

Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1  states  that  pigs  fed 
solely  on  pea  meal  do  not  thrive  and  produce  a  hard,  dry,  inferior 
pork.  This  valuable  grain  should  always  be  fed  in  combination 
with  corn,  barley,  ground  oats,  shorts,  etc. 

Cottrell  of  the  Colorado  Station2  reports  that  in  the  San  Luis 
Valley,  Colorado,  field  peas  are  seeded  on  unplowed  ground  and 
irrigated  once  or  twice.  The  vines  cure  on  the  ground,  and  pigs 
turned  into  the  fields  fatten  on  the  peas  alone,  an  acre  of  good  peas 
producing  about  400  Ibs.  of  gain.  Sometimes  the  unthreshed  vines, 
after  being  stacked,  are  fed  to  pigs  in  yards,  an  acre  of  good  peas 
producing  from  600  to  800  Ibs.  of  gain.  Pork  from  pigs  so  fattened 
is  firm,  sweet,  and  tender,  with  a  delicious  flavor.  Cottrell  recom- 
mends feeding  barley,  wheat,  potatoes,  or  roots  once  a  day  to  pigs 
foraging  on  peas.  (205) 

867.  Cull  beans. — At  the  Michigan  Station3  Shaw  and  Anderson 
compared  cooked  cull  table  beans  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
cooked  beans  and  corn  meal,  feeding  26  pigs  averaging  160  Ibs.  for 
periods  of  56  to  70  days  with  the  results  given  below.  The  beans 
were  carefully  cooked  in  a  limited  quantity  of  water  to  which  salt 
had  been  added. 

It  is  seen  that,  fed  alone  or  with  corn,  cooked  beans  have  a  high 
value  for  swine.  Being  unusually  rich  in  protein,  they  should  be 
fed  in  combination  with  some  starchv  feed  such  as  corn  meal.  Feel 


1  Bui.  51. 


2  Bui.  146. 


Bui.  243. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


529 


alone  or  in  excess,  they  produce  a  soft  pork  lacking  quality.  Salt 
should  always  be  added  to  a  ration  containing  beans,  and  the  beans 
thoroly  cooked.  (207) 

Cooked  beans  compared  with  corn  meal  and  cooked  beans. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot    I, 

Cooked  beans,  4.  7  Ibs.  . 

Lbs. 
1.1 

Lbs. 
62 

Lbs. 
421 

Lot  II, 

Cooked  beans,  3.  0  Ibs.     Corn  meal,  3.0  lbs._ 

1.5 

94 

406 

868.  Soybeans. — At  the  Indiana  Station1  Skinner  compared  ground 
soybeans  with  wheat  middlings  and  tankage  as  a  feed  for  swine. 
Four  lots,  each  of  4  pigs  averaging  61  Ibs.,  were  fed  for  84  days 
with  the  results  shown  in  the  table : 

Soybeans  compared  with  wheat  middlings  and  tankage. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot  I,  Corn  meal,  3.0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.5 

Lbs. 
46 

Lbs. 
557 

Lot  II,  Corn  meal,  1.9  Ibs.  Wheat  middlings,  1.9  Ibs. 
Lot  Illy  Corn  meal,  2.  5  Ibs.  Ground  soybeans,  1.  2  Ibs. 
Lot  IV,  Corn  meal,  3.  1  Ibs.  Tankage,  0.  6  Ib. 

1.1 
1.2 
1.0 

91 
101 

87 

343 
311 
331 

The  table  shows  that  corn  alone  is  a  poor  feed  for  young  pigs, 
while  combined  with  a  protein-rich  feed,  like  the  soybean,  it  is  most 
valuable.  While  in  all  cases  the  gains  from  the  mixed  feeds  were 
large,  the  soybean-corn  meal  ration  proved  the  best. 

In  another  trial  Skinner  and  Cochel2  compared  ground  soybeans 
and  linseed  meal  as  supplements  to  corn  meal  in  2  trials  lasting  60 
and  70  days  respectively.  Nine  pigs  in  all,  averaging  99  Ibs.  in 
weight,  were  fed  each  ration  with  the  results  averaged  below: 

Ground  soybeans  v.  linseed  meal  as  a  supplement  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 
Corn  meal,  4. 
Linseed  meal 
Lot  II 
Corn  meal,  4. 
Soybeans,  0.  8 

9  Ibs. 
,  0.  8  Ib. 

Lbs. 
1.5 

1.6 

Lbs. 
97 

102 

Lbs. 

378 

360 

9  Ibs. 
Ib. 

1  Bui.  108. 
35 

-  Indiana  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  126. 

530 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Lot  II,  receiving  ground  soybeans  and  corn  meal,  made  slightly 
larger  and  more  economical  gains  than  Lot  I,  fed  linseed  meal  and 
corn  meal.  This  shows  that  home-grown  soybeans  are  fully  equal  to 
linseed  meal  as  a  supplement  to  corn  meal  in  fattening  pigs.  At  the 
Wisconsin  Station1  Humphrey  found  ground  soybeans  10  per  ct. 
superior  to  wheat  middlings  for  feeding  with  corn  meal  to  fattening 
pigs,  but  the  pork  was  less  firm  and  the  grain  of  the  meat  and  the 
distribution  of  fat  and  lean  less  satisfactory.  (201) 

869.  Cowpeas. — Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station2  and  Newman 
and  Pickett  of  the  South  Carolina  Station3  compared  cowpeas  and 
corn  for  pig  feeding  with  the  results  which  follow: 

Cowpeas  and  corn  compared. 


Station  and  average  ration 

Av.  \vt.  at 
beginning 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Alabama  Station 
Lot     I,  Corn,  2  5  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

58 

Lbs. 
0  5 

Lbs. 
487 

Lot  II,  Cowpeas,  2.  8  Ibs. 

60 

0.6 

481 

Lot  III,  Com,  1.4  Ibs.    Cowpeas,  1.4  Ibs. 
Alabama  Station 
Lot     I,  Corn,  3.  5  Ibs.  

62 
63 

0.6 
0.7 

433 

478 

Lot  II,  Corn,  1.  7  Ibs.    Cowpeas,  1.  9  Ibs. 
South  Carolina  Station 
Lot     I,  Corn,  9.2  Ibs. 

67 
156 

0.9 
1.4 

395 
602 

Lot  II,  Ground  cowpeas,  6.  7  Ibs. 

160 

1.1 

491 

In  the  Alabama  trials  cowpeas  and  corn  were  practically  equal  in 
feeding  value  when  fed  separately,  but  a  mixture  of  the  two  proved 
more  satisfactory  than  either  alone.  The  South  Carolina  test  was 
decidedly  in  favor  of  the  cowpeas.  The  great  value  and  importance 
of  cowpeas  and  corn  for  pork  production  in  the  South  is  here  made 
plain.  (206) 

870.  Peanuts. — In  a  feeding  trial  with  pigs  at  the  Georgia  Sta- 
tion4 Flint  secured  the  following  returns : 

274  Ibs.  corn  and  shorts  produced  56  Ibs.  gain. 

254  Ibs.  corn  and  449  Ibs.  skim  milk  produced  76  Ibs.  gain. 

160  Ibs.  corn  and  \  acre  soybeans  produced  56  Ibs.  gain. 

160  Ibs.  corn  and  £  acre  Spanish  peanuts  produced  71  Ibs.  gain. 

The  soybeans  and  peanuts  were  pulled  and  carried  to  the  pigs 
daily.  In  ordinary  practice  the  pigs  would  have  done  their  own 
foraging.  (202) 


Ept.  1905. 


2  Buls.  82, 143. 


Bui.  52. 


4  Bui.  87. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


531 


871.  Linseed  oil  meal.— Forbes  of  the  Missouri  Station1  fed  6  lots, 
each  of  5  pigs  averaging  93  Ibs.,  for  90  days  on  corn  meal  supple- 
mented with  various  feeds  as  shown  below: 

Comparison  of  various  supplements  to  corn. 


Amount  of  supplement  fed  with  each 
100  Ibs.  of  corn 

Average 
ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I 

Wheat  middlings,  100  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
5  2 

Lbs. 
1  0 

Lbs. 
502 

Lot  1  1 
Wheat  middlings.    50  Ibs. 

5  0 

1  0 

518 

Lot  III 
Linseed  meal.  20  Ibs. 

6.4 

1.4 

445 

Lot  IV 
Germ  oil  meal,  10  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,    10  Ibs.  . 

5.5 

1.2 

476 

LotV 
Gluten  meal,     10  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,    10  Ibs.  

5.6 

1.2 

483 

Lot  VI. 
Gluten  feed,      10  Ibs. 
Linseed  meal,    10  Ibs. 

5.9 

1.3 

452 

It  is  shown  that  Lot  III,  fed  linseed  meal  with  corn  meal,  made 
the  largest  and  most  economical  gains.  The  lots  fed  middlings  and 
corn  required  from  13  to  16  per  ct.  more  concentrates  for  100  Ibs. 
gain  than  those  fed  linseed  meal  and  corn.  When  germ  oil  meal, 
gluten  meal,  or  gluten  feed  was  substituted  for  half  the  linseed 
rneal,  the  rate  of  gain  was  lowered  and  the  amount  of  grain  re- 
quired for  100  Ibs.  gain  increased.  Gluten  feed  proved  slightly 
more  valuable  than  gluten  meal  or  germ  oil  meal.  Forbes  writes 
that  the  pork  from  pigs  fed  linseed  meal  was  characterized  by  hard, 
white  fat.  (200) 

872.  Cotton-seed  meal. — As  now  prepared,  cotton-seed  meal  is 
poisonous  to  swine.  All  the  various  proposed  ways  for  safely  feed- 
ing this  meal  have  failed  under  careful  and  continued  tests.  Pigs 
thrive  at  first  on  the  meal,  but  usually  in  from  4  to  6  weeks  some 
die — not  all,  as  a  rule, — but  so  many  that  all  possible  profits  from 
the  use  of  this  feed  are  lost.  A  few  feeders  continue  to  use  the 
meal,  experience  enabling  them  to  avoid  most  of  the  losses.  If  cot- 
ton-seed meal  is  not  fed  continuously  for  over  40  days  and  does  not 
form  over  one-fourth  of  the  ration,  and  if  the  pigs  are  freely  sup- 
plied with  green  forage  or  grazed  on  pasture,  the  risk  from  this 
feed  is  slight. 

1  Bui.  67. 


532 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


It  is  not  entirely  safe  to  place  pigs  with  fattening  cattle  that 
are  being  fed  cotton-seed  meal.  Whether  the  trouble  comes  to  the 
pigs  from  working  over  the  droppings  of  the  steers  or  from  eating 
the  meal  which  falls  from  the  feed  boxes  is  not  definitely  known. 
Now  that  the  nature  of  the  poison  in  the  cotton-seed  meal  is  known 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  ere  long  a  way  will  be  found  to  use 
this  otherwise  most  valuable  feed  safely  for  swine  feeding.  (188, 
192,  194) 

III.  ROOTS;  DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS;  TANKAGE;  PROPRIETARY  STOCK  FOODS. 

873.  Roots. — Several  stations  have  compared  rations  composed 
solely  of  grain  with  others  where  roots  were  added,  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Feeding  grain  with  and  without  roots. 


Station  and  average  ration 

No. 
of 
Pigs 

Av.  no. 
of  days 
fed 

Av.  wt. 
at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Grain 

Roots 

Ottawa* 
Lot  I,  Grain,  4.  1  Ibs. 

8 
8 

5 
5 

5 
5 

10 
10 

7 
1 

161 
161 

85 
85 

84 

84 

88 
88 

66 
66 

Lbs. 
76 

49 

78 

78 

140 
141 

53 
52 

111 
115 

Lbs. 
1.0 

0.9 

1.3 
1.1 

1.0 
1.1 

1.0 

0.8 

1.2 
1.3 

Lbs. 
421 

388 

629 

280 

583 
543 

377 
341 

532 

426 

Lbs. 

Lot  II,  Grain,  3.  6  Ibs.    Roots, 
2  4  Ibs 

260 

1,568 

Utah\ 
Lot  I,  Grain,  5.  5  Ibs. 

Lot  11,   Grain,  2.  1  Ibs.    Roots, 
12.1  Ibs. 

Ohiot 
Lot  I,  Grain,  6.  0  Ibs. 

Lot  II,  Grain,  6.  1  Ibs.    Roots, 
2.  9  Ibs. 

257 

Indiana}} 
Lot  I,  Grain,  4.  0  Ibs. 

Lot  II,  Grain,  3.  0  Ibs.    Roots, 
2.  6  Ibs. 

278 

Montana^ 
Lot  I,  Grain,  6.  4  Ibs. 

Lot  II,  Grain,  5.  4  Ibs.    Roots, 
l.Slbs.-.. 

142 

*Rpt.  1891.    tRpt.  1891.    tRpt.  1884.    ||Buls.  79-82.    $Bul.  27. 

Averaging  the  above  findings  we  learn  that  100  Ibs.  of  grain  was 
replaced  by  feeding  557  Ibs.  of  roots.  Day  of  the  Ontario  Station1 
found  442  Ibs.  of  roots  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  grain.  He  attributes 
this  high  value  to  the  good  effect  of  roots  on  the  digestive  organs. 
Root-fed  pigs  utilized  their  food  better  than  those  getting  no  roots. 

1  Ept.  1901. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


533 


Pigs  getting  roots  showed  more  thrift  and  growth,  produced  bacon 
of  superior  quality,  and  showed  less  inclination  to  fatten  than  those 
fed  grain  alone.  Indeed,  so  great  was  the  growing  tendency  that  it 
was  necessary  to  reduce  the  root  allowance  when  finishing  the  pigs 
in  order  to  fatten  them  properly.  (918) 

Shaw  of  the  Michigan  Station,1  on  turning  pigs  receiving  one- 
third  of  a  normal  grain  ration  into  a  beet  field  to  do  their  own  for- 
aging, found  that  1  acre  of  sugar  beets  produced  716  Ibs.  and  1  acre 
of  half  sugar  beets  and  half  mangels  792  Ibs.  of  gain. 

At  the  Utah  Station2  Clark  fed  sugar  beets,  wet  beet  pulp,  and 
beet  molasses  in  combination  with  wheat  shorts  to  4  lots  of  130-lb. 
pigs  for  48  days  with  the  results  shown  below: 

Sugar  beets,  beet  pulp,  and  beet  molasses  fed  to  pigs. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Shorts 

Beet 
pulp 

Sugar 
beets 

Molasses 

Lot  I 
Shorts,  7.  6  Ibs. 

Lbs. 

1.7 
1.2 

1.2 

1.6 

Lbs. 
444 

268 
275 

186 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot  II 
Shorts,  3.  2  Ibs. 
Sugar  beets.  8.  3  Ibs. 

697 

Lot  III 
Shorts,  3.  3  Ibs. 
Beet  pulp,  12.  3  Ibs. 

1,030 
600 

Lot  IV 
Shorts,  3.0  Ibs. 
Beet  pulp,  9.4  Ibs. 
Beet  molasses,  4.4  Ibs. 

281 

The  table  shows  that  while  the  shorts-fed  pigs  gained  1.7  Ibs.  each 
daily,  those  fed  a  half  allowance  of  shorts  with  sugar  beets  or  beet 
pulp  additional  gained  1.2  Ibs.  each  daily.  In  this  trial  609  Ibs. 
of  wet  beet  pulp  or  396  Ibs.  of  sugar  beets  replaced  100  Ibs.  of  wheat 
shorts.  Shorts,  beet  pulp,  and  beet  molasses  combined  produced 
nearly  as  large  gains  as  shorts  alone.  One  hundred  Ibs.  of  beet 
molasses  saved  32  Ibs.  of  shorts  and  153  Ibs.  of  beet  pulp.  All  the 
pork  was  of  good  quality  except  that  from  the  molasses-fed  pigs, 
which  had  a  peculiar,  unsavory  taste. 

Overfeeding  with  beet  molasses  causes  pigs  to  scour.  In  a  trial 
at  the  Cornell  Station,3  after  feeding  five  87-lb.  pigs  a  ration  of  1.6 
Ibs.  corn  meal,  2.4  Ibs.  sugar-beet  molasses,  and  4  Ibs.  milk  for  3 
days,  2  pigs  died  suddenly.  The  molasses  was  then  withdrawn  from 
the  ration,  but  the  remaining  pigs  did  not  thrive,  doubtless  due  to 


1  Bui.  233. 


Bui.  101. 


Bui.  199. 


534  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

the  effects  of  the  molasses.  Buffum  and  Griffith  of  the  Colorado 
Station1  found  that  sugar  beets,  fed  alone,  rather  more  than  main- 
tained pigs.  When  fed  with  equal  parts  of  wheat  and  barley,  sugar 
beets  and  sugar-beet  pulp  proved  equally  valuable.  (275) 

874.  Danish  studies  with  roots. — The  Danish   (Copenhagen)  Ex- 
periment Station,2  in  trials  with  204  pigs  fed  whole  or  sliced  roots 
in  combination  with  skim  milk,  whey,  and  grain,  found  that  1  Ib. 
of  ground  barley  was  equal  in  feeding  value  to : 

Dry  matter  Sugar 

7. 5  Ibs.  mangel  beets  containing  11. 0  per  ct.  6. 7  per  ct. 

6. 5  Ibs.  mangel  beets  containing  13. 6  per  ct.  8. 9  per  ct. 

5. 0  Ibs.  fodder  beets  containing  16. 5  per  ct.  10. 9  per  ct. 

4. 0  Ibu  sugar     beets  containing  21. 2  per  ct.  14.0  per  ct. 

Thus  it  is  shown  that  7.5  Ibs.  of  mangels  or  4  Ibs.  of  sugar  beets 
are  as  useful  in  pig  feeding  as  1  Ib.  of  ground  barley,  when  all  are 
combined  with  dairy  waste  products.  Carrots  proved  as  valuable 
as  beets  when  measured  by  the  dry  substance  contained.  Since  roots 
are  almost  wholly  digestible,  their  relative  feeding  value  depends 
upon  the  total  dry  matter  they  contain,  rather  than  the  variety  or 
kind.  The  extensive  and  successful  use  of  roots  by  the  Danes  for 
pork  production  should  be  copied  by  American  farmers  in  many 
cases,  for  adding  variety  to  the  ration,  maintaining  the  health  of 
the  animals,  inducing  a  heavier  consumption  of  feed,  and  for  pro- 
ducing pork  of  high  quality. 

875.  Potatoes. — In  two  trials  by  the  author  at  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion3 potatoes  were  cooked  in  an  open  kettle,  using  as  little  water 
as  possible,  and  corn  meal  added  to  form  a  thick  mush  which  was 
eaten  by  pigs  with  great  relish.     Corn  meal  wet  with  water  was  fed 
to  a  second  lot  for  comparison.    The  results  were  as  follows : 

440  Ibs.  of  corn  meal,  fed  alone,  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 
262  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  with  786  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  weighed  before  cook- 
ing, produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 

From  this  we  learn  that  786  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  when  fed  to  pigs  after 
being  cooked,  effected  a  saving  of  178  Ibs.  of  corn  meal,  442  Ibs.  of 
potatoes  taking  the  place  of  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal. 

At  the  Copenhagen  Station*  Fjord  found  400  Ibs.  of  cooked  pota- 
toes equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  mixed  grains  for  swine.  Since  corn  has  a 
somewhat  higher  feeding  value  than  the  grains  used  by  Fjord,  it  is 
fair  to  hold  that  4.5  bu.  (of  60  Ibs.  each)  of  potatoes  after  cooking 

1  Bui.  74.  2  Kpt.  26, 1892.  3Ept.  1890.  *Ept.  19,1890 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine.  535 

are  equal  to  1  bu.  (56  Ibs.)  of  corn  in  pig  feeding.  Grisdale  of  the 
Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1  reports  that  raw  potatoes  alone  will 
scarcely  maintain  life  in  pigs,  but  given  in  small  quantities  they  help 
to  keep  them  in  health  when  other  succulent  food  is  lacking.  (273) 

876.  Artichokes. — French  of  the  Oregon  Station2  placed  pigs  in  a 
field  of  artichokes,  estimated  to  yield  740  bu.  per  acre.    As  the  pigs 
made  little  gain  on  the  tubers  alone,  a  small  allowance  of  mixed 
wheat  and  oats  was  supplied  in  addition,  about  310  Ibs.  of  mixed 
grain  being  then  required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain.     In  this  case 
the  artichokes  saved  from  150  to  200  Ibs.  of  grain  for  each  100  Ibs.  of 
gain  made.    Sweitzer  of  the  Missouri  Station3  rates  artichokes  equal 
to  potatoes  for  pig  feeding.     Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental 
Farms4   found   artichokes   economical   and   slightly  more   valuable 
than  potatoes.    Altho  long  grown  in  a  small  way  and  often  extolled, 
no  extended  feeding  trials  have  yet  been  made  with  artichokes,  nor 
does  their  use  by  feeders  seem  to  increase.  (274) 

877.  Sweet  potatoes. — Trials  at  several  southern  stations  show 
that  swine  do  not  relish  the  sweet  potato  as  they  do  peanuts  and 
chufas,  which  crops  can  usually  be  grown  instead  to  greater  advan- 
tage.    Newman  and  Pickett  of  the  South  Carolina  Station5  found 
that  it  required  over  500  Ibs.  of  sweet  potatoes,  when  fed  alone, 
to  equal  100  Ibs.  of  corn.    Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station,6  allow- 
ing pigs  to  harvest  sweet  potatoes  at  will,  secured  100  Ibs.  of  gain  by 
feeding  313  Ibs.  of  grain  additional,  thereby  saving  about  200  Ibs. 
of  grain  for   each   100  Ibs.   of  increase   while   fattening.     Duggar 
states  that  it  is  probably  advisable  to  give  pigs  feeding  on  sweet 
potatoes  protein-rich   feeds,   such  as   cowpeas  and  peanuts,   in   ad- 
dition. (288) 

878.  Peanuts. — At    the    Alabama    Station7     Gray,   Duggar,    and 
Kidgeway  fed  3  lots  of  61-lb.  pigs  for  60  days  upon  the  rations 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  to  determine  the  value  of  pea- 
nuts in  supplementing  corn  for  fattening  pigs. 

The  table  shows  that  pigs  fed  3.8  Ibs.  corn  gained  only  0.7  Ib. 
daily,  while  those  getting  1.6  Ibs.  of  corn  daily  and  foraging  in 
the  peanut  field  gained  0.9  Ib.  Lot  III,  fed  2  parts  corn  and  1  part 
cotton-seed  meal  while  in  the  peanut  field,  made  slightly  larger 
gains  than  Lot  II  on  corn  and  peanuts.  It  was  found  that  1  acre 
of  good  peanuts  was  equal  to  about  3,200  Ibs.  of  corn  in  feeding 
value.  "When  a  legume  crop  like  peanuts  is  foraged  by  pigs,  the 

1  Bui.  57.  » Bui.  29.  5  Bui.  52.  T  Bui.  113. 

2  Bui.  54.  4  Bui.  51.  9  Bui.  122. 


536 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


increased  fertility  of  the  land,  as  measured  by  the  succeeding  cot- 
ton crop,  will  more  than  pay  the  expense  of  growing  the  legume 
crop.  (291) 

Peanuts  as  a  supplement  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Peanut  pasture 

Lot  I 
Corn,  3.8  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.7 

0.9 
1.0 

Lbs. 

560 

177 
158 

Acres 

Lot  11 
Corn,  1.6  Ibs. 
Foraging  peanut  field 

0.12 

0.08 

Corn,  1.  1  Ibs. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  0.5  Ib. 
Foraging  peanut  field 

879.  Peanuts  and  chufas. — At  the  Arkansas  Station1  Bennett  al- 
lowed pigs  to  forage  in  fields  planted  to  peanuts  or  chufas  with  the 
following  results,  another  lot  being  fed  corn  as  a  check : 

One  acre  of  peanuts  gave  1,252  Ibs.  of  gain. 
One  acre  of  chufas  gave  592  Ibs.  of  gain. 
One  acre  of  corn  gave  436  Ibs.  of  gain. 

The  pork  from  the  chufas,  like  that  from  corn,  was  dry  and  firm, 
while  that  from  the  peanuts  was  soft  and  oily.  Pigs  fed  peanuts 
should  be  finished  on  corn.  (290) 

880.  Pumpkins. — Kommel,2    summarizing'  the   findings   of  3   sta- 
tions, reports  that  273  Ibs.  of  grain,  together  with  376  Ibs.  of  raw 
pumpkins,  gave  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  fattening  pigs.    When  cooked 
it  required  1,150  Ibs.  of  pumpkins  and  222  of  grain  for  100  Ibs.  of 
gain.     From  these  data  we  may  conclude  that  cooking  is  of  no  ad- 
vantage  with   this   vegetable.     Cottrell   of   the    Colorado    Station3 
states  that  some  Colorado  stockmen  fatten  hogs  exclusively  on  raw 
squashes.     They   report  favorable  returns  per  acre,   with  meat  of 
good  flavor  but  having  an  undesirable  yellow  color.  (280) 

881.  Whole  cow's  milk. — Scheven4  found  that  when  unskimmed 
cow's  milk  was  fed  to  12- weeks-old  pigs,  from  900  to  1,620  Ibs.  was 
required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  the  average  being  1,253  Ibs. 
These  figures  show  that  ordinarily  one  cannot  afford  to  feed  un- 
skimmed   cow's    milk    to    pigs.  (301)       Beach    of    the    Connecticut 
(Storrs)  Station5  has  shown  that  cow's  milk  rich  in  fat  is  far  from 
satisfactory  as  a  feed  for  young  pigs.  (123) 


1  Bui.  54. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  47. 

3  Bui.  146. 


4  Martiny,  Die  Milch. 

5  Bui.  31. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


537 


882.  Skim  milk  fed  alone.— At  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Station1 
Beach  fed  25-lb.  pigs  on  separator  skim  milk  alone  and  in  combina- 
tion with  grain  during  an  86-day  trial  with  the  following  results : 

Feeding  separator  skim  milk  alone  and  in  combination  with  grain. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Skim  milk 

Grain 

LoC  I  Skim  milk,  19.  7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.72 
1.28 
1.38 
0.47 

Lbs. 
2,739 
1,341 
935 

Lbs. 

Lot  II,  Skim  milk,  17.  2  Ibs.  Grain,  2.  2  Ibs.  .  . 
Lot  in,  Skim  milk,  12.9  Ibs.  Grain,  3.2  Ibs.  _. 
Lot  IV,  Grain,  2.1  Ibs. 

168 
233 
445 

This  trial  shows  the  great  loss  from  feeding  even  young  pigs  en- 
tirely on  skim  milk,  for  when  so  fed  they  required  over  2,700  Ibs. 
of  milk  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain.  By  feeding  meal  with  the  milk  far  more 
rapid  and  economical  gains  were  made.  Skim  milk,  rich  in  protein 
and  mineral  matter,  should  always  be  combined  with  starchy  carbo- 
hydrates, such  as  corn,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  etc.,  in  which  case  it  be- 
comes one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  available  feeds  for  the  pig.  (302) 

883.  Meal  value  of  separator  skim  milk. — Fjord  at  the  Copen- 
hagen  (Denmark)   Station,2  Grisdale  at  the  Ottawa  Experimental 
Farms,3  Linfield  at  the  Utah  Station,4  and  the  author  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station,5  found  the  average  feeding  value  of  separator  skim 
milk,  when  given  in  combination  with  corn  meal  or  meal  of  the 
mixed  grains,  to  be  as  follows: 

The  Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Experiment  Station _.  600  pounds 

The  Ottawa  (Canada)  Experimental  Farms 604  pounds 

The  Utah  Experiment  Station 495  pounds 

The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station _  475  pounds 

The  Wisconsin  trials  were  usually  with  quite  young  pigs,  thereby 
giving  a  higher  value  to  the  milk  than  would  have  been  obtained 
with  older  animals.  It  is  shown  that,  when  properly  combined  with 
concentrates,  from  500  to  600  Ibs.  of  separator  skim  milk  has  a  feed- 
ing value  for  pigs  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  or  mixed  meal. 

884.  Proper  ratio  of  milk  to  meal. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station6  the 
author  conducted  19  feeding  trials  with  88  pigs  of  all  ages  to  de- 
termine the  value  of  separator  skim  milk  when  fed  in  combination 
with  varying  amounts  of  corn  meal.     For  convenience  the  results 
are  arranged  in  groups,  the  first  comprising  trials  in  which  not  over 


1  Bui.  39. 

2  Bpt.  10, 1887. 


3  Bui.  33. 

4  Bui.  94. 


8  Ept.  1895. 
•  Ept.  1895. 


538 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


3  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  were  fed  with  1  Ib.  of  corn  meal,  the  second 
where  from  3  to  5  Ibs.  were  given  to  1  Ib.  of  corn  meal,  etc.  The 
quantity  of  meal  and  milk  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  follows: 

Separator  skim  milk  and  corn  meal  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain. 


Ratio  of  milk  to  meal 


When  feeding 

1  Ib.  corn  meal  with  1  to  3  Ibs.  skim  milk 
1  Ib.  corn  meal  with  3  to  5  Ibs.  skim  milk 
1  Ib.  corn  meal  with  5  to  1  Ibs.  skim  milk 
1  Ib.  corn  meal  with  7  to  9  Ibs.  skim  milk 


Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 


Meal 


Lbs. 

321 

265 
250 
207 


Milk 


Lbs. 

585 
1,048 
1,434 
1,616 


Assuming  that  500  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  fed  alone  would  have  pro- 
duced 100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  these  pigs,  we  derive  the  following  from 
the  above  data : 

When  feeding-  with  each  Milk  required  to  save 

pound  of  meal  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal 

From  1  to  3  pounds  skim  milk 327  pounds 

From  3  to  5  pounds  skim  milk 446  pounds 

From  5  to  7  pounds  skim  milk 574  pounds 

From  7  to  9  pounds  skim  milk 552  pounds 

Average 475  pounds 

The  above  brings  out  plainly  the  important  fact  that  not  over 
300  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  should  be  fed  with  each  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal, 
for  if  more  is  given  much  of  its  feeding  value  is  lost. 

885.  Money  value  of  skim  milk. — The  feeder  desirous  of  knowing 
the  money  value  of  skim  milk  compared  with  corn  at  varying  prices 
will  gain  help  from  the  following  table  derived  from  the  previous 
study: 

Money  value  of  100  Tbs.  of  skim  milk. 


When  1  Ib.  of  meal  is  fed 

Average 

With  1  to  3  Ibs. 

With  7  to  9  Ibs. 

of  all 

of  milk 

of  milk 

When  corn  is  worth 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

$16  per  ton  or  44.8  cents  per  bushel  .. 

24 

15 

17 

18  per  ton  or  50.  4  cents  per  bushel  _  . 

28 

16 

19 

20  per  ton  or  56.0  cents  per  bushel  ._ 

31 

18 

21 

30  per  ton  or  84.0  cents  per  bushel  __ 

46 

27 

32 

The  table  shows  that  when  corn  is  worth  $16  per  ton,  or  44.8  cents 
per  bu.  of  56  Ibs.,  separator  skim  milk  has  a  value  of  24  cents  per 
100  Ibs.,  provided  not  over  3  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  is  fed  with  each  Ib. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


539 


of  corn.  Should  the  feeder  give  as  much  as  7  to  9  Ibs.  of  skim  milk 
with  each  Ib.  of  corn,  then  the  milk  is  worth  but  15  cents  per  100  Ibs. 

The  above  measures  in  a  general  way  the  value  of  skim  milk  when 
combined  with  corn  for  fattening  pigs.  Those  familiar  with  this 
feeding  stuff  and  its  worth  for  bone  and  muscle  building  know  that 
in  many  cases,  especially  for  young  pigs  and  brood  sows,  its  value 
is  much  higher  than  stated. 

A  rule  by  Hoard  for  finding  the  money  value  of  skim  milk  when 
fed  to  fattening  hogs  is  in  substance : 

To  find  the  value  of  100  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  when  fed  alone,  multiply 
the  market  price  of  live  hogs  in  cents  per  Ib.  by  5;  if  fed  in  combi- 
nation with  corn  or  barley,  multiply  by  6. 

According  to  this  rule,  when  live  hogs  are  worth  5  cents  per  Ib., 
each  100  Ibs.  of  milk  is  worth  25  cents  when  fed  alone,  and  30  cents 
when  fed  with  corn  or  barley  meal. 

The  Gurler  rule  proposed  many  years  ago  is: 

The  value  of  100  Ibs.  of  skim  milk  when  fed  along  with  corn  to  fat- 
tening hogs  is  half  the  market  price  of  corn  per  bushel. 

By  this  rule,  when  corn  is  worth  50  cents  per  bu.,  skim  milk  is 
worth  25  cents  per  100  Ibs.  for  fattening  hogs,  if  combined  with 
corn  or  some  other  suitable  grain. 

Clinton  of  the  New  York  Station1  recommends  that,  in  starting 
pigs  on  a  ration  containing  a  large  quantity  of  skim  milk,  care  be 
exercised  lest  at  first  the  pigs  be  overfed. 

Cooke  of  the  Vermont  Station2  found  that  pigs  fed  sour  skim 
milk  were  more  thrifty  than  those  getting  sweet  skim  milk.  This  is 
in  accord  with  Day's  findings  at  the  Ontario  Station3  with  sweet 
and  sour  whey. 

886.  Buttermilk. — At  the  Massachusetts  Station*  Goessmann  fed 
lots  of  3  pigs  averaging  48  Ibs.  each  on  buttermilk  or  skim  milk  in 
combination  with  corn  meal  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table : 

Buttermilk  compared  with  skim  milk. 


Average  ration 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn  meal 

Milk 
Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot    I, 
Lot  II, 

Buttermilk,  22.7  Ibs.    Corn  meal,  1.9  Ibs... 
Skim  milk,   23.3  Ibs.    Corn  meal,  1.9  Ibs... 

1.7 
1.7 

116 
115 

1,351 
1,390 

1  Bui.  199. 


2  Rpt.  1891. 


3  Rpt.  189' 


4  Rpt,  1884. 


540  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

This  trial  supports  the  general  experience  that,  where  no  water 
has  been  added,  buttermilk  is  fully  equal  to  skim  milk  for  pig 
feeding. 

887.  Whey. — In  pig-feeding  trials  by  Day  at  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College1  and  by  the  author  at  the  Wisconsin  Station2  whey 
fed  in  combination  with  meal  of  the  mixed  grains  gave  the  following 
returns : 

481  Ibs.  of  mixed  grain  when  fed  alone  produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain 
303  Ibs.  of  mixed  grain  with  1,398  Ibs.  of  whey  produced  100  Ibs.  gain 

Since  1,398  Ibs.  of  whey  saved  178  Ibs.  of  grain,  785  Ibs.  of  whey 
was  equal  to  100  Ibs.  of  grain.  The  whey  used  in  the  Wisconsin 
trials  was  richer  in  fat  than  the  average.  Fjord  of  the  Copenhagen 
(Denmark)  Station3  estimates  that  for  swine  feeding  in  Denmark, 
where  the  whey  is  poorer  than  with  us,  1,200  Ibs.  is  equal  to  100  Ibs. 
of  mixed  grain.  From  the  above  we  may  conclude  that,  when  prop- 
erly combined  with  corn  and  barley  meal,  1,000  Ibs.  of  ordinary  whey 
is  worth  100  Ibs.  of  corn  meal  for  fattening  swine.  Accordingly, 
whey  is  worth  about  half  as  much  as  skim  milk  for  pig  feeding. 

Day,4  after  studying  the  relative  merits  of  sweet  and  sour  whey 
and  taking  into  consideration  the  health  of  the  animals,  their  gains, 
and  the  quality  of  their  flesh,  states  that  the  first  slight  fermenta- 
tion which  whey  undergoes  does  not  seriously  detract  from  its  value 
for  pig  feeding.  Day5  further  found  that  ordinary  whey  was  worth 
from  25  to  30  per  ct.  more  than  separated  whey.  (304) 

888.  Tankage,  meat  meal.— At  the  Nebraska  Station6  Burnett  fed 
3  lots,  each  of  10  pigs,  on  alfalfa  pasture  for  56  days  to  test  the 
value  of  tankage  for  supplementing  corn.     Plumb  and  Van  Norman 
of  the  Indiana  Station7  fed  tankage  to  3  lots  of  4  pigs  each  for  127 
days,  and  Kennedy  and  Bobbins  of  the  Iowa  Station8  conducted  a 
similar  trial  with  meat  meal,  feeding  4  lots  of  12  pigs  each  for  100 
days.     These  various  trials  are  summarized  on  the  next  page. 

In  the  Nebraska  trial  the  gains  of  the  pigs  fed  tankage  were 
larger  and  more  economical  than  of  those  fed  soaked  corn  only. 
Where  the  pigs  were  on  alfalfa  pasture,  the  ration  containing  5  per 
ct.  of  tankage  produced  as  large  gains  as  that  containing  twice  that 
amount.  In  the  Indiana  trial  the  ration  containing  9  per  ct.  tank- 
age produced  larger  and  more  economical  gains  than  the  one  contain- 
ing 13  per  ct.  In  this  trial  100  Ibs.  of  tankage,  when  forming  9 

1  Kpt.  1896.         4  Ontario  Agr.  Col.,  Ept.  1897.       7  Bui.  90. 

2  Ept.  1891.         5  Loc.  cit.,  Bpt.  1909.  8  Bui.  91. 
•  Ept  1887.         •  Bui.  94. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


541 


per  ct.  of  the  ration,  replaced  555  Ibs.  of  corn.  In  the  Iowa  trial  the 
ration  containing  9  per  ct.  meat  meal  produced  the  largest  gains, 
100  Ibs.  of  the  meat  meal  replacing  359  Ibs.  of  corn.  Owing  to  their 
high  price  not  over  9  or  10  per  ct.  of  tankage  or  meat  meal  should 
be  added  to  the  ration,  and  5  per  ct.  would  suffice  where  the  pigs  are 
on  alfalfa  or  clover  pasture. 

Tankage  and  meat  meal  as  supplements  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Supple- 
ment 
fed 

Av.  wt. 

at  be- 
ginning 

Av. 
daily 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Nebraska  Station 

Per  ct. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lot     I,  Soaked  corn,  5.2  Ibs. 

o 

145 

1.3 

416 

Lot   II,  Tankage,   0.3  Ib.    Soaked  corn,  5.3  Ibs. 

5 

144 

1.5 

371 

Lot  III,  Tankage,   0.6  Ib.    Soaked  com,  5.0  Ibs. 

10 

144 

1.5 

366 

Indiana  Station 

Lot     I,  Corn  meal,  3.5  Ibs.                             

0 

64 

0.7 

520 

Lot  11,  Tankage,  0.4  Ib.       Corn  meal,  3.9  Ibs. 

9 

66 

1.2 

370 

Lot  III,  Tankage,  0.7  Ib.       Corn  meal,  3.9  Ibs. 

17 

65 

1.2 

378 

Iowa  Station 

Lot     I,  Corn  meal,  6.5  Ibs.  _  

0 

135 

1.2 

557 

Lot   II,  Meat  meal,  0.8  Ib.     Corn  meal,  7.6  Ibs. 

9 

137 

1.9 

451 

Lot  III,  Meat  meal,  0.9  Ib.     Corn  meal,  7.3  Ibs. 

11 

140 

1.7 

457 

Lot  IV,  Meat  meal,  1.0  Ib.     Corn  meai,  6.7  Ibs. 

13 

136 

1.8 

436 

Carlyle  of  the  Wisconsin  Station1  found  that  152-lb.  pigs  fed  corn 
and  beef  meal  had  thigh  bones  that  broke  at  a  strain  of  1,200  Ibs., 
or  8  times  the  body  weight,  while  others  weighing  192  Ibs.,  fed  corn 
and  heavy  wheat  shorts,  gave  bones  breaking  at  835  Ibs.,  or  but  4 
times  the  body  weight. 

Day  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College2  found  tankage  at  $33 
per  ton  more  economical  as  a  supplement  to  grain  for  pigs  than  skim 
milk  at  15  cents  per  100  Ibs.  Blood  meal  produced  nearly  as  large 
gains  as  tankage.  Day  states  that  since  blood  meal  is  an  exceedingly 
concentrated  food  it  must  be  fed  in  small  amount  and  with  care  to 
avoid  injurious  results.  (306,  920) 

889.  Tankage  v.  linseed  meal. — At  the  Indiana  Station3  Skinner 
and  Cochel,  in  3  trials  averaging  57  days,  compared  tankage  and 
linseed  meal  as  supplements  to  corn  meal  with  a  total  of  43  pigs, 
averaging  164  Ibs.  in  weight.  Since  tankage  contains  almost  twice 
as  much  digestible  crude  protein  as  linseed  meal,  only  half  as  much 
of  the  former  was  fed. 


Bui.  104. 


2  Ept.  1905. 


Bui.  126. 


542 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


The  table  shows  that  when  fed  with  corn  0.3  Ib.  tankage  produced 
slightly  larger  and  more  economical  gains  for  feed  consumed  than 
twice  as  much  linseed  meal. 

Tankage  compared  with  linseed  meal  as  supplements  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
Rain 

Av.  total 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot    I, 

Corn,  6.0  Ibs.    Tankage,  0.3  Ib. 

Lbs. 
1.6 

Lbs. 
94 

Lbs. 
381 

Lot  II, 

Corn,  5.5  Ibs.    Linseed  meal,  0.6  lb._ 

1.5 

89 

394 

890.  Tankage  for  pigs  following  corn-fed  steers. — At  the  Ohio 
Station1  Carmichael  placed  one  108-lb.  pig  with  each  2  steers  fatten- 
ing on  a  ration  composed  mostly  of  corn.     The  corn  voided  by  the 
steers  was  ample  for  the  pigs,  not  all  being  consumed.     Half  of  the 
pigs  were  each  given  one-third  of  a  pound  of  tankage  daily.     The 
pigs  on  droppings  alone  gained  1  Ib.  each  daily,  and  those  getting 
tankage  in  addition,  1.5  Ibs.     For  each  100  Ibs.  of  tankage  fed,  the 
pigs  made  162  Ibs.  of  extra  gain. 

891.  Blood  meal  v.  skim  milk. — In  experiments  at  the  Virginia 
Station2  Quick  and  Spencer  found  blood  meal  and  skim  milk  about 
equal  in  value  as  supplements  to  corn,  when  fed  on  the  basis  of  equal 
pounds  of  protein.     Blood  meal  at  $3  per  100  Ibs.  was  as  valuable 
as  skim  milk  at  25  cents  per  100  Ibs.     It  was  found  necessary  to  mix 
blood  meal  with  about  its  own  weight  of  wheat  middlings  in  order 
that  the  pigs  would  relish  it. 

892.  Ground  bone. — At  the  Nebraska  Station3  during  each  of  2 
years  Burnett  fed  4  lots,  each  of  four  79-lb.  pigs,  for  137  days  to 
determine  the  value  of  wheat  shorts,  tankage,  and  steamed  ground 
bone  as  supplements  to  corn  meal.     The  breaking  strength  of  the 
right  and  left  femur,  tibia,  humerus,  radius,  and  ulna  of  the  legs 
of  each  pig  was  determined  at  the  close  of  the  trial.     During  the 
first  5  weeks  of  the  first  trial  and  the  first  12  weeks  of  the  second, 
all  lots  were  on  alfalfa  pasture. 

Ground  "bone  and  tankage  as  supplements  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av 

dally 
gain 

Concentrates 
for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

A  v.  breaking 
strength  of 
bones 

Lot     I,  Corn,  5.0  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1.0 

Lbs. 
511 

Lbs. 
303 

Lot   II,  Shorts,  1.3  Ibs.    Corn,  3.7  Ibs. 

1.0 

491 

354 

Lot  III,  Tankage,  0.5  Ib.    Corn,  4.5  Ibs  
Lot  IV,  Ground  bone,  0.5  Ib.    Corn,  4.5  lbs._ 

1.1 
1.0 

456 
507 

497 
575 

1  Cir.  73. 


•=  Bui.  176. 


Bui.  107. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine. 


543 


Due  to  the  alfalfa  pasture,  the  lot  on  corn  alone  made  satisfac- 
tory and  economical  gains.  The  pigs  receiving  ground  bone  in  addi- 
tion to  the  corn  required  about  the  same  amount  of  concentrates 
for  100  Ibs.  of  gain  as  those  fed  corn  alone,  but  had  the  strongest 
bones  of  any.  Shorts  strengthened  the  bones  somewhat,  and  tank- 
age with  corn  produced  much  stronger  bones  than  corn  alone.  (90) 

893.  Proprietary  stock  foods. — At  the  Ottawa  Experimental 
Farms1  Grisdale  fed  groups  of  4  pigs,  ranging  in  weight  from  45  to 
75  Ibs.  each,  for  90  days  to  test  the  value  of  certain  proprietary 
stock  foods  when  added  to  a  mixture  of  half  shorts  and  half  mixed 
ground  grains — peas,  oats,  and  barley.  The  results  of  the  trial  are 
shown  below: 

Value  of  proprietary  stock  foods  in  porlc  production. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Cost  of 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Meal 

Other  feed 

Lot  I 
Mixed  meal,  5.2  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1.2 

1.0 

0.9 
1.3 
1.2 
1.2 

Lbs. 
438 

432 
437 
393 

295 
421 

Lbs. 

Dollars 
4.38 

6.52 

e.n 

5.15 
3.42 
4.21 

Lot  11 
Mixed  meal,  4.3  Ibs. 
Anglo-Saxon  stock  food,  0.22  Ib.  

Lot  III 
Mixed  meal,  4.0  Ibs. 
International  stock  food,  0.12  Ib. 

22 
12 
10 

309 
Pasture 

Lot  IV 
Mixed  meal,  4.9  Ibs. 
Herbageum,  0.13  Ib.  _                   _- 

Lot  V 
Mixed  meal,  3.5  Ibs. 
Sour  skim  milk,  3.7  Ibs.          __     

Lot  VI 

Mixed  meal,  4.8  Ibs. 
Clover  and  rape  pasture  .  _     .  -  -  - 

Of  those  receiving  stock  food,  only  Lot  IV,  fed  herbageum,  made 
larger  gains  than  Lot  I,  fed  a  straight  meal  ration.  Valuing  the 
mixed  meal  at  $1,  skim  milk  at  15  cents  per  100  Ibs.,  and  the  stock 
foods  at  market  prices,  the  lots  receiving  stock  food  made  more  ex- 
pensive gains  than  Lot  I.  Skim  milk  at  15  cents  per  100  Ibs.  lowered 
the  gain-cost  materially,  and  clover  and  rape  pasture  to  a  less  de- 
gree. In  this  trial  the  stock  food  was  added  to  a  palatable,  well- 
balanced  ration  of  mixed  grains. 

Michaels  and  Kennedy  of  the  Iowa  Station2  conducted  trials 
with  pigs  fed  corn,  with  and  without  some  proprietary  stock  food 

1  Kpt.  1904.  -  Bui.  113. 


544 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


additional,  to  ascertain  whether  the  stock  food  aided  in  digesting 
the  corn.  At  the  same  time  other  pigs  were  fed  corn  in  a  prac- 
tical way,  some  getting  stock  food  additional  and  others  getting  none. 
Three  proprietary  stock  foods  were  used,  viz.:  International,  Iowa, 
and  Standard.  The  conclusions  were  that  stock  foods  did  not  have 
any  beneficial  effect  on  the  digestion,  and  that  a  bushel  of  corn  pro- 
duced as  much  or  more  pork  when  corn  was  fed  alone  than  it  did 
when  stock  foods  were  added  to  it.  (343,  445) 

IV.  PASTURE;  EAPE;  SOILAGE;  HAY;  SILAGE. 

894.  Mixed  pasture.— The  results  of  trials  extending  over  12 
years  at  the  Utah  Station1  to  determine  the  value  of  pasture  con- 
sisting of  alfalfa  and  mixed  grasses,  principally  the  former,  for  pigs 
averaging  from  60  to  75  Ibs.  each  at  the  beginning,  are  summarized 
below : 

Value  of  pasture  for  fattening  pigs. 


No.  of 
pigs 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Grain  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Full  grain  ration,  in  pens           

74 

Lbs. 
0.9 

Lbs. 

484 

Full  grain  ration,  on  pasture      __  _        

20 

1.2 

413 

Three-fourths  grain  ration,  on  pasture.    

17 

1.0 

383 

One-half  grain  ration,  on  pasture.  __    ____ 

16 

0.7 

304 

One-fourth  grain  ration,  on  pasture,.     .. 

10 

0.5 

247 

Pasture  only 

19 

0.2 

Green  alfalfa  only,  in  pens 

2 

0.3* 

*Loss. 

"We  learn  that  the  pigs  on  a  full  grain  ration  in  pens  gained  0.9  Ib. 
each  daily  and  required  484  Ibs.  of  grain  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  while 
those  getting  a  full  grain  ration  on  pasture  gained  1.2  Ibs.  each 
daily,  pasturage  effecting  a  saving  of  about  15  per  ct.  in  the  grain 
required  to  produce  100  Ibs.  gain.  The  pastured  pigs  getting  a 
limited  grain  ration  ate  less  grain  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain  than 
when  fed  a  full  grain  ration,  but  also  made  smaller  daily  gains,  the 
fattening  period  being  thereby  lengthened.  If  the  full  grain  ration 
on  pasture  would  have  fattened  pigs  in  100  days,  the  quarter  grain 
ration  would  have  required  245  days. 

Linfield  states2  that  pigs  fed  a  limited  grain  ration  on  pasture, 
when  later  put  on  full  feed,  made  rapid  gains  at  slightly  less  cost 
than  those  fed  a  full  ration  from  the  start.  Hence,  for  growing 
pigs  to  be  fattened  later,  a  part  grain  ration  on  pasture  is  an  econom- 


1  Bui.  94. 


2  Loc.  eit. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Sivine. 


545 


ical  way  of  carrying  them  over  summer.  Pasture  alone  did  not 
furnish  a  satisfactory  ration  for  pigs,  since  it  but  little  more  than 
maintained  them.  Pigs  lost  in  weight  when  fed  green  alfalfa  in 
pens,  and  pigs  fed  skim  milk  and  grain  gained  nothing  from  pas- 
ture. Grazing  stimulates  the  appetites  of  pigs  getting  grain  but 
no  milk,  and  hence  they  eat  more  grain  and  make  larger  and  more 
economical  gains. 

Lloyd  of  the  Mississippi  Station1  found  that  alfalfa  pasture  alone 
furnished  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration  for  pigs,  and  the 
studies  of  Morrow  and  Bone  of  the  Oklahoma  Station2  confirm  this 
conclusion.  Snyder  of  the  Nebraska  Station3  found  that  during  a 
period  of  70  days,  mature  hogs,  thin  in  flesh,  gained  about  0.5  Ib. 
daily  on  alfalfa  pasture  without  grain.  Hitchcock,4  referring  to  the 
conditions  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  states  that  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  bloat  from  alfalfa  pasture,  and  that  a  limited  number  of  pigs 
work  no  serious  injury  to  the  alfalfa  field.  A  well-set,  vigorous  field 
will  carry  from  15  to  25  pigs  per  acre.  The  number  should  never 
be  large  enough  to  keep  down  growth,  but  it  should  be  necessary  to 
cut  the  hay  at  intervals,  so  that  the  plants  may  be  rejuvenated.  (246) 

895.  Alfalfa  and  rape  pasture. — In  a  feeding  trial  with  pigs  at 
the  Kansas  Station5  Otis  supplemented  alfalfa  and  rape  pasture 
with  a  full  grain  ration.  Thirty  52-lb.  shotes  were  divided  into  3 
lots  of  10  each.  One  lot  was  pen-fed  while  the  others  ranged  on 
alfalfa  or  rape  pasture,  the  trial  lasting  98  days : 

Pasturing  pigs  on  rape  and  alfalfa. 


Feed 

Area 
pastured 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Grain  lor 
100  Ibs.  grain 

Lot     I,  Grain  only  _    

Acres 

Lbs. 
1.04 

Lbs. 
372 

Lot  II,  Grain  and  rape  pasture 

1.0 

1.09 

302 

Lot  III,  Grain  and  alfalfa  pasture 

0.5 

1.10 

301 

The  3  lots  made  nearly  equal  daily  gains.  Rape  and  alfalfa 
produced  100  Ibs.  of  gain  with  practically  the  same  grain  allow- 
ance, and  either  feed  when  combined  with  grain  gave  better  re- 
sults than  grain  alone.  One  acre  of  alfalfa  proved  equal  to  2  acres 
of  rape.  Snyder  of  the  Nebraska  Station6  found  that,  after  their 
pigs  were  weaned,  260-lb.  brood  sows,  fed  8.5  Ibs.  each  of  shelled 
corn  daily  and  grazing  on  alfalfa  pasture,  made  8  per  ct.  larger 
gains  than  others  fed  11  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn  each  daily  in  dry  lots — 


1  Bpt.  1905. 
"  Rpt.  1899. 
36 


3  Bui.  99.  B  Bui.  124. 

*  Farmers '  Bui.  214,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  •  Bui.  99. 


546 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


a  saving  of  43  per  ct.  in  the  amount  of  grain  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain, 
due  to  the  alfalfa  pasture.  (282) 

896.  Feeding  corn  on  alfalfa  pasture. — Snyder  of  the  Nebraska 
Station1  grazed  3  lots  of  47-lb.  pigs  on  alfalfa  pasture  during  each 
of  2  summers.  One  lot  received  a  light,  the  second  a  medium,  and 
the  third  a  full  allowance  of  shelled  corn.  The  combined  results 
of  the  trials,  lasting  98  and  119  days  respectively,  are  averaged 
below : 

Light,  medium,  and  heavy  corn  feeding  on  alfalfa  pasture. 


Daily  allowance  of  corn 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Corn  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot     I,  Shelled  corn,  0.5  Ib. 

Lbs. 
0.4 

Lbs. 
128 

Lot  II,  Shelled  corn,  1.1  Ibs. 

0.5 

221 

Lot  III,  Shelled  corn,  2.6  Ibs. 

0.8 

331 

It  is  shown  that  Lot  I,  fed  a  light  grain  allowance  on  alfalfa 
pasture,  required  only  39  per  ct.  as  much  grain  for  100  Ibs.  gain  as 
Lot  III,  fed  a  full  corn  allowance.  Lot  III,  however,  made  twice 
as  rapid  gains  as  Lot  I.  Snyder  concludes  that  a  light  grain  al- 
lowance on  alfalfa  pasture  is  not  economical  for  growing  pigs  unless 
alfalfa  is  abundant,  grain  high  in  price,  and  market  conditions  war- 
rant holding  the  pigs.  It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  feed  2  Ibs. 
or  more  of  corn  per  100  Ibs.  of  pigs  than  to  feed  a  lighter  ration. 
Cottrell  of  the  Colorado  Station2  states  that  alfalfa  makes  the  best 
hog  pasture,  and  that  hogs  fed  some  grain  daily  will  make  from  500 
to  1,000  Ibs.  of  gain  during  the  pasture  season  from  an  acre  of  good 
alfalfa,  after  deducting  the  gain  which  the  grain  would  make  if 
fed  alone. 

897.  Cowpea  pasture. — Duggar  of  the  Alabama  Station3  placed 
three  50-lb.  pigs  in  a  field  of  cowpeas,  giving  corn  additional,  while 
a  second  lot  was  fed  corn  only.  The  trial  lasted  42  days  with  the 
results  shown  in  the  table: 

Feeding  corn  to  pigs  ranging  in  cowpea  field. 


Feed  given 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Corn  for  100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot   I,  Corn  alone  in  a  dry  lot 

Lbs. 
0.4 

Lbs. 
586 

Lot  II,  Cowpea  pasture  and  corn 

1.0 

307 

1  Bui.  99. 


Bui.  146. 


3  Bui.  93. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuff's  for  Sivine. 


547 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  pigs  ranging  in  the  cowpea  field  gained 
nearly  3  times  as  fast  as  those  getting  corn  alone  in  the  dry  lot. 
The  area  grazed  by  the  pigs  equaled  one-sixth  of  an  acre  and  the 
yield  of  peas  was  estimated  at  13.2  bushels  per  acre.  In  this  trial 
the  seed  of  the  cowpeas  must  have  furnished  most  of  the  nutri- 
ment, and  the  leaves  but  little.  (261) 

898.  Soybean  pasture. — At  the  Alabama  Station1  Gray,  Duggar, 
and  Ridgeway  fed  2  lots,  each  of  6  pigs  averaging  75  Ibs.,  for  35 
days  on  the  following  rations  to  determine  the  value  of  soybean 
pasture  as  a  supplement  to  corn : 

Soybean  pasture  as  a  supplement  to  corn. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Corn 

Pasture 

Lot    I, 
Lot  II, 

Corn, 
Corn, 

3.  7  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.8 
1.0 

Lbs. 
456 
157 

Acres 

1.6  Ibs. 

Soybean  pasture 

0.28 

The  pigs  on  soybean  pasture  made  25  per  ct.  greater  gains  than 
those  fed  corn  alone,  and  required  only  157  Ibs.  corn  for  100  Ibs. 
of  gain.  In  this  trial  1  acre  of  poor  soybean  pasture  proved  equal 
to  1,068  Ibs.  of  corn.  When  one  considers  the  small  amount  of 
corn  required  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  the  great  value  of  the  soybean 
crop  for  pork  production  is  shown.  It  is  probable  that  the  soy- 
bean seeds  furnished  most  of  the  nutriment  supplied  by  the  pastur- 
age. (201) 

899.  Rape  v.  clover  pasture.— At  the  Wisconsin  Station2  in  60-day 
trials  during  each  of  2  years,  Carlyle  hurdled  one  lot  of  104-lb. 
pigs  on  rape  with  access  to  a  blue-grass  pasture,  while  others  grazed 
in  a  field  of  second-growth  clover.  Both  lots  were  fed  a  mixture 
of  2  parts  corn  meal  and  1  part  shorts  with  the  results  given  below : 

Rape  pasture  compared  with  clover  pasture. 


Daily  cone, 
allowance 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Concentrates  for 
100  Ibs.  gain 

Lot  I,  On  rape  pasture 

Lbs. 
3.7 

Lbs. 
1.1 

Lbs. 
362 

Lot  II,  On  clover  pasture  .     .__ 

3.7 

1.0 

390 

The  pigs  in  Lot  I  grazing  on  rape  made  somewhat  larger  daily 
gains   and  required  less  corn  for  100  Ibs.   of  gain  than  those  on 


Bui.  143. 


-  Rpt.  1901. 


548  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

clover.  From  numerous  trials  Carlyle  concludes  that  with  pigs 
from  4  to  10  months  old  an  acre  of  good  rape  has  a  feeding  value 
equal  to  2,436  Ibs.  of  mixed  corn  meal  and  wheat  shorts,  when 
grazed  in  combination  with  those  feeds. 

At  the  Oregon  Station1  an  acre  of  rape  pasture  with  no  grain 
produced  154  Ibs.  of  gain  with  pigs.  Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Ex- 
perimental Farms2  pastured  60  pigs  that  finally  reached  an  average 
weight  of  185  Ibs.  each  on  1.5  acres  of  rape,  feeding  in  addition 
thereto  about  500  Ibs.  of  grain  to  each  pig.  At  the  Alabama  Sta- 
tion3 1  lot  of  pigs  pastured  on  rape  in  summer  and  another  lot 
pastured  in  winter  required  about  300  Ibs.  of  concentrates  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rape  for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  showing  that  the  rape  saved 
about  200  Ibs.  of  grain  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  gain  made.  (254,  282) 

900.  Forage  crops  at  the  South. — Bennett  of  the  Arkansas  Sta- 
tion4 pastured  pigs  on  red  clover,  sorghum  stalks  and  seed,  and  pea- 
nuts.   A  sow  and  5  suckling  pigs  were  placed  in  a  clover  pasture 
on  March  30.     On  May  13  the  sow  was  removed  from  the  trial. 
The  pigs  fed  on  the  clover  and  sorghum  until  September  21,  when 
they  were  turned  into  a  peanut  field.     On  December  2  they  were 
put  on  corn,   remaining  on  this  feed  until  January  3,   when  the 
trial  was  closed.     During  the  trial  the  pigs  made  a  total  gain  of 
about  1,200  Ibs.,  and  grazed  0.25  acre  of  clover,  0.25  acre  of  sor- 
ghum, and  0.60  acre  of  peanuts — a  total  of  1.10  acres. 

During  this  time  the  following  amounts  of  concentrates  were 
consumed : 

By  sow  before  weaning-  pigs 518  Ibs.  corn  and  67  Ibs.  bran 

By  pigs  while  grazing  280  Ibs.  corn  and  31  Ibs.  bran 

By  pigs  while  fattening... .__    1,064  Ibs.  corn 

Total  additional  feed  given 1,862  Ibs.  corn,  98  Ibs.  bran 

Allowing  400  Ibs.  of  gain  for  the  corn  fed  in  this  trial,  there  re- 
mains 800  Ibs.  of  gain  to  be  credited  to  the  1.1  acre  of  clover, 
sorghum,  and  peanuts.  Such  data  should  go  far  toward  stimulating 
profitable  pork  production  in  a  vast  region  of  the  South  now  but 
little  devoted  to  that  industry.  (202,  222) 

901.  Soilage.— At  the  Missouri  Station5  Waters  fed  4  lots,  each  of 
6  high-grade  48-lb.  Poland-China  pigs,  the  ration  shown  on  the  next 
page,  for  102  days  to  determine  the  value  of  various  green  supple- 
ments to  corn.     The  fresh-cut  green  forage  was  fed  twice  daily. 

It  is  shown  that  Lot  II,  fed  green  alfalfa,  required  the  least 
concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  gain,  Lot  III,  fed  clover,  following  close. 

1  Bui.  89.  2  Bui.  51.  3  Bui.  122.  4  Bui.  41.  6  Bui.  79. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuff's  for  Swine. 


549 


Lot  IV,  fed  blue  grass,  made  poorer  gains  and  required  more  con- 
centrates for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  Lot  I,  fed  corn  meal  and  middlings, 
showing  that  blue-grass  stems  and  leaves  are  a  poor  supplement 
to  corn.  In  this  trial  100  Ibs.  of  concentrates  was  replaced  by  78 
Ibs.  of  green  alfalfa  or  112  Ibs.  of  green  clover.  The  importance 
of  correct  supplements  and  their  great  value  in  pig  feeding  is  well 
brought  out  in  this  trial.  (326,  330) 

Various  soilage  crops  compared. 


Average  ration 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concen- 
trates 

Soilage 

Lot      I, 
Lot    II, 
Lot  III, 
Lot  IV, 

Middlings,  1.4  Ibs. 
Green  alfalfa,  0.8  Ib. 
Green  clover,  0.7  Ib. 
Green  blue-grass,  0.7  Ib. 

Corn 
Corn 
Corn 
Corn 

meal, 
meal, 
meal, 
meal, 

2 
3 
3 

3 

.1 
.3 
.3 
A 

Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 
Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.8 
0.8 
0.6 

Lbs. 
518 
401 
435 
531 

Lbs. 

91 
93 
113 

902.  Clover  hay. — At  the  Montana  Station1  Linfield  conducted  2 
trials  with  90-lb.  pigs  to  determine  the  value  of  clover  hay  as  a 
supplement  to  a  mixture  of  2  parts  ground  barley  and  1  part  wheat 
bran.  The  results  of  the  trials,  lasting  81  and  98  days  respectively, 
are  averaged  below: 

Clover  Jiay  as  a  supplement  to  mixed  grains. 


Average  ration 

Av.  daily 
gain 

Feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain 

Concentrates 

Hay 

Lot  I 
Concentrates,  4.9  Ibs. 

Lbs. 
0.9 

1.0 

Lbs. 
529 

487 

Lbs. 

Lot  II 

Concentrates,  4.9  Ibs. 
Clover  hay,  1.0  Ib. 

101 

It  is  shown  that  pigs  receiving  1  Ib.  of  clover  hay  daily  required 
7  per  ct.  less  concentrates  for  100  Ibs.  gain  than  those  fed  a  mix- 
ture of  ground  barley  and  wheat  bran  alone.  In  this  trial  100  Ibs. 
of  clover  hay  properly  fed  with  concentrates  was  equal  to  42  Ibs. 
of  mixed  barley  and  bran.  (254)  The  prudent  stockman,  endeavor- 
ing to  maintain  the  health  and  vigor  of  his  herd  and  at  the  same 
time  economize  on  expensive  concentrates,  will  always  provide  a 
store  of  the  choicest  early-cut  clover  hay  or  other  legume  roughage 
to  feed  all  classes  of  animals,  from  small  pigs  to  grown  brood  sows. 

903.  Alfalfa  hay.— At  the  Nebraska  Station2  Smith  fed  8  lots, 
each  of  seven  85-lb.  pigs,  for  84  days  on  corn  meal  combined  with 


Bui.  57. 


2  Press  Bui.  No.  20. 


550 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


either  wheat  bran,  wheat  shorts,  or  alfalfa  hay  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

Measuring  the  value  of  alfalfa  hay. 


Feed  given 

Av. 

daily 
gain 

Av. 

total 
gain 

Feed  for 
100  Ibs. 
gain 

Lot  I 
Corn  meal  only        .    

Lbs. 
1.0 

Lbs. 
86 

Lbs. 
496 

Lot  II 
Corn  meal  3  parts,  wheat  bran  1  part-.      ._ 

0.8 

67 

589 

Lot  III 
Corn  meal  3  parts,  wheat  shorts  1  part 

1.1 

92 

466 

Lot  IV 
Corn  meal  3  parts,  cut  alfalfa  hay  1  part 

1.1 

90 

477 

LotV 
Corn  meal  3  parts,  ground  alfalfa  hay  2  parts 

1.1 

89 

481 

Lot  VI 
Corn  meal  2  parts,  wheat  shorts  2  parts  

0.9 

76 

548 

Lot  VII 
Corn  meal  2  parts,  cut  alfalfa  hay  2  parts    

0.9 

78 

544 

Lot  VIII 
Corn  meal  2  parts  ground  alfalfa  hay  2  parts 

0.9 

75 

566 

The  table  shows  the  great  value  for  swine  fattening  of  alfalfa 
hay  when  rightly  combined  with  corn.  When  the  ration  consisted 
of  one-fourth  alfalfa  hay,  that  amount  of  hay  was  worth  its  weight 
of  corn  meal  and  was  superior  to  the  same  weight  of  wheat  bran. 
When  alfalfa  hay  formed  half  the  ration  the  returns  were  less  satis- 
factory, showing  that  too  much  roughage  was  being  fed.  Ground 
alfalfa  hay  showed  no  superiority  over  cut  hay.  The  farmer  de- 
sirous of  reducing  the  cost  of  producing  pork  should  carefully 
study  this  experiment. 

In  a  trial  at  the  same  Station1  Snyder  found  that,  when  forming 
one-fourth  of  the  ration,  100  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay,  cut  and  mixed 
with  corn  meal  and  fed  wet  in  troughs,  saved  20  per  ct.  and  the 
same  amount  of  uncut  alfalfa  hay  7  per  ct.  of  the  grain  required 
for  100  Ibs.  gain  when  no  hay  was  fed.  In  view  of  the  cost  of 
grinding  corn  and  cutting  hay  Snyder  concludes  that  it  is  usually 
best  to  feed  third-crop  alfalfa  hay  uncut  in  racks,  with  shelled  or 
ear  corn  additional. 

Hoard2  states  that  for  years  his  brood  sows  have  been  wintered 
on  third  cutting  alfalfa  hay  with  a  little  skim  milk  and  no  grain 
until  about  2  weeks  before  farrowing.  Sows  so  maintained  keep  in 
good  flesh,  bear  fine  litters  of  strong,  healthy  pigs,  and  give  an  abun- 
dance of  milk.  (245) 


Bui.  99. 


2  Ept.  Wis.  Dairymen 's  Ass  'n,  1905. 


Value  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Swine.  551 

904.  Silage. — May  of  the  Kentucky  Station1  found  that  hogs  re- 
ceiving shelled  corn  and  corn-and-soybean  silage  made  larger  gains 
than  those  fed  shelled  corn  alone,  100  Ibs.  of  silage  equaling  22  Ibs. 
of  corn  in  feeding  value.  The  pigs  first  picked  out  the  grain  in 
the  silage  and  then  chewed  the  remainder,  tho  swallowing  but 
little  of  it.  At  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms2  clover  and  alfalfa 
silage  invariably  proved  useful,  and  corn  silage  was  fairly  well 
eaten.  The  addition  of  some  dry  meal  to  the  silage  caused  it  to  be 
eaten  quite  readily.  Clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legume  hay  should  gen- 
erally prove  more  satisfactory  than  silage  of  any  kind.  Silage  from 
the  corn  plant  is  both  too  woody  and  too  low  in  digestible  matter  to 
serve  with  any  satisfaction  as  a  feed  for  swine  that  are  being  prop- 
erly maintained.  If  shotes  and  breeding  stock  live  on  a  limited 
allowance  of  rich  concentrates  alone,  they  will  suffer  for  lack  of 
proper  bulk  in  the  ration.  For  such  pigs,  silage,  and  even  corn 
silage,  will  be  helpful  in  distending  the  digestive  tract. 

1  Bui.  101.  3  Bui.  51. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

MANAGEMENT  AND  FEED  OF  SWINE— HOME  MARKETS  AND 
BACON  PRODUCTION. 

I.  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  digestive  organs  of  the  pig,  with  the  contents,  comprise  but 
7.5  per  ct.  and  those  of  the  ox  over  14  per  ct.  of  the  total  weight 
of  the  body.  (28)  The  horse,  ox,  and  sheep  are  normally  herbiv- 
orous, living  on  the  finer  and  more  delicate  portions  of  plants 
and  their  seeds,  while  the  omnivorous  pig  feeds  not  only  on  the 
tender  leaves,  stems,  roots,  and  seeds,  but  on  animal  matter  as  well. 
Because  of  the  limited  capacity  of  the  stomach  and  the  nature  of 
its  digestive  apparatus  the  pig  requires  food  that  is  more  concen- 
trated and  digestible  and  less  woody  than  that  of  the  other  large 
farm  animals.  Not  only  is  the  pig  an  omnivorous  feeder,  but  in 
nature  it  lives  close  to  the  earth,  gathering  some  of  its  food  from 
beneath  the  surface  and  swallowing  considerable  earthy  matter  in 
doing  so.  The  intelligent  swine  feeder  takes  cognizance  of  all  such 
facts  and  is  helped  by  them  in  managing  his  herd. 

905.  Summer  care  of  swine. — Breeding  stock  should  live  all  sum- 
mer in  the  open  on  uncontaminated  soil,  grazing  on  succulent  pas- 
tures in  order  to  develop  bone,  muscle,  and  constitution.  The 
grasses  do  not  provide  a  satisfactory  pasture  for  swine.  Far  bet- 
ter are  rape  and  the  legumes — clover,  alfalfa,  vetch,  etc.  While  the 
pig  can  barely  subsist  on  grass  alone,  the  legumes  and  rape  will 
somewhat  more  than  sustain  life  and  so  leave  for  producing  in- 
crease all  the  extra  feed  which  may  be  supplied.  (894-901)  In  ad- 
dition to  good  legume  or  rape  pasture  there  should  be  fed  a  proper 
allowance  of  muscle-  and  bone-building  feeds,  such  as  wheat  mid- 
dlings, bran,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  linseed  oil  meal,  tankage,  dairy 
by-products,  etc.  These  need  not,  however,  constitute  over  one- 
third  of  the  feed  supplied.  The  remainder,  carbohydrate  in  char- 
acter and  cheaper  in  price,  should  consist  of  corn,  barley,  kafir, 
milo,  emmer,  etc.  The  daily  concentrate  allowance  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  pigs  thrifty  and  gaining,  but  in  no  case  so  abun- 
dant as  to  make  them  lazy  and  shiftless,  for  pigs,  if  heavily  fed, 
do  little  foraging,  but  lie  idly  in  the  shade.  Observation  will  soon 

552 


Management  and  Feed  of  Swine.  553 

dei  ermine  the  quantity  of  feed  which  will  keep  pigs  gaining  nor- 
mally while  actively  foraging  to  appease  their  hunger. 

Boars  and  brood  sows  of  the  larger  breeds  should  reach  the  weight 
of  about  250  Ibs.  at  one  year  of  age  if  rightly  fed  and  managed. 
The  feed  and  care  of  the  boar  does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  sow. 
Too  often  both  are  closely  confined  in  filthy  quarters,  away  from 
the  wholesome  earth,  without  opportunity  for  exercise  or  for  gath- 
ering food  on  their  own  account.  Such  mismanagement  weakens  the 
constitution,  and  is  far  more  expensive  than  the  simpler  and  more 
natural  method  of  keeping  all  stock  from  spring  until  fall  away 
from  buildings  and  feed  yards,  out  in  the  fields  on  fresh,  uncon- 
taminated  soil.  Here  a  little  extra  feed,  with  suitable  forage  and 
a  natural  life,  makes  possible  the  most  economical  gains  and  the 
healthiest  animals. 

906.  Winter  care. — In  the  northern  portion  of  the  corn  belt  where 
the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  inexpensive  shelter  is  all  that  is 
necessary  for  swine,  unless  one  chooses  otherwise.  Small  houses, 
called  "cabins,"  of  simple  board  construction  and  placed  on  runners, 
will  each  shelter  from  6  to  8  shotes  or  3  or  4  sows.  (828)  These 
cabins,  located  on  dry  ground,  should  be  moved  from  time  to  time 
to  keep  everything  sanitary  and  to  better  scatter  the  droppings  of 
the  animals.  Animals  quartered  in  several  cabins  can  be  fed  at  one 
point  where  are  troughs  and  a  feeding  floor.  When  snow  covers 
the  ground,  paths  can  be  broken  out  with  a  snow  plow.  In  winter, 
even  where  the  cold  is  severe,  pigs  housed  in  cabins  in  small  col- 
onies and  forced  to  take  daily  exercise  thrive  amazingly.  If  a  per- 
manent hog  house  is  desired  there  should  still  be  abundant  ex- 
ercise at  all  times  for  breeding  and  stock  animals. 

Breeding  stock  and  shotes  should  not  be  heavily  fed  during  win- 
ter lest  they  grow  too  fat.  If  rich  concentrates  only  are  given  and 
the  animals  not  overfed,  the  feed  allowance  will  not  have  enough 
volume  or  bulk  to  properly  distend  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and 
this  leaves  the  animals  unsatisfied,  restless,  and  quarrelsome.  To 
correct  this  trouble  and  because  such  feed  is  cheap  and  wholesome, 
all  stock  hogs  should  be  daily  fed  some  fine,  well  cured  legume  hay 
or  some  roots,  or  better,  both  hay  and  roots.  If,  unfortunately, 
neither  is  available,  then  bran  and  oats,  tho  more  costly,  will  be 
helpful  in  giving  bulk  to  the  ration.  The  concentrates  fed  to  stock 
hogs  should  always  be  given  as  a  thin,  watery  slop  to  help  distend 
the  digestive  tract  at  meal  time. 


554  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Stock  hogs  that  do  not  otherwise  get  exercise  in  winter  should 
be  provided  with  a  feeding  floor,  covered  if  possible,  on  which 
shelled  corn  and  whole  oats  are  thinly  scattered  so  as  to  force  the 
hogs  to  pick  up  a  grain  at  a  time  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  Here 
too  can  be  placed  racks  holding  legume  hay.  In  this  way  pigs  may 
be  kept  out  of  their  beds  and  on  their  feet  for  hours  at  a  time. 
Young  breeding  stock  and  shotes  should  gain  from  half  to  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  daily  in  winter,  the  supply  of  feed  being 
regulated  to  that  end. 

907.  At  farrowing  time. — Sows  thin  in  flesh  should  have  their 
feed  gradually  increased  so  as  to  be  in  good  condition  before  far- 
rowing. As  this  period  approaches  let  the  feed  be  both  sloppy  and 
limited  in  amount.  Costiveness,  common  at  this  time,  should  be 
forestalled  by  feeding  wheat  bran,  linseed  oil  meal,  roots,  or  the 
finer  parts  of  some  legume  hay,  and  by  keeping  the  animals  out  of 
doors  and  forcing  them  to  exercise.  Kennedy1  reports  that  in  Eng- 
land sows  are  commonly  given  from  4  to  5  oz.  of  Epsom  salts  2 
days  before  farrowing.  Nothing  but  lukewarm  water  should  be 
given  the  sow  during  the  24  hours  previous  to  farrowing  unless  she 
shows  signs  of  hunger,  in  which  case  a  thin,  warm  slop  containing 
a  little  ground  oats,  wheat  middlings,  or  linseed  meal  may  be  sup- 
plied. The  desire  of  the  sow  to  eat  her  young  shows  abnormal  feed 
or  care,  or  both,  for  such  mothers  are  usually  costive  and  feverish. 
When  trouble  is  apprehended  Bell2  recommends  feeding  about  3 
Ibs.  of  salt  pork,  cut  in  strips.  Harbert  would  apply  mucilage  con- 
taining equal  parts  of  a  tincture  of  aloes  and  asafetida  to  the  pigs 
with  a  sponge  as  soon  as  they  are  dry.  Sows  do  not  like  this  and 
will  let  pigs  so  treated  alone.  It  is  far  more  rational  to  forestall 
such  possible  trouble  by  enforcing  exercise,  giving  coarse,  bulky 
feeds,  and  especially  in  seeing  that  the  bowels  move  freely  and  that 
the  sows  are  not  feverish  at  farrowing  time.  For  three  or  four 
days  after  farrowing  feed  lightly  with  skim  milk  and  oat  or  barley 
meal,  linseed  meal,  wheat  middlings,  or  bran  in  the  form  of  a  thin 
slop. 

The  farrowing  place  should  be  comfortable  and  so  sheltered  that 
a  deep  nest  is  not  necessary  to  prevent  the  new-born  pigs  being 
chilled,  for  they  may  be  crushed  in  a  deep,  bird-like  nest.  Long 
hay  or  straw  is  not  suitable  for  bedding,  for  it  may  entangle  the 
pigs.  Cut  straw  or  hay,  chaff,  and  leaves  are  satisfactory,  pro- 

1 U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  77. 
2  Breeder  >s  Gazette,  1907,  Vol.  51,  p.  535. 


Management  and  Feed  of  tiwine.  555 

vided  they  are  reasonably  free  from  dust.  A  board  or  scantling 
placed  about  8  inches  from  the  floor  and  standing  out  8  inches  about 
the  sides  of  the  farrowing  pen  lessens  the  danger  of  the  mother 
crushing  her  young.  In  the  case  of  heavy,  clumsy  sows,  separate 
the  pigs  from  the  dam  by  placing  them  in  a  chaff-lined  box  or 
barrel  for  a  couple  of  days.  Sows  properly  handled  before  far- 
rowing will  not  usually  resent  such  separation.  The  pigs  will  then 
be  safe,  and  the  attendant  can  pass  them  to  the  dam  for  nourish- 
ment at  short  intervals.  A  chilled  pig  may  be  revived  by  immer- 
sion in  water  as  warm  as  the  hand  will  bear. 

908.  Care  of  sow  and  litter. — Farrowing  time  over,  with  the  in- 
creased flow   of  milk   the   ration   should  be   gradually   made   more 
liberal.    The  coarse  feeds,  so  useful  at  other  times,  must  now  largely 
give  way  to  rich  concentrates  such  as  skim  milk,  heavy  flour  mid- 
dlings, ground  oats,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  and  linseed  meal  to  furnish 
nitrogenous  matter,  and  corn,  barley,  kafir,  or  milo  meal  in  large 
proportion  to  furnish  the  carbohydrates.    Water  should  be  liberally 
added  to  form  a  thin  slop.     Sows  with  litters  should  be  most  lib- 
erally fed,  for  at  no  other  time  will  feed  go  so  far  or  give  such 
large  returns.  (816)      Good  mothers  with  large  litters  will  usually 
lose  flesh  despite  the  most  liberal  feeding. 

909.  Feeding  the  litters. — When  two  or  three  weeks  old  the  un- 
weaned  pigs  should  be  encouraged  to  eat  with  the  mother  by  pro- 
viding  thin,    sloppy    food   in   a   shallow,   low-set   trough.     Because 
the  sucklings  cannot  fully  satisfy  their  hunger  by  such  provision, 
there  should  be  further  provided  a  separate,  low  trough  which  can- 
not be  reached  by  the  dam.     For  young  pigs  dairy  by-products, 
in  combination  with  various  ground  grains  and  milling  by-products, 
are  easily  the  best  of  all  feeds.    For  very  young  pigs  there  is  nothing 
better  among  the  grains  than  ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sieved  out 
and  red-dog  flour.     Corn,  barley,  kafir,  and  milo  meal,  dark  feed- 
ing flour,  flour  wheat  middlings,  and  ground  emmer  with  the  chaff 
removed,  etc.,  may  all  be  freely  used  for  sows  and  pigs  as  the  young 
things  come  on.     Soaked  whole  corn  thinly  scattered  over  a  feeding 
floor  gives  feed  and  enforces  exercise.     Pigs  separately  fed  before 
weaning  grow  faster  and  draw  less  on  the  sow — a  matter  of  impor- 
tance where  the  litters  are  large.     The  litters  are  usually  weaned  at 
ten  weeks,  but  by  properly  feeding  both  dam  and  young  the  pigs 
will    gradually    wean   themselves.     Where   young   sows   have   large 
litters  or  are  unable  to  properly  nourish  their  young  it  is  well  to 
remove  and  wean  the  strongest  pigs  at  seven  weeks. 


556  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

910.  Exercise  for  young  pigs. — Well-nurtured  young  pigs  often 
become   excessively  fat,   and  may  die  unless   abundant  exercise  is 
provided.     If  sufficient   exercise  cannot  be   given,   the   danger   can 
usually  be  averted  by  reducing  the   feed  supply,   tho  this  checks 
growth.     In   the   absence   of   more   natural    exercise   the   herdsman 
should  turn  the  pigs  out  of  doors  two  or  three  times  a  day  and 
drive  them  about  the  yard.     Selle1  describes  a  means  of  exercise 
for  winter  pigs  as  follows:     Wagon  loads  of  sods  are  placed  in  the 
cellar  in  the  fall,  and  in  winter  these,  along  with  bits  of  meat  scrap 
or    cracklings,    are    thrown    into    the    pens.      In    searching   for    the 
cracklings  the  pigs  get  exercise  as  well  as  some  feed.     On  weaning, 
pigs  of  the  same  size  should  be  placed  in  groups  of  not  over  20. 
Where  large  numbers  of  pigs  of  varying  sizes  range  together,  the 
weaker  ones  are  at  a  disadvantage  at  the  feed  trough  and  are  liable 
to  permanent  injury  from  lack  of  feed  and  rough  treatment. 

911.  Shotes. — In  summer  shotes  should  range  the  pastures,  get- 
ting part  of  their  nourishment  from  succulent  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch, 
or  rape,  or,  if  nothing  better  is  at  hand,  from  the  grasses.     Green 
herbage  of  the  proper  kind  will  a  little  more   than   maintain  the 
animal,  leaving  available  for  growth  all  the  feed  supplied.     Canada 
peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  peanuts,  wheat  middlings,  and  all  the  com- 
mon grains  may  be  successfully  employed  in  supplementing  the  pas- 
ture.    To  force  shotes  to  forage  the  fields  for  their  entire  feed  is 
unwise  and  expensive.     They  should  gain  from  half  to  three-fourths 
pound   per   day,    and   sufficient   concentrates   to   produce   this   gain 
should  be  fed.  (815) 

In  winter  shotes  should  be  liberally  fed  the  finer  parts  of  some 
legume  hay,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover,  and  roots.  These  are  not  only 
the  cheapest  of  feeds  so  far  as  they  can  be  used,  but  they  are  helpful 
in  developing  a  roomy  digestive  tract  capable  of  utilizing  a  large 
amount  of  feed  when  the  fattening  period  arrives.  (894-903)  Leg- 
ume hay  also  furnishes  nitrogenous  matter  and  lime,  both  essen- 
tials with  these  animals.  But  roughage  alone  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  growing  pig,  and  therefore  such  coarse  feed  should  be  supple- 
mented with  a  reasonable  supply  of  rich  concentrates  containing 
but  little  woody  fiber.  Corn,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  and  the  other 
cereal  grains  should  be  given  to  furnish  heat  and  lay  on  fat,  while 
a  supply  of  skim  milk,  wheat  middlings,  soybeans,  and  other  nitroge- 
nous feeds  will  furnish  the  protein  for  muscle  building. 

1  Wis.  Farmers '  Inst.,  Bui.  1894. 


Management  and  Feed  of  Swine.  557 

912.  The  fattening  period. — Having  developed  a  strong  frame- 
work of  bone,  ample  lean-meat  tissues,  and  a  roomy,  vigorous  diges- 
tive tract,  there  now  remains  the  final  operation  of  laying  on  fat. 
If  the  pig  has  been  properly  cared  for  up  to  this  point  this  is  the 
simplest  and  easiest  part  of  the  whole  process.     Fattening  is  best 
accomplished  by  restricting  the   amount  of   exercise,   reducing  the 
allowance  of  coarse  feed,  and  giving  all  the  palatable  carbohydrate- 
rich  concentrates,  such  as  corn,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  emmer,  etc.,  the 
pigs  will  consume.     In  the  beginning  the  pigs  can  still  be  fed  some 
coarse   feed,   such   as   alfalfa,   clover,   cowpeas,    or  vetch,   green  or 
cured,  and  at  all  times  rape,  roots,  middlings,  and  bran.     As  fat- 
tening progresses  exercise  should  be  more  and  more  restricted  and 
the   roughage   almost   entirely   eliminated.     A   limited    quantity   of 
nitrogenous  feeds  such  as  Canada  peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  peanuts, 
linseed  meal,  wheat  middlings,  tankage,  and  dairy  by-products  are 
extremely  helpful  in  stimulating  the  lagging  appetite  and  furnish- 
ing the  now  limited  nitrogenous  requirement.     Nearly  all  the  nutri- 
ment should  come  from  the  rich,  starchy,  fat-making  feeding  stuffs, 
such  as  corn,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  emmer,  etc.    If  the  fattening  period 
is  short,  only  the  small  grains  need  be  ground,  but  as  the  animals 
grow  fat  and  the  digestive  system  loses  in  vigor  because  of  confine- 
ment and  long  feeding,  all  grains  should  be  ground  to  meal  in  order 
that  the  intake  of  feed  may  be  as  large  as  possible  without  cloy- 
ing. (822) 

If  the  shotes  have  been  properly  brought  forward  the  fattening 
period  should  not  exceed  eight  weeks,  unless  the  animals  are  to 
be  made  unusually  fat  or  there  is  a  rising  market  which  warrants 
continued  feeding.  After  the  first  few  weeks  of  heavy  feeding 
more  and  more  feed  is  required  to  produce  a  given  gain,  and  this 
fact  should  always  be  remembered  by  the  feeder.  (830)  All  fatten- 
ing animals  should  drink  water  freely,  being  forced  to  do  so,  if 
necessary,  by  placing  it  in  their  feed.  At  all  times  coal  ashes,  wood 
ashes,  lime,  etc.,  should  be  accessible,  as  elsewhere  recommended. 
(922)  Fattening  pigs  should  be  fed  twice  daily,  and  possibly  three 
times  toward  the  close  of  the  period  when  on  ground  feed  and 
getting  little  or  no  roughage. 

II.  FEEDS  FOR  SWINE. 

913.  Corn. — Indian  corn  must  continue  to  be  the  great  fattening 
food   for    swine   in   America,    because   of   the    enormous   quantities 
produced  and  the  great  potentiality  of  this  starch-bearing  grain  in 


558  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

fat  production.  For  breeding  stock  corn  should  never  constitute 
over  half  the  ration,  the  proportion  fed  being  smallest  with  young 
animals.  (115)  As  pigs  increase  in  size  and  the  demand  for  nitroge- 
nous and  mineral  matter  becomes  less,  more  of  this  starchy  grain 
can  be  fed,  until  at  fattening  time  it  may  well  form  most  of  the 
ration.  Corn  should  usually  be  fed  whole  and  on  the  cob,  except 
to  young  pigs  and  those  in  the  last  stages  of  fattening.  Where  the 
kernels  are  hard  and  cannot  be  readily  chewed,  corn  should  be 
ground  or  soaked.  (842-5) 

914.  The  minor  cereals. — Only  wheat  that  is  below  grade  can  now 
be   profitably   used   for   swine   feeding.     The   hard,   small   kernels 
should  always  be  ground  to  meal  and  mixed  with  corn  or  barley, 
since  such  combinations  are  superior  to  either  grain  fed  alone.  (848) 
The  milling  by-products  of  wheat  are  most  valuable  for  swine,  low- 
grade  or  red-dog  flour  being  particularly  suitable  for  very  young 
pigs,  while  flour  middlings  serve  admirably  with  all  classes,  espe- 
cially in  combination  with  corn.     Middlings  produce  a  soft  pork 
if  too  liberally  fed.  (849,  850)     Bran  is  a  muscle-building  food,  but 
its  chaffy  nature  renders  it  unsatisfactory  for  the  young  pig.     It  is 
eminently  useful  with  breeding  stock  otherwise  living  on  rich  con- 
centrates and  in  a  limited  way  with  fattening  swine.     Bran  is  rich 
in  nitrogenous  matter  and  phosphorus,  but  is  low  in  lime  and  has 
laxative  properties.     These  facts  should  always  be  in  the  mind  of 
the  feeder.  (165,  852) 

From  the  European  standpoint  barley  leads  the  cereals  in  the 
quality  of  the  pork  it  produces,  while  in  the  quantity  of  pork  pro- 
duced it  falls  slightly  below  corn.  Where  high-grade  bacon  is  de- 
sired the  barley  grain  will  prove  particularly  useful.  In  all  cases 
barley  should  be  ground  to  a  meal,  or  preferably  rolled,  before  it  is 
fed.  (854)  Kafir  and  milo,  both  rich  in  starch,  rank  below  corn 
for  pig  feeding,  but  lead  in  the  regions  where  they  flourish.  (858-9) 
Emmer,  because  of  the  chaffy  hull,  and  millet,  because  of  its  hard, 
fibrous  seed  coat,  should  always  be  ground  and  the  chaff  or  hulls 
removed  before  feeding  to  young  pigs,  while  these  parts  may  re- 
main for  the  older  animals  if  bulk  is  needed  in  the  ration.  (857,  860) 

915.  The  legume  seeds. — Canada  peas,  cowpeas,   soybeans,  and 
peanuts  are  rapidly  advancing  in  importance   and  usefulness  for 
swine   feeding.      They   furnish   nitrogenous  matter  in   great   abun- 
dance, and  some  carry  much  fat.     While  the  starchy  cereal  grains 
are  the  great  fattening  concentrates,  the  leguminous  seeds  are  essen- 
tial  in   furnishing   nitrogenous  matter   for  building  the  muscular 


Management  and  Feed  of  Swine.  559 

tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  It  is  of  vast  import  that  the  pork 
producer  in  every  section  of  America  can  successfully  and  econom- 
ically grow  at  least  one  of  the  leguminous  forage  and  grain  crops, 
and  therefore  is  not  forced  to  purchase  expensive  nitrogenous  feeds. 
No  one  can  study  the  requirements  and  possibilities  of  pork  pro- 
duction in  this  country  without  realizing  that  the  leguminous  plants 
are  destined  to  occupy  a  vastly  more  important  position  than  they 
hold  at  present.  (866-870) 

916.  The  legume  roughages. — With  the  prices  of  feeding  stuffs 
ruling  high,  the  swine  feeder  must  make  the  largest  possible  use 
of  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch,  cowpea,  soybean,  and  other  legume  pasture 
in  summer,  and  in  winter  feed  freely  of  specially  cured  hay  from 
the  legumes  in  order  to  have  healthy  animals  and  to  keep  down  the 
cost    of    production.     The    finer    parts    of    clover    and   alfalfa   hay, 
especially  the  first  cutting  of  clover  and  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa, 
are  often  as  valuable  for  feeding  pigs  as  is  the  same  weight  of  wheat 
middlings.      The   southern   planter   has   a    specially   choice   list    of 
equally  valuable  legumes  in  the  cowpea,  soybean,  velvet  bean,  pea- 
nut, etc.    Legume  hay  may  be  fed  to  pigs  from  slatted  racks  or  from 
open  boxes  with  openings  low  on  the  sides  from  which  the  animals 
can  eat  at  will.     In  special  cases  it  is  best  to  soak  the  fine  portions 
of  legume  hay  with  the  swill  before  feeding.     The  legume  hays  not 
only  furnish  nitrogenous  matter  so  essential  to  building  all  the  red 
meat  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body,  but  they  also  carry  much  lime, 
which  is  needed  in  bone  building.     They  are  therefore  doubly  useful 
in  supplementing  Indian  corn  and  other  cereals  which  are  rather 
poor  in  nitrogenous  matter  and  lime.  (895-904) 

917.  Rape. — The  rape  plant  is  valuable  for  pigs  of  all  ages  and 
conditions.    The  seed  is  inexpensive,  the  crop  is  easily  grown  under 
a  great  variety  of  conditions,  and  the  pigs  do  the  harvesting.    Rape 
sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  until  the  middle  of  July  will 
furnish  feed  8  to  10  weeks  later  or  when  the  plants  are  12  inches 
high.    A  field  of  rape  will  support  a  drove  of  swine  grazing  thereon, 
so  that  all  the  concentrates  given  will  go  to  the  production  of  gain. 
The  resourceful  stockman  who  has  pigs  to  feed  will  make  large  use 
of  the  rape  plant,  in  combination  with  the  legumes,  in  order  to  re- 
duce feed  bills  and  increase  profits.     White-haired  pigs  running  in 
rape  when  the  dew  is  on  sometimes  suffer  from  a  skin  eruption.    The 
trouble  is  avoided  by  keeping  them  out  of  the  field  until  the  dew 
rises.  (895,  899) 


560  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

918.  Root  crops. — Danish  farmers  grow  no  Indian  corn,  and  yet 
by  means  of  waste  products  of  the  dairy,  purchased  feeding  stuffs, 
and  root  crops,  mostly  beets,  they  lead  the  world  in  the  produc- 
tion of  pork,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality.    Prices  for  both  grain 
and  pork  in  this  country  are  now  so  high  that  most  farmers  can 
profitably  grow  either  mangels  or  low-grade  sugar  beets  for  their 
pigs.     A  supply  of  these  will  add  variety  to  the  ration,  reduce  the 
amount  of  expensive  concentrates  required,  and  increase  the  health- 
fulness  of  the  animals.    Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa  Experimental  Farms1 
reports  sugar  beets  the  most  palatable  of  roots  for  swine,  tho  hardly 
as  suitable  as  mangels  and  turnips.     As  high  as  25  Ibs.  per  day  of 
mangels  have  been  fed  to  dry  sows  or  those  not  far  advanced  in 
pregnancy,  the  allowance  being  decreased  and  the  meal  ration  some- 
what increased  as  pregnancy  advanced.     Pigs  that  have  been  fed 
sugar  beets  or  mangels  do  not  like  turnips,  but  where  other  roots 
have   not   been   fed   they   will    prove   satisfactory,    especially   after 
being  cooked  with  meal.     Grisdale   states  that  during   October  or 
earlier  in  the  season  pigs  will  economically  harvest  roots  left  in  the 
field.  (873) 

919.  Importance  of  legumes,  rape,  and  roots. — If  this  country  is 
to  make  any  further  great  advancement  in  pork  production,  such 
progress  must  come  in  no  small  measure  thru  the  wider  and  more 
intelligent  use  of  legumes,  rape,  and  roots.     Because  the  hog  shows 
supreme  fondness  for  corn  and  because  that  grain  is  widely  and 
easily  grown,  we  have  come  to  think  of  corn  and  the  hog  as  the 
beginning   and   end   of   pork   production.      It   is   true   we   provide 
meagerly  of  other  feeds,  but  grudgingly  and  under  protest  as  it 
were,  regarding  anything  other  than  corn  as  something  to  be  given 
in  small  amount  rather  than  liberally.    Let  us  now  change  the  view- 
point and  hold  that  it  is  not  only  best  but  also  more  economical  to 
grow  the  pig  largely  on  the  legumes,  rape,  and  roots,  and  use  a 
heavy  allowance  of  corn  for  fattening  only.     The  feeder  who  will 
conduct  his  operations  on  this  basis  will  find  his  pork  output  greatly 
increased   and   his   income    correspondingly   advanced.      Instead   of 
measuring  the  possible  pork  output  by  the  quantity  of  corn  avail- 
able, one  should  figure  on  what  is  possible  from  all  the  available 
corn  plus  the  gains  that  the  pigs  can  make  from  the  freest  use  of 
all  such  crops  as  alfalfa,   clover,  Canada  peas,  soybeans,  cowpeas, 
peanuts,  rape,  and  roots  that  the  farm  will  economically  grow.    By 
the  wisest  and  largest  use  of  these  crops  thruout  the  land  the  amount 

1  Bui.  51. 


Management  and  Feed  of  Swine.  561 

of  pork  now  produced  in  the  United  States  can  easily  be  doubled 
without  any  corresponding  increase  in  the  total  cost  of  production. 
The  large  and  general  use  of  the  legumes,  rape,  and  roots  by  those 
who  raise  swine  means  larger  litters  of  pigs,  a  reduction  in  the 
present  heavy  death  rate  of  the  young,  and  the  more  rapid  growth 
of  sturdy,  vigorous  shotes  that  will  finally  fatten  more  quickly  and 
on  less  corn  than  under  the  still  too  common  system  of  well-nigh 
continuous  corn  feeding  from  birth  to  slaughter. 

Growing  legumes  and  roots  will  so  improve  the  soil  that  all  of 
the  feed  from  this  source  which  is  fed  to  the  pig  is  produced  at 
small  cost.  Fields  as  well  as  pigs  will  be  benefited  by  this  rational 
expansion  which  should  rapidly  come  in  our  system  of  pork  pro- 
duction thru  combining  the  feeding  of  legumes  and  roots  with 
the  proper  use  of  corn  and  the  other  cereal  grains. 

920.  Tankage. — The  slaughter-house  by-product,  tankage,  carries 
a  large  percentage  of  highly  digestible  protein,  and  that  which  con- 
tains ground  raw  bone  also  carries  much  phosphorus  and  lime  in 
addition.     This  by-product  is  always  helpful  in  feeding  young  pigs, 
especially  when  little  or  no  dairy  waste  is  available.     Where  corn 
is  otherwise  the  sole  feed  employed  in  fattening  swine,  tankage  will 
greatly  cut  down  the  feed  requirements  and  induce  the  more  rapid 
laying  on  of  fat.     The   feeder  should  bear  in  mind  the  peculiar 
properties  and  advantages  of  tankage  and  never  hesitate  to  use  it 
when  necessary.  (888) 

921.  Dairy  by-products. — Skim   milk   and    buttermilk    are   ideal 
feeds   for   swine,    especially   brood   sows   and    growing   pigs.     Rich 
in  digestible  protein  and  carrying  much  mineral  matter,  they  should 
never  be  fed  alone  but  always  in  combination  with  such  starchy 
feeds  as  corn,  barley,   kafir,   milo,   emmer,   and  millet.     This  com- 
bination stands   unexcelled   for   producing    economical   growth   and 
for  fattening.     So  useful  are  these  feeds  that  the  breeder  of  pure- 
bred swine  should  in  many  cases  keep  a  dairy  in  order  to  have  these 
by-products  for  the  sows  and  their  young.     Skim  milk,   fresh  or 
slightly  soured,  combined  with  any  of  the  cereal  grains  will  give 
to  young  pigs  quality  and  finish  possible  from  no  other  feed.     Be- 
fore skim  milk  and  whey  from  the  factory  are  returned  to  the  farm 
they  should    always    be  sterilized    to   forestall    danger    of    tuber- 
culosis. (881-7) 

922.  Correctives  of  mineral  nature. — Pigs  often  show  a  strong 
craving  for  unnatural  substances — soft  brick,  mortar,  rotten  wood, 
charcoal,  ashes,  soap  suds,  and  many  other  articles  being  greedily 

37 


562  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

devoured  when  offered.  The  desire  for  these  may  often  be  charged 
to  unnatural  conditions,  but  it  shows  under  a  wide  range  of  feed 
and  care.  As  a  rule,  the  feeder  would  best  supply  what  the  pig 
craves,  and  search  for  explanations  later.  Ashes  from  either  wood 
or  coal  are  always  helpful  in  the  feeding  pen  and  even  in  the  pas- 
ture. Dietrich1  recommends  that  salt,  charcoal,  air-slacked  lime, 
bone  meal,  and  wood  ashes  be  kept  in  different  compartments  of  a 
covered  trough  where  they  are  accessible  to  the  pigs  at  all  times. 
Ground  rock  phosphate  should  be  added  to  the  list,  since  we  now 
know  that  the  pig  can  utilize  the  phosphorus  and  possibly  the  lime 
it  furnishes  for  bone  building.  (89,  90,  115,  892) 

923.  The  administration  of  feed. — Sucking  pigs  take  nourishment 
from  the  dam  about  every  two  hours,  and  we  should  accept  Nature's 
rule  in  feeding  very  young  animals.     Dietrich's  experiments2  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  young  pigs  should  be  fed  at  least  three  times 
daily,  giving  little  less  each  time  than  they  will  readily  consume. 
With  large  animals  getting  considerable  coarse  feed,  such  as  legume 
hay,  rape,  or  roots,  two  feeds  a  day  should  suffice,  since  coarse  food 
remains  longer  in  the   digestive  tract.     During  the  last  stages   of 
fattening  and   when  living   wholly   on  finely   ground   rich   concen- 
trates containing  little  fiber,  swine  should  be  fed  three  times  daily. 

Since  dry  meal  is  more  slowly  masticated  than  moistened  meal  it 
might  be  supposed  that  the  greater  addition  of  saliva  consequent  on 
slow  eating  would  increase  the  digestibility  of  meal  so  fed,  but  the 
trials  so  far  made  favor  moistening  the  feed  with  water.  The  pig 
does  not  take  kindly  to  dry  meal,  eating  it  slowly,  and  often  rooting 
much  of  it  out  of  the  trough.  On  the  whole,  sloppy  feeds  are 
best.  (824) 

924.  Water  required  by  pigs. — Dietrich,3  who  has  given  the  sub- 
ject much  careful  study,   concludes  that  the  proper  water  supply 
for  the  pig  ranges  from  12  Ibs.  daily  per  100  Ibs.  of  animal  at  the 
time  of  weaning  down  to  4  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  during  the  fattening 
period.     He  holds  that  pigs  do  not  usually  drink  enough  water  in 
winter,  and  that  they  should  be  forced  to  take  more  by  giving  it, 
warm  if  necessary,  in  their  slop.     He  states  that  the  total  quantity 
of  water  drank  seems  to  be  of  greater  importance  than  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  fed.     The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  feeding 
the  bulk  of  the  water  after  the  rest  of  the  feed  has  been  eaten,  using 
enough  water  to  wet  the  dry  feeds.     During  the  hottest  weather 

1  Swine,  p.  161.  2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  194.  3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  156. 


Home  Markets  and  Bacon  Production.  563 

Dietrich  finds  that  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  add  somewhat  more 
water  to  the  dry  feed.  On  protein-rich  feeds  the  pig  needs  more 
water  than  when  on  starchy  feeds.  (825) 

III.  HOME  MARKETS  AND  BACON  PRODUCTION. 

925.  Home  markets. — With  pork  consumption  increasing  more 
rapidly  than  production  there  have  sprung  up  over  our  land  good 
local  markets  for  all  manner  of  pork  products,  from  the  dressed 
carcass  to  sausages,  hams,  bacon,   etc.     Consumers  are  calling  for 
leaner  pork,  and  many  farmers  who  are  feeding  pigs  will  find  it  to 
their  advantage  to  supply  the  home  demand  for  high-grade  pork 
products.    Knowledge  of  how  to  grow  the  pig  economically  on  such 
roughages  as  the  legume  hays,  roots,  and  rape  is  of  great  value  in 
producing   a  high-grade  product,   especially   with   eastern   farmers, 
who  are  unable  to  produce  corn  as  cheaply  as  it  is  grown  in  the 
corn  belt  where  the  lard  hog  is  still  the  favorite.     Most  helpfully, 
local  establishments  are  springing  up  where  pork  products  of  the 
highest  quality  are  being  manufactured,  and  the  success  attained 
by  some  of  these  show  that  expansion  in  this  direction  is  possible, 
as  it  is  also  desirable.     Since  the  pig,  next  to  the  cow,  is  the  most 
economical  four-footed  farm  animal  for  the  production  of  human 
food,  there  is  every  reason  to  anticipate  greatly  increased  interest 
in  pork  production  in  all  the  agricultural  districts  of  our  country. 

926.  Danish  pork  production. — Quality  and  quantity  considered, 
the  Danes  lead  the  world   in   bacon  production.     This  surprising 
fact  is  due  to  their  ability  to  use  wisely  dairy  by-products,  to  their 
spirit  of  cooperation,  and  to  the  high  degree  of  intelligence  shown 
by  the  people  in  feeding  and  caring  for  their  pigs,  this  intelligence 
being   acquired   thru   their   agricultural   colleges   and   other   educa- 
tional  institutions,   which   are   aided  and   directed  by   a  wise   and 
sympathetic  government.     The  total  area  of  Denmark  is  but  little 
over  one-fourth  that  of  Iowa,   yet  measured  in  money  this  little 
country   exports   about   one-sixth   as   much   pork    products,    mostly 
bacon,   as  the  entire  United  States.     Kennedy,1  studying  the  sub- 
ject on  the  ground,  gives  the  following  excellent  summary  of  pig 
feeding  methods  as  practiced  by  the  Danes: 

"As  a  rule  pigs  are  marketed  at  about  six  or  seven  months  of 
age,  when  they  weigh  from  160  to  200  Ibs.,  live  weight.  The  Danish 
buyer  demands  pigs  which  are  uniform  in  size,  with  an  even  thick- 
ness of  fat  on  the  back,  which  should  be  about  three-fourths  to  one 

1 U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Bui.  77. 


564  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

inch  in  depth.  The  fat  should  be  clear  white  in  color,  the  flesh 
firm  in  all  parts,  and  there  should  be  a  high  percentage  of  lean  in 
proportion  to  the  fat. 

''Any  method  of  feeding  which  is  undesirable  will  cause  discrim- 
ination on  the  part  of  the  buyers,  and,  thru  the  existence  of  the 
cooperative  bacon  factories,  which  are  owned  by  the  farmers  them- 
selves, feeders  are  in  very  close  touch  with  the  work.  They  have  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  follow  their  pigs  through  the  slaughter- 
houses and  have  the  faults  of  the  carcasses  pointed  out  by  experts. 
In  this  manner  farmers  have  learned  many  valuable  lessons,  so  that 
they  are  very  well  versed  in  the  influence  of  different  feeds  and 
rations  on  the  quality  of  the  carcass.  The  seller  is  entitled  to  a 
report  on  each  lot  of  pigs  marketed,  and  if  he  has  made  any  changes 
from  the  rations  previously  used  he  can  ascertain  whether  or  not 
they  are  desirable. 

' '  The  following  rations  are  used  by  successful  feeders :  Ground 
barley,  cooked  potatoes,  and  skim  milk;  shorts  and  skim  milk;  2 
parts  shorts,  2  parts  ground  barley,  1  part  corn  meal,  and  skim 
milk;  2  parts  ground  barley,  1  part  wheat  bran,  1  part  ground  rye, 
and  skim  milk;  2  parts  ground  barley,  1  part  ground  oats,  1  part 
corn  meal,  and  skim  milk.  Corn  meal  is  fed  with  care,  especially 
during  warm  weather;  when  fed  in  small  quantities  with  barley, 
shorts,  oats,  and  bran,  combined  with  a  liberal  allowance  of  skim 
milk,  there  are  no  bad  results.  Some  good  feeders  use  corn  meal 
to  the  extent  of  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  grain  ration  during 
the  first  three  or  four  months  and  then  omit  it  and  finish  with  oats 
or  similar  feed.  Feeders  are  sometimes  compelled  to  use  corn  on 
account  of  the  low  price  of  bacon.  Ground  rye  to  the  extent  of 
about  one-third  of  the  ration  gives  good  results,  but  rye  shorts  are 
not  satisfactory  and  are  only  used  in  small  quantities.  The  best 
feeds  are  ground  barley,  crushed  oats,  and  wheat  shorts.  Roots  are 
fed  during  winter  and  soiling  crops  during  summer. "  (839) 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  I.  AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AMERICAN  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

This  table  is  compiled  from  data  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  22,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture;  reports  and  bulletins  of  the  Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts,  New  York  (Geneva),  Wisconsin,  New  Jersey,  and 
numerous  other  experiment  stations.  Other  sources  include  Zusam- 
mensetzung  der  Futtermittel,  Dietrich  and  Konig;  Farm  Foods, 
Wolff,  English  edition,  Cousins;  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairy- 
men, Woll;  Forage  Crops,  Voorhees,  etc. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract! 

Grains,  seeds,  and  their  parts 
CONCENTRATES 

Dent  corn    __ 

Per  ct. 
10.6 
11.3 
8.8 
10.7 
15.0 
10.7 

15.1 

9.5 
9.2 
9.6 
8.6 
9.4 

10.5 
10.4 
10.5 
12.4 
9.9 

10.0 

11.2 
11.9 
11.5 
11.0 
10.9 
11.6 

8.7 
13.1 
11.8 
11.6 
12.4 

Per  ct. 

1.5 
1.4 
1.9 
1.5 
1.4 
1.4 

1.5 
1.5 

2.0 
2.7 
2.4 
1.2 

1.8 
1.9 
1.8 
0.4 
2.6 

3.2 

4.4 
5.8 
6.4 
6.2 
5.6 
2.9 

2.1 
0.7 
1.7 
3.4 
3.2 

Per  ct. 
10.3 
10.5 
11.6 
11.2 
9.2 
2.4 

8.5 
33.8 
25.0 
10.5 
21.7 
11.2 

11.9 
12.5 
11.8 
12.0 
18.4 

19.2 

16.9 
15.4 
15.7 
15.7 
16.3 
12.5 

11.3 
6.7 
14.3 
14.6 
15.7 

Per  ct. 
2.2 
1.7 
2.8 
1.8 
1.9 
30.1 

6.6 
2.0 
6.8 
4.9 
3.8 
11.9 

1.8 
1.8 
1.8 

Per  ct. 
70.4 
70.1 
66.8 
69.6 
68.7 
54.9 

64.8 
46.6 
53.5 
64.3 
47.3 
60.1 

71.9 
71.2 
72.0 
74.0 
63.5 

59.6 

56.2 
53.9 
53.4 
52.4 
55.1 
65.1 

74.5 
78.3 
66.9 
63.9 
61.5 

Per  ct. 
5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
5.2 
3.8 
0.5 

3.5 
6.6 
3.5 
8.0 
11.2 
6.2 

2.1 
2.2 
2.1 
1.2 

4.0 

4.8 

5.1 

4.0 
4.3 
4.9 
4.6 
3.0 

1.9 
0.8 
2.9 
2.8 
3.1 

86 
68 
26 
4 
77 
18 

7 
12 
102 
106 
23 
6 

310 
13 
262 
6 
23 

106 

94 
88 
27 
52 
101 
10 

57 
4 
5 
29 
21 

Flint  corn    _ 

Sweet  corn  

Pop  corn 

Corn  meal    

Corn  cob       

Corn-and-cob  meal  

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed  _              

Hominy  feed  (chop) 

Germ  oil  meal 

Corn  bran  

Wheat,  all  analyses  

Spring  wheat  

Winter  wheat 

Wheat  flour  __      _ 

Red  dog  flour 

3.0 
3.2 

6.2 
9.0 
8.7 
9.8 
7.5 
4.9 

1.5 
0.4 
2.4 
3.5 
4.1 

Flour  wheat  middlings 

Standard    wheat    middlings 
(shorts). 

Wheat  bran,  all  analyses 

Winter  wheat  bran 

Spring  wheat  bran  __    _ 

Wheat  feed   (shorts  and  bran) 
Wheat  screenings 

Rye 

Rye  flour 

Rye  middlings  _    _ 

Rye  bran 

Rye  feed  (shorts  and  bran)  

565 


566 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

CONCENTRATES  —  con. 

Grains,    seeds,    and     their 
parts  —  con. 
Barley 

Per  ct. 
10.8 
12.2 
8.9 
8.0 

10.4 
7.9 
8.8 
7.0 
6.5 
7.4 

11.2 

12.4 
10.8 
10.2 
9.7 
8.8 

15.0 
10.5 
11.0 
14.6 
11.7 

11.3 

10.9 
10.0 
11.3 
9  2 

Per  ct. 
2.5 
3.6 
4.4 
3.9 

3.2 
2.0 
4.5 
5.3 
6.9 
6.7 

4.9 
0.4 
4.8 
8.1 
9.7 
15.6 

2.4 
2.6 
2.7 
3.2 

4.8 

5.9 
5.7 
3.2 

3.8 
3.3 

2.0 
1.0 
5.0 
4.9 
3.9 
2.2 

1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
2.7 
2.1 

2.8 
2.8 
5.0 

4.3 
5.5 
5.5 
3.5 
5.5 

Per  ct. 
12.0 
12.3 
13.8 
11.5 

11.4 
14.7 
16.2 
8.0 
13.5 
3.4 

7.3 
7.4 
11.9 
12.0 
11.9 
3.2 

23.7 
20.2 
10.0 
20.5 
33.5 

42.7 
23.2 
21.6 
26.6 
31.7 

10.8 
6.9 
26.7 
12.6 
18.3 
4.6 

11.2 
9.2 
10.7 
9.2 
9.1 

9.9 
10.9 
9.9 

22.6 
33.9 
37.5 
18.4 
lfi.8 

Per  ct. 
4.2 
7.3 
9.1 

11.1 

10.8 
0.9 
7.1 
21.5 
18.2 
30.7 

8.0 
0.2 
3.3 
5.4 
12.0 
36.2 

7.9 
14.4 
39.7 
3.9 
4.5 

6.0 
3.8 
3.7 
7.2 
13.5 

11.7 

0.3 
4.4 
32.9 
19.2 
43.5 

2.7 
8.0 
3.0 
6.5 
2.6 

7.0 
8.1 

7.7 

7.1 
7.3 
8.9 
23.2 
20.4 

Per  ct. 
68.7 
61.8 
59.9 
62.9 

59.4 
67.4 
56.5 
55.3 
50.2 
50.5 

66.6 
79.2 
62.3 
51.2 
46.6 
35.2 

50.2 
51.1 
35.6 
56.3 
28.3 

28.1 
54.9 
47.5 
50.1 
37.9 

59.7 
75.8 
44.3 
37.9 
42.1 
35.3 

71.5 

63.8 
72.2 
69.5 
69.8 

64.3 
62.6 
63.2 

23.2 
35.7 
36.4 
24.7 
23.5 

Per  ct. 
1.8 
2.8 
3.9 
2.2 

4.8 
7.1 
6.9 
2.9 
4.8 
1.3 

2.0 
0.4 
7.2 
13.1 
10.1 
1.0 

0.8 
1.2 
1.0 
1.5 
17.2 

6.0 
1.5 
1.2 
1.0 
4.3 

2.4 
1.4 
6.8 
3.5 
4.9 
1.1 

3.1 

2.6 
2.8 
2.4 
3.6 

3.2 
3.5 
4.7 

33.7 

7.8 
2. 
19.9 

27.7 

22 
2 
12 
1 

126 
6 
10 
110 
2 
11 

2 
10 
21 
2 
24 
17 

Barley  screenings 

Barley  feed 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Oats 

Oat  meal 

Oat  middlings 

Oat  feed 

Oat  dust  _                            _    _ 

Oat  hulls 

Rough  rice 

Rice     „    _ 

Rice  polish  _ 

Rice  meal 

Rice  bran 

Rice  hulls 

Canada  field  pea 

Pea  meal 

2 
2 
2 

16 

Pea  bran  _ 

Cowpea 

Soybean   _ 

Soybean  cake 

Bean  meal 

1 

Cull  beans  _ 

Horse  bean  _ 

1 
1 

33 
4 
40 
4 
19 
2 

19 

3 
14 
3 
10 

4 
6 
1 

50 
191 
52 
5 
2 

Sesbania  macrocarpa 

Buckwheat 

13.4 
14.6 
12.8 
8.2 
11.6 
13.2 

9.9 
13.6 
9.0 
9.7 

12.8 

12.8 
12.1 
9.5 

9.2 
9.8 
9.0 
10.3 
6.1 

Buckwheat  flour 

Buckwheat  middlings  _ 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  feed 

Buckwheat  hulls 

Kafir  corn 

Ground  kafir  heads 

Milo  maize 

Ground  milo  heads 

Sorghum  seed 

Broom-corn  seed 

Millet  seed  _ 

Hungarian  grass  seed 

Flax  seed 

J  inseed  meal   old  process 

Linseed  meal,  new  process  
Cotton  seed 

Cotton  seed,  roasted    

Appendix.  567 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Pat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

CONCENTRATES  —  con. 

Grains,     seeds,     and    their 
parts  —  con. 

Cotton-seed  meal  

Per  ct. 
7.0 
11.1 

6.2 
10.3 
10.4 

8.6 
6.9 
10.8 
6.6 
7.5 
10.7 

10.0 
7.4 
10.4 
10.3 

75.7 

8.7 
9.5 
7.6 
89.8 
8.4 

20.8 
7.0 
25.9 
10.4 
9.1 

13.0 
12.0 
12.0 
68.8 
91.7 

8.5 
10.7 
7.0 
34.2 

8.0 
6.0 
10.8 

87.2 
74.6 

Per  ct. 
6.6 
2.8 

4.7 
5.9 
4.3 

2.6 
2.8 
6.7 
2.7 
2.4 
4.9 

7.9 
8.8 
4.3 
5.9 

1.0 
3.7 
6.1 
2.0 
0.6 
4.5 

10.6 
5.5 
6.3 
6.5 
11.2 

10.1 
1.6 
1.8 
0.4 
0.3 

4.7 
4.1 
15.9 
22.8 
64.4 
37.4 
29.2 

0.7 
1.6 

Per  ct. 
45.3 
4.2 

31.2 
19.7 
16.8 

16.3 
30.5 
32.8 
23.2 
27.9 
47.6 

31.2 

36.7 
16.8 
19.7 

5.4 

25.0 
26.3 
31.2 
0.9 
8.1 

9.1 
9.6 
2.7 
17.1 
13.1 

8.0 
0.8 
4.8 
5.0 
0.7 

84.4 
71.2 
53.9 
20.6 
23.9 
39.5 
48.4 

3.6 
17.6 

Per  ct. 
6.3 
46.3 

3.7 
14.4 
24.0 

29.9 
2.6 
13.5 
18.4 
7.0 
5.1 

11.3 

3.8 
24.0 
14.4 

3.8 
13.6 
11.6 
11.6 
2.4 
17.5 

Per  ct. 
24.6 
33.4 

17.6 

38.7 
35.0 

21.4 
14.5 
27.1 
14.2 
15.6 
23.7 

30.0 
17.3 
35.0 
38.7 

12.5 

42.3 
44.9 
35.4 
6.3 
60.8 

59.5 

Per  ct. 
10.2 
2.2 

36.6 
11.0 
9.5 

21.2 
42.8 
9.1 
35.0 
39.6 
8.0 

9.6 

26.0 
9.5 
11.0 

1.6 
6.7 
1.6 
12.2 

319 
20 

2 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Cotton-seed     kernels     without 
hulls 

Cocoanut  cake    

Palmnut  cake 

600 

2 

2 

Sunflower  seed 

Sunflower  seed,  kernels  

Sunflower-seed  cake 

Peanut  with  hull 

Peanut  kernel,  without  hull  
Peanut  cake  -  - 

7 
2480 

500 
1 

600 

Rape-seed  cake             _     

Sesame  oil  cake 

Palmnut  cake 

Cocoanut  cake 

FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS,  ETC. 
Wet  brewers'  grains 

15 
53 

47 
49 
16 

7 

35 
5 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Malt  sprouts    

Dried  distillers'  grains   _    

Wet  beet  pulp 

Dried  beet  pulp 

0.7 

Beet  molasses 

Molasses  beet  pulp__ 

16.1 

61.3 
65.1 

0.5 

Porto  Rico  molasses 

Molasses  grains    _ 

11.9 

22.4 

0.3 
6.1 
3.8 
2.9 
1.0 

51.2 
42.1 

63.0 
78.8 
76.3 
19.9 
6.4 

2.9 
2.1 

5.6 
0.7 
1.3 
3.0 
0.1 

2.5 
13.7 
11.8 
20  5 

20 
5 

1 
1 
2 
4 
2 

3 
144 
21 

Alfalmo 

Bakery  refuse 

Cassava  starch  refuse 

Starch  refuse            _    

Wet  starch  feed 

Potato  pomace 

Dried  blood 

Meat  scrap 

0.3 
5.6 
1.9 

Tankage 

5.8 

Fresh  bone 

Raw  ground  bone    _           

3.4 
6.3 

0.3 
10.8 
11.6 

3.7 
3.6 
1.2 
6.8 
4.1 
7.1 

1 
37 
6 

793 
42 

Meat  and  bone  meal 

Dried  fish 

Cow's  milk 

4.9 
2.7 
5.3 
4.7 
4.4 
4.8 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum    

Mare's  milk              -            

91.0 
81.3 

86.9 
80.8 

0.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 

2.1 
6.3 
3.7 
6.2 

Ewe's  milk             -         





Goat's  milk 

Sow's  milk    

7 

568  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

c/: 

<-  & 

°.>. 

*! 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS,  ETC.  —  con. 
Skim  milk   gravity 

Per  ct. 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 
93.8 

42.2 
40.5 
50.9 
30.0 
40.0 
41.7 
40.9 
52.1 

14.0 
15.3 
13.2 
15.0 
14.2 
14.1 

9.9 
8.9 
8.7 
14.0 
7.1 

6.6 
20.0 
14.0 
8.5 
14.0 

10.1 
21.2 
24.4 
27.8 
14.3 

6.9 
9.2 
11.8 
15.0 

7.7 
14.0 
11.0 
7.0 
9.5 

Per  ct. 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 

2.7 
3.4 
1.8 
5.5 
3.1 
3.0 
2.9 
2.4 

5.3 
5.5 
4.4 
4.5 
4.4 
3.9 

6.0 
5.2 
4.9 
6.0 
6.7 

9.8 
6.8 
4.6 
6.9 
7.9 

6.5 
6.3 
7.0 
6.4 
4.5 

5.5 

7.8 
6.2 
8.8 

6.0 
7.9 
8.1 
6.8 
5.7 

Per  ct. 
3.3 
3.1 
4.0 
0.6 

4.5 
3.8 
2.5 
6.0 
5.5 
3.2 
2.9 
2.5 

7.9 
7.4 
5.9 
6.0 
5.7 
5.0 

8.1 
7.9 
8.0 
11.2 
6.1 

9.3 
7.0 
6.4 
7.5 
10.1 

8.7 
7.8 
6.3 
5.8 
7.6 

11.2 

6.2 
6.8 
4.9 

7.5 
10.6 
11.6 
6.8 
10.8 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
4.7 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 

34.7 
31.5 
28.3 
35.7 
36.7 
32.2 
31.8 
20.1 

42.8 
42.1 
45.0 
41.9 
44.6 
43.7 

41.0 
47.5 
46.4 
41.5 
46.3 

38.9 
38.4 
42.1 
45.0 
40.5 

44.4 
37.8 
34.2 
33.2 
49.0 

35.8 
39.9 
43.1 

48.4 

49.0 
37.1 
40.2 
51.2 
38.7 

Perct. 
0.9 
0.3 
1.1 
0.1 

1.6 
1.1 
0.7 
1.4 
1.4 
2.9 
2.3 
1.8 

2.3 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
2.2 

2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
2.9 
1.9 

3.1 
2.7 
1.9 
1.7 
2.1 

2.3 
3.9 
3.6 
3.0 
2.9 

3.4 
2.8 
1.8 
3.2 

2.1 
1.7 

2.3 
1.8 
2.7 

96 
97 
85 
46 

35 
60 
16 
17 

21 

1 
2 
1 

102 
126 
68 
12 
11 
12 

10 
9 
3 
1 

1 

Skim  milk    centrifugal 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

DRIED  ROUGHAGE 
Field-cured  corn  forage 

Fodder  corn  (ears,  if  any,  re- 
maining) 

14.3 
19.7 
15.8 
21.4 
12.6 
17.0 
19.1 
21.0 

27.7 
27.2 
29.0 
29.6 
28.1 
31.1 

32.4 
28.6 
29.9 
24.4 
31.9 

32.3 
25.9 
30.9 
30.5 
25.4 

27.9 
23.0 
24.5 
23.8 
21.7 

37.2 
34.1 
30.4 
19.7 

27.7 
27.8 
26.8 
26.5 
32.6 

Corn  stover  (ears  removed)  
Corn  husks                       -    -  

Corn  leaves 

Sweet  com  forage.       

Amber  cane  forage                - 

Milo  forage 

Kafir  forage                   

Hay  from  the  grasses,  etc. 
English  hay 

Mixed  grasses 

Timothy,  all  analyses           

Timothy  full  bloom 

Timothy,  after  bloom    

Timothy,   nearly  ripe       

Orchard  grass 

Red  top,  different  stages 

Red  top  in  bloom 

White  top__              — 

Rhode  Island  bent 

Meadow  fox  tail 

Meadow  fescue 

9 

4 
4 
4 

1 

10 
4 
4 

Tall  oat  grass 

Italian  rye  grass                

Perennial  rye  grass 

Fowl  meadow  grass 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

Kentucky  blue  grass,  in  milk- 
Kentucky  blue  grass   ripe 

Canada  blue  grass 

Blue  joint                 —         _ 

Prairie  grass                         -  - 

Gama  grass 

Buffalo  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

13 
9 
1 
1 
2 

Barnyard  millet    - 

Oat  tail  millet 

Macaroni  wheat  forage  

Rye  forage 

Appendix.  569 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

DRIED  ROUGHAGE  —  con. 
Hay  from  the  grasses,  etc. 
Barley,  in  milk  

Per  ct. 
15.0 
14.0 
6.9 
6.6 
14.3 

8.4 
14.3 
14.3 
7.1 
10.2 

Perct. 
4.2 
5.7 
8.7 
11.1 
3.8 

6.9 
6.0 
10.0 
3.5 
6.1 

3.2 
3.3 

10.8 
6.4 

6.7 

7.7 
6.6 
5.6 
21.7 

6.2 
6.6 
6.1 
8.3 
8.3 

8.6 
5.0 
8.5 
6.8 
8.9 

7.0 
8.8 
14.5 
7.9 
7.2 

7.9 

10.8 
6.0 
9.9 
5.9 

4.7 
7.3 
6.4 
6.8 
5.5 
7.1 
7.4 

Per  ct. 
8.8 
8.9 
5.4 
10.7 
5.0 

8.0 
8.8 
9.1 
10.7 
7.2 

5.5 

9.1 

8.4 
4.7 
7.2 

5.5 

7.7 
9.9 
12.9 

12.3 
12.4 
10.7 
12.8 
15.7 

15.2 
13.6 
13.8 
14.5 
14.2 

14.9 
14.fi 
233 
17.0 
15.2 

22.9 
10.7 
13.5 
18.0 
14.0 

11.8 
14.8 
11.4 
11.6 
10.1 
10.3 
12.8 

Perct. 
24.7 
27.4 
23.2 
34.1 
25.0 

26.4 
28.6 
27.3 
51.0 
28.5 

28.2 
36.0 
27.5 
38.7 
26.6 

30.0 
30.0 
30.6 
14.7 

24.8 
21.9 
24.5 
25.6 
24.1 

27.2 
30.6 
24.0 
27.2 
21.2 

24.2 

28.  9 

13.2 
25.4 
21.6 

26.2 
23.6 
29.2 
28.0 
37.7 

29.3 
20.4 
23.9 
22.5 
27.6 
28.3 
26.7 

Per  ct. 
44.9 
41.2 
53.9 
35.8 
48.8 

48.3 
47.4 
36.1 
25.0 
45.9 

54.6 
42.9 
36.6 
42.3 
45.9 

44.1 
42.0 
41.1 
39.6 

38.1 
33.8 
33.6 
40.7 
39.3 

36.6 
38.2 
39.0 
34.4 
42.6 

37.8 
37.4 
41.2 
36.1 
44.2 

31.4 
42.7 
36.3 
41.8 
30.6 

42.1 
39.5 
41.3 
39.4 
41.3 
41.2 
35.8 

Per  ct. 
2.4 
2.8 
1.8 
1.4 
3.3 

2.0 
1.9 
3.2 
2.9 
2.1 

0.9 
1.1 
2.4 
1.4 
2.0 

2.4 
3.4 
3.5 
1.9 

3.3 
4.5 
3.9 
2.9 
2.9 

2.8 
3.6 
3.7 
2.1 
2.6 

4.3 
2.1 
3.0 
2.3 
2.6 

3.2 

4.6 
15.1 
3.2 

1.8 

2.9 
3.0 
3.0 
3.1 
2.6 
2.6 
2.3 

1 
4 
1 
1 
1 

1 
5 

Oat,  in  milk 

Bald  barley  forage  

Emmer  forage  

Wild  oat  forage  _ 

Cheat  forage 

Quack  (couch)  grass 

Texas  blue  grass..    

Bermuda  grass 

Johnson  grass 

2 

2 

4 

Guinea  grass  __    

Para  grass 

Crab  grass 

14.3 
6.6 
11.6 

10.4 
10.3 
9.3 

9.0 

15.3 
20.8 
21.2 
9.7 
9.7 

9.6 
9.0 
11.0 
15.0 
10.5 

11.8 
8.1 
4.9 
11.3 
9.2 

8.4 
7.6 
6.3 
9.2 
10.0 

9.2 
15.0 
14.0 
16.6 
12.9 
10.0 
15.0 

Broom  sedge  __ 

2 

8 

10 
2 
2 
4 

38 
6 
10 
9 
7 

7 
1 
2 
4 
17 

12 

92 
1 
5 
3 

5 
6 

Swamp  grass 

Salt  marsh  grass  

White  daisy 

Buttercup                   _ 

Australian  saltbush 

Hay  from  the  legumes 
Red  clover 

Red  clover  in  bloom 

Mammoth  red  clover    

Alsike  clover  _       

White  clover 

Crimson  clover  

Burr  clover  _ 

Japan  clover 

Wheat  and  vetch 

Cowpea 

Soybean   

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa,  leaves  . 

Vetch 

Serradella 

Flat  pea 

Peanut  vine,  without  nuts    _ 

Peanut  vine,  with  nuts 

Sweet  clover 

Velvet  bean 

Beggar  weed        _  

2 

1 
29 
23 
17 
6 
3 

Sanfoin                

Rowen 

Mixed  rowen  

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers  

Oat  and  pea_  

Oat  and  vetch  

570  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding-  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

DRIED  ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Straw,  chaff,  etc. 
Wheat 

Per  ct. 
9.6 
7.1 
9.2 
14.2 
9.9 

15.0 
10.1 
9.2 
14.3 

14.3 
10.0 
11.2 

79.3 
79.0 
73.4 
79.8 
77.1 

79.1 
80.0 
66.2 
76.1 
79.4 

84.2 
90.1 
83.2 
81.6 

83.4 

80.0 
65.1 
61.6 
73.0 
65.3 

73.2 

69.5 
71.7 
62.2 
79.0 

76.6 
77.3 
75.0 
73.0 
71.1 

Per  ct. 
4.2 
3.2 
5.1 
5.7 
5.5 

5.2 
5.8 
8.7 
9.2 
10.0 
3.9 
2.9 

1.2 
1.2 
1.5 
1.1 
1.1 

1.3 
1.2 
2.9 
0.7 
1.1 

1.1 

1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 

2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 

2.5 
2.0 
2.1 
2.5 

1.8 

1.8 
1.8 
1.4 
2.0 
1.7 

Per  ct. 
3.4 
3.0 
4.0 
3.5 
5.2 

4.1 
4.6 
8.8 
4.5 
4.0 
5.1 
3.4 

1.8 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
2.7 

1.9 

1.4 
2.1 

0.5 
1.3 

1.2 
1.4 

1.7 

1.8 
1.9 

3.5 
4.1 
3.1 

2.6 
2.8 

3.1 

2.4 
2.2 
3.4 
2.7 

2.6 
2.4 
1.2 
2.6 
3.1 

Per  ct. 
38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36.0 
43.0 

34.2 

40.4 
37.6 
36.0 
34.0 
42.7 
30.5 

5.0 
5.6 
6.7 
4.3 
4.3 

4.4 
4.9 
8.7 
7.3 
6.1 

4.0 
2.7 
5.5 

4.8 
4.6 

4.0 
9.1 
11.8 
8.2 
11.0 

6.8 
9.4 
5.9 
11.2 

7.9 

11.6 

5.9 
8.9 
8.2 
9.2 

Per  ct. 
43.4 
46.6 
42.4 
39.0 
35.1 

39.7 
37.4 
34.3 
34.6 
36.2 
35.2 
50.4 

12.2 
12.0 
15.5 
12.1 
14.6 

12.8 
12.0 
19.0 
14.9 
11.6 

9.0 
4.1 
7.5 

9.9 

8.0 

9.7 
17.6 
20.2 
13.3 
17.7 

13.3 
15.8 
17.2 
19.3 
8.0 

6.8 
11.9 
13.2 
13.3 
14.2 

Per  ct. 
1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
1.5 
1.3 

1.8 
1.7 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
3.1 
1.4 

0.5 
0.5 
0.9 
0.7 
0.8 

0.5 
0.5 
1.1 
0.5 
0.5 

0.5 
0.3 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 

0.8 
1.3 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 

1.3 
0.9 
0.9 
1.4 
0.6 

0.6 
0.7 
0.3 
0.9 
0.7 

7 
7 
12 
97 
3 

4 
4 
1 

Rye 

Oat                         —       _      - 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Millet                            —    

Soybean 

Horse  bean            _ 

Wheat  chaff 

Oat  chaff 

Flax  shives 

Sorghum  bagasse  - 

1 

126 
63 

7 
40 
10 

21 
2 
4 
4 
11 

2 

1 
1 
1 
1 

FRESH  GREEN  EOUGHAGE 
Fresh  green  corn  forage 

Fodder  corn,  all  varieties  
Dent  varieties 

Dent,  kernels  glazed       _    

Flint  varieties             _      

Flint  kernels  glazed 

Sweet  varieties  

Sweet  corn,  ears  removed 

Corn  leaves  and  husks 

Stripped  corn  stalks  

Sorghum         

Sugar  cane 

Teosinte 

Yellow  milo  maize  

Red  kafir  corn 

White  kafir  corn 

Fresh  grass,  etc. 
Pasture  grass        _ 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

18 
56 
4 
5 

24 
3 

Timothy   different  stages 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom    

Red  top  in  bloom              _    

Italian  rye,  coming  in  bloom__ 
Tall  oat   in  bloom 

Bermuda  grass 

Oat  fodder  
Barley  fodder 

6 
1 

7 
1 
1 
8 
14 

Rve  fodder      _      -      

Wheat  fodder               

Johnson  grass                -    - 

Orchard  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Appendix.  571 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

FBESH   GREEN   ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Fresh  grass,  etc.  —  con. 
Pearl  millet 

Per  ct. 
81.5 

80.0 
80.0 
75.0 
75.0 

69.9 
72.0 
61.0 
77.9 

70.8 
80.0 
74.8 
80.9 
80.0 

73.8 
71.8 
85.0 
85.3 
83.6 

75.1 
79.5 
84.2 
82.2 
84.7 

75.0 
75.0 
79.7 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 

88.5 
86.5 
90.9 
90.1 
88.6 
88.6 

88.3 
79.1 
68.3 
79.5 
79.5 
66.0 

Per  ct. 
1.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.5 
1.9 

1.8 
2.6 
4.4 
3.5 

2.1 
1.9 
2.0 
1.7 
1.9 

2.3 
2.7 
1.4 
2.1 

Per  ct. 
1.2 
1.5 
1.5 
2.1 

2.4 

2.4 
2.9 
3.9 
2.2 

4.4 
3.0 
3.9 
3.1 
3.8 

5.5 

4.8 
2.7 
3.6 

Per  ct. 
6.2 
6.5 
6.5 
7.8 
7.0 

10.8 
7.0 
13.4 
7.1 

8.1 
5.8 
7.4 
5.2 
6.3 

5.9 
7.4 
4.5 
4.0 

Per  ct. 
9.3 
10.5 
10.2 
13.1 
13.1 

14.3 
15.4 
15.2 

8.4 

13.5 

8.9 
11.0 
8.4 
7.4 

10.5 
12.3 
6.1 

4.6 

Perct. 
0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.6 

0.8 
0.1 
2.1 
0.9 

1.1 

0.4 
0.9 
0.7 
0.6 

2.0 
1.0 
0.4 
0.4 

2 
1« 
1 
12 
2 

4 

Common  millet     -  

Hog  millet 

Japanese  millet 

Barnyard  millet  

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom 

Spurry 

Ragweed       _  _  _ 

1 
1 

43 
4 
4 
3 
4 

1 
23 
4 
14 
10 

27 
9 
2 
1 
26 

1 
2 
7 
1 
3 
4 
2 

9 
19 
9 
8 
4 
8 

Ramie 

Fresh  legumes,  etc. 

Red  clover,  different  stages  
Mammoth  red  clover  

Alsike  clover 

Crimson  clover  __ 

Sweet  clover  

Burr  clover  

Alfalfa 

Spring  vetch 

Sand  vetch 

Cowpea  _            _    _ 
Soybean 

2.6 
3.2 
1.2 
1.9 
1.3 

2.1 
1.6 
1.6 
1.6 
1.8 
1.6 
1.2 

1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.0 

0.7 
0.9 
1.1 
1.0 
0.4 
0.7 

4.0 
2.7 
2.8 
3.5 

2.8 

4.4 
2.9 
2.4 
2.8 
3.0 
3.4 
2.8 

1.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.3 
1.2 
1.1 

1.6 
2.1 
1.9 
2.6 
0.7 
1.1 

6.7 
5.4 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 

6.0 
8.0 
6.1 
6.8 
6.3 
6.4 
6.5 

0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 

1.0 
0.4 
1.1 
0.8 
2.2 
1.8 

10.6 
8.6 
6.5 
6.6 
6.3 

11.6 
11.7 

9.6 
8.2 
8.4 
8.1 
9.0 

8.0 
9.8 
5.5 
6.3 
7.5 
7.6 

10.2 
17.4 
26.8 
15.9 
10.5 
30.2 

1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 

0.9 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 

0.2 
0.1 
0.7 
0.2 
6.6 
0.2 

Serradella 

Horse  bean        _    _              

Velvet  bean              _ 

Canada  field  pea 

Sanfoin 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers 

Oat  and  peas 

Barley  and  peas 

Oats  and  vetch     

Wheat  and  vetch 

Barley  and  vetch 

Roots  and  tubers 
Common  beet  __    _ 

Sugar  beet  _       _    _ 

Mangel  _ 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot  

Parsnip 

Potato 

41 

48 
2 

Sweet  potato 

Artichoke 

Chufa         -_    _    _    

Cassava                -       

572  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding1  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat'sj 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex-   ' 
tract 

MISCELLANEOUS 
Dwarf  Essex  rape.    _ 

Per  ct. 

85.7 
85.0 
85.0 
90.0 
75.7 

88.0 
90.9 
80.8 
88.4 
55.3 

80.8 
83.0 
91.0 
84.3 
84.2 

78.5 
75.8 
46.0 
35.0 
49.6 

4.9 
16.0 
15.3 

Per  ct. 

2.5 
2.8 
3.3 
0.8 
4.0 

2.4 
0.5 
0.9 
2.2 
1.0 

0.4 
0.6 
1.5 
2.2 
3.1 

3.6 
5.8 
14.4 
4.3 
3.6 

9.7 

7.0 

2.6 
4.1 
3.6 

1.4 
2.1 
1.6 
1.1 

1.6 

2.4 
2.6 
2.8 
2.9 
3.5 

0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
1.3 
1.2 

Per  ct. 

2.2 
2.1 
2.3 
2.6 
2.0 

2.6 
1.8 
1.8 

2.4 
25 

0.7 
1.0 
2.3 
1.2 

0.7 

1.4 
3.5 
19.8 
13.7 
4.6 

9.5 
10.5 

4.0 
13.2 
6.4 

1.7 

2.7 
2.2 
0.8 
2.4 

1.7 

4.2 
4.1 
2.7 
5.9 

1.2 
1.4 
1.5 
2.8 
6.3 

Per  ct. 

2.1 
2.7 
1.8 
0.9 
4.9 

2.2 
1.7 
1.8 
1.6 

4.4 

1.2 
2.9 
1.6 

Per  ct. 

7.0 
6.9 
7.1 
5.5 
12.7 

4.4 
5.2 
7.9 
5.1 

34.8 

16.6 
11.6 
3.4 
8.2 
9.0 

12.3 
10.5 
34.3 
30.3 
20.3 

45.1 
49.3 

38.0 
42.1 
35.5 

11.0 
12.9 
15.1 
15.3 
9.2 

13.6 
11.6 
6.9 
7.6 
26.0 

8.8 
7.9 
14.3 
11.3 
15.6 

Per  ct. 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.8 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.3 
1.9 

0.4 
0.9 
0.2 
4.1 
0.3 

0.6 
0.5 
2.5 
2.4 
10.5 

4.5 

3.0 

1.6 
2.3 
2.4 

0.8 
0.9 
0.9 
0.3 
0.3 

0.8 
1.2 
2.2 
1.5 
1.6 

1.1 
1.1 
1.7 
1.3 
2.1 

5 
1 
1 

1 
1 

Dwarf  Essex  rape,  summer  
Dwarf  Essex  rape,  winter    _ 

Cabbage    __        _    _ 

Spurry           

Sugar-beet   leaves 

Field  pumpkin 

Garden  pumpkin    

Prickly  comfrey 

41 

Acorns 

Apples 

3 
6 
1 

Apple  pomace 

Purslane  ______ 

Dandelion 

Prickly  pear 

2.4 

3.6 
3.9 
24.5 
14.3 
11.3 

25.8 
14.2 

38.5 
31.9 

38.6 

6.0 
7.8 
6.5 
6.4 

5.8 

7.5 
8.4 
9.7 
6.0 
13.0 

3.3 
5.2 
7.9 
6.5 
4.5 

4 

67 
4 

Cane  cacti 

Australian  saltbush    _ 

Greasewood 

Common  little  sage 

1 
1 

7 

Common  sage  

Dried  oak  leaves,  gathered  in 
July  __    __    __ 

Dried  tree  leaves,  gathered  in 
July 

Dried  beech  twigs,  gathered  in 
winter 

Dried  banana  tops.        

Dried  banana  butts  

99 
17 

SILAGE 
Corn,  immature 

79.1 
73.6 
73.7 
76.1 

80.8 

74.0 
72.0 
74.2 
79.3 
50.1 

85.0 
83.8 
74.1 
76.8 
70.3 

Corn,  recent  analyses 

Corn,  ears  removed   __    _ 

Sorghum 

6 

1 

3 
5 
1 
2 
1 

1 

Rye 

Millet 

Red  clover__    

Soybean    _         

Cowpea 

Field  pea 

Apple  pomace 

Corn  cannery  refuse,  husks  
Corn  cannery  refuse,  cobs    _ 

Pea  cannery  refuse 

"1 

Wet  brewers'  grains 

Appendix.  573 

TABLE  I.  Average  composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Ash 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

SILAGE  —  con. 
Corn  and  soybean  _ 

Per  ct. 
76.0 
69.8 
79.0 
74.6 
79.7 

67.2 
66.8 
75.0 
90.0 

Per  ct. 
2.4 
4.5 
2.8 
1.8 
1.8 

2.9 
4.0 
2.6 
0.3 

Per  ct. 
2.5 
3.8 
2.8 
2.2 
1.2 

2.1 
2.5 
2.6 
1.5 

Per  ct. 
7.2 
9.5 
7.2 
7.9 
7.0 

11.2 
12.3 
9.4 
3.1 

Per  ct. 
11.1 
11.1 
7.2 
12.7 
9.5 

15.2 
13.6 
9.4 

4.7 

Per  ct. 
0.8 
1.3 
1.0 
0.7 
0.7 

1.4 

0.8 
1.0 
0.4 

4 
1 
9 
1 
3 

3 
1 
2 
1 

Cowpea  and  soybean 

Barnyard  millet  and  soybean.. 
Milo 

Durra         

Kafir 

Teosinte  

Barley                    

Sugar  beet  DU!D  __ 

574 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


TABLE  II.  AVERAGE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  AMERICAN  FEEDING  STUFFS,  WITH 
ADDITIONS  FROM  THE  GERMAN  TABLES. 

The  data  of  this  table  are  mainly  from  digestion  trials  by  Ameri- 
can experiment  stations,  as  compiled  by  Holland  in  the  Massachusetts 
(Hatch)  Experiment  Station  Report  for  1906.  Coefficients  from  this 
source  are  marked  "M"  in  the  last  column  of  the  table.  To  render 
the  table  more  complete,  additions  marked  "L"  have  been  made  from 
the  German  tables  given  in  Mentzel  and  Lengerke's  Landwirtschaft- 
liche  Kalender  for  1908.  Those  marked  "K"  are  from  Zusammenset- 
zung  der  Futtermittel,  Dietrich  and  Konig.  Those  unmarked  are 
from  American  stations,  not  reported  by  Holland. 

A.  Experiments  with  Ruminants. 


Feeding  stuffs 

KS 

&i 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

CONCENTRATES. 
Dent  corn 

12 
21 
2 

3 

8 

15 
5 

8 
5 

4 
11 

7 
3 
4 
6 
4 

2 
3 
4 
1 
4 
1 

6 
2 
6 
2 

Per  ct. 
91 
88 
59 
79 
87 

87 
76 
82 
70 

87 
66 
67 
62 

82 

Per  ct. 
76 
66 
17 
52 
88 

85 
73 
65 
54 

74 
77 
76 
77 
88 
77 
78 

84 
80 
70 
85 
83 
87 

77 
81 
65 
75 
47 
85 

Per  ct. 

58 

Per  ct. 
93 

92 
60 

88 
88 

89 

76 
89 
76 

93 
71 

74 
65 

88 
78 

77 

92 
88 
92 
86 
92 
97 

77 
96 
42 
76 
56 
83 

Per  ct. 
86 
91 
50 
84 
93 

82 
96 
92 

77 

71 
63 
63 
64 
86 
88 
87 

64 
90 
89 
87 
74 
92 

89 
94 
90 
100 
56 
89 

K. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
L. 

"M." 

M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 

"M." 

Corn  meal  

Corn  cob  _    _    _ 

65 
45 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

76 

Germ  oil  meal 

Hominy  meal  __ 

67 
57 

Corn  bran  __ 

Wheat  meal     

Wheat  bran,  average  all  trials 

41 

44 
27 
36 
30 
62 

Spring  wheat  bran 

Winter  wheat  bran  

Flour  wheat  middlings 

Standard  wheat  middlings  (shorts) 
Wheat  feed  (bran  and  middlings  )__ 

Rye  meal 

73 

87 
82 
86 
77 
86 
94 

70 
90 
40 
71 
49 
75 

Rye  feed  (bran  and  middlings)  

Barley  

50 
20 
57 
84 

31 
49 
32 
24 
39 
17 

Barley  bran        

Barley  feed 

Emmer   (speltz) 

Oats 

Oat  middlings  fine 

Oat  feed  __          __    _  _          

Buckwheat            _              __    — 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

3 

Appendix.  575 

TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

°l 

£& 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority  || 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

CONCENTRATES  —  con. 
Rice 

2 
2 
4 
2 

2 

11 
2 
2 
2 
2 
30 

10 
7 
3 
12 
5 
3 

4 

7 
7 
2 
4 

7 

2 
2 
14 
13 

11 
23 

6 
12 
4 

17 
2 

2 
11 
4 
1 

Per  ct. 
98 
74 
62 
83 
16 

53 

78 
86 
87 
87 
88 

79 

77 
79 
82 
80 
91 

76 
83 
83 
32 

77 
66 

66 
56 
77 
41 

45 
52 

62 
63 

78 

79 

58 

88 
77 
83 

Per  ct. 
86 
62 
64 
66 
10 

46 
49 
65 
83 

82 
87 

87 
91 
89 
84 
78 
95 

90 
90 
90 
71 
90 
81 

68 
47 
83 
6 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
100 
92 
78 
93 
35 

60 
85 
71 
94 
93 
91 

73 
55 
78 
80 
83 
94 

71 
84 
84 
49 
56 
76 

50 
51 

78 
34 

51 
55 

60 
62 

81 

81 
67 

94 
86 
91 
79 
81 

Per  ct. 
90 
91 
72 
74 
67 

46 
77 
70 
55 
74 
83 

85 
86 
89 
89 
97 
95 

88 
90 
90 
90 
90 
79 

87 
72 
94 
79 

76 
86 

90 
86 
90 

95 

84 

L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 

M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
L. 

M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
L. 

L. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
L. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 
L. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

L. 
L. 
L. 

~W. 

Rice  meal 

Rice  bran 

21 
22 

Rice  polish 

Rice  hulls 

Kafir  corn  _    

Sorghum  seed 

68 
51 
26 
64 
58 

Millet  seed 

Pea  meal 

Cowpea  meal    _  _ 

Northern  field  beans 

Soybean  meal  

Flax  seed 

60 
57 
74 
63 
82 

30 
9 
9 
12 
31 
8 

76 
66 
35 

47 

46 
46 

50 
40 
83 

95 

Linseed  meal,  old  process     

Linseed  meal,  new  process  

Cocoanut  cake 

Palmnut  cake     

Sunflower-seed  cake 

Peanut  kernel,  without  hulls_ 

Peanut  cake    __      

Peanut  feed 

Sesame  cake 

Rape-seed  cake  

Cotton  seed 

Roasted  cotton  seed 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Cotton-seed  hulls    _ 

Cotton-seed  hulls,   when  fed  with 
cotton-seed  meal 

Cotton-seed  feed  

51 

80 
73 

77 

73 
59 

60 
51 
52 
66 
63 

Factory  by-prodiwts 
Dried  brewers'  grains  

Wet  brewers'  grains    

Malt  sprouts 

Dried     distillers'    grains,     largely 
from  corn  

Dried    distillers'    grains,     largely 
from  rye 

Fresh  beet  pulp  

76 
72 

Dried  beet  pulp  

Beet  molasses  

Dried  molasses  beet  pulp_ 

86 
55 

9 

76 

Molasses  feed  (grains) 

13 

72 

576 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

a 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

CONCENTBATES  —  COD. 

Factory  by-products  —  con. 
Apple  pomace                 

6 
5 
5 
2 

Per  ct. 
72 
93 
93 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
65 

Per  ct. 

85 

Per  ct. 
46 
98 
98 

M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

L. 
L. 
L. 

M. 
M. 

Meat  scraps 

93 
93 
84 

55 

50 
50 
45 

27 
70 
64 
64 

36 
40 
36 

60 
48 
55 
21 
22 

46 
30 
38 
34 

66 
57 

50 
48 
57 

Dried  fish                       __       

Blood  meal                          

ROUGHAGE 

Field-cured  corn  fodder 
(Corn  forage  with  ears,   if  any) 

Dent  and  flint  varieties,  average  
Dent  corn  fodder,  immature  stage, 
average  all  trials  

23 

15 
11 
38 

4 
3 
11 
6 

31 
2 
2 

3 
4 
2 
2 
2 

4 
2 
4 
5 

48 
94 
28 
64 
8 

68 

62 
63 
65 

57 
70 
70 
67 

57 

57 
60 

63 
65 
60 
67 
55 

61 
72 
61 
57 

67 
61 
56 
55 
59 

65 

67 
64 
64 

59 
72 
76 

74 

64 

65 
70 

61 
73 
71 
74 
71 

70 
80 
60 
67 

63 
60 
56 
50 
57 

73 

62 
66 
71 

61 
71 
71 

68 

59 
56 
59 

66 
66 
62 
69 
54 

64 
75 
66 
60 

68 
64 
59 
62 
63 

74 

65 
75 
65 

76 
67 
71 

74 

67 
72 

74 

83 
58 
71 
80 
64 

60 
33 
61 
75 

57 
53 
49 
50 
48 

Dent  corn  fodder,  milk  stage  

Dent  corn  fodder,  mature  stage  
B.  &  W.  dent  corn  fodder,  imma- 
ture stage  

Flint  corn  fodder,  ears  forming  
Hint  corn  fodder,  mature  stage  
Sweet  corn  fodder,  mature  stage— 

Field-cured  corn  stover 
(Corn  forage  with  ears  removed) 

Corn  stover,  average  all  trials 

Shredded  corn  stover,  fed  dry  

Shredded  corn  stover,  fed  wet  

Ground    corn    stover    minus    pith 
(Marsden's  process) 

Corn  stover,  blades  and  husks 

Corn  stover,  tops  and  blades  

Corn  stover,  stalks  below  ears  

Corn  stover,  stalks  above  ears  __ 

Corn  stover,  leaves    __ 

Corn  stover,  husks. 

Kafir  corn  fodder 

Kafir  corn  stover 

Cured  hay  from  the  grasses,  etc. 
Meadow  hay,  rich  in  protein 

Meadow  hay,  medium  in  protein  
Meadow  hay,  poor  in  protein  

Timothy,  average  all  trials    __ 

Timothy,  in  bloom  

Appendix.  577 

TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

°l 

§s 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Cured  Jiay  from  the  grasses, 
etc.  —  con. 

Timothy  past  bloom 

17 
2 
3 
3 

2 
60 
10 
16 
3 
1 

1 

2 
2 
1 
1 

1 
12 

2 
2 

3 

4 
3 
22 
2 

2 
2 

2 
3 
3 
2 
1 
4 
20 
6 
7 
7 

Per  ct. 
52 
55 
56 
60 

55 

60 
55 

Per  ct. 
43 
38 
60 
61 

51 
57 
47 
69 
73 
18 

57 

43 
70 
57 
64 

68 
53 

63 
60 

40 

58 
66 
56 
34 

57 
63 

62 
58 
43 
61 
14 
65 
53 
74 
73 
65 

Per  ct. 
46 
53 
61 
61 

55 
60 
65 
66 
76 
61 

63 

71 
72 
37 
45 

53 
65 

67 
68 

68 

62 
8 
56 
33 

51 

50 

52 
68 
49 
70 
64 
62 
51 
65 
58 
55 

Per  ct. 
59 
60 
55 
62 

58 
61 
59 
64 
74 
61 

53 

63 
69 
43 
60 

67 

58 

59 

67 

57 

66 
49 
52 
46 

52 
53 

54 
65 
61 
65 
65 
63 
55 
68 
61 
59 

Per  ct. 
51 
58 
55 
51 

56 
50 
45 
47 
67 
57 

43 

37 
52 
37 
50 

16 
50 

46 
64 

38 

57 
52 
37 

44 

24 

47 

31 
50 
65 
47 
46 
41 
60 
64 
59 
55 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

~M7 

M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

Timothy  and  clover,  poorly  cured. 
Orchard  grass        -  

Red  top                   ...  —  —  —  

Tall  oat  grass,  Arrhenatherum    ela 
tins  late  bloom  --          

Mixed  grasses,  rich  in  protein  

Mixed  grasses,  mostly  timothy___ 
Rowen 

Pasture  grass  —  

73 

56 

56 

62 
69 
40 
52 

60 
59 

62 
65 

57 

61 
46 
54 
39 

53 
53 

56 
64 
58 
63 
61 
59 
54 
66 
61 
58 

Prairie  srrass  Sporobolus  asper 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  Poa  pratensis  , 
bloom 

Canada  blue  grass,  Poa  compressa, 
bloom 

Blue-joint  in  bloom 

Blue-  joint,  past  bloom  

Native  blue  grass,  Poa  sandbergii.- 
Western  brome  grass  Bromus  mar- 
qinatus 

Millet  _  

Cat-tail  millet,    Pennesetum     spica- 
tum-        _          

Hungarian  grass  

Johnson  grass,  Andropogon   halepen- 

sis  

Witch  grass  (quack),      Agropyrum 

Salt  bush,  Atriplex  argentea  

Salt  grasses  

Swale  meadow  (Swamp  hay)  

Low  meadow  fox  grass,    Spartina 
juncea  ___  __ 

High-grown  salt  hay  (largely  Spar- 
tina juncea)  

Branch  grass  (Spartina  juncea  with 
Spartina  stricta,  var.  glalra) 

Wild  oat  grass,  Danthonia  spicata--. 
Sorghum  fodder  __ 

Sorghum  fodder,  leaves  
Sorghum  bagasse  _ 

Barley  

Oat  

Wheat  and  sand  vetch  

Oat  and  pea  

Oat  and  vetch  

38 

578 


Feeds  and  Feeding 


TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

°3 
$* 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Cured  hay  from  the  grasses, 
etc.  —  con. 
Buffalo  grass  Bulbilis  Dactyloides— 
Chess  or  cheat,  Bromus  secalinus  
Colorado  upland  hay,  largely  Agro- 
pyrum    tenerum                 -  —  -  - 

1 
1 

6 

8 

2 
2 

2 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

39 
17 

12 
2 
18 
46 
2 

9 
9 
1 

4 

Per  ct. 
55 
45 

56 
53 

61 
56 

58 
67 
61 

66 
69 
62 
77 
68 

62 
63 

62 
58 
57 
61 
55 

59 
62 
66 

Per  ct. 
54 
42 

62 

58 

52 
56 

58 
57 
70 

77 
71 
63 
82 
75 

72 
71 

75 

69 
58 
62 
55 

66 
69 
73 
65 

65 
71 
63 
70 
82 
70 
75 

23 
23 
33 
25 

45 

Per  ct. 
65 
46 

59 
60 

67 
41 

46 
74 
54 

59 
47 
36 
70 
56 

47 
49 

45 
34 
54 
49 
46 

50 
45 
61 
47 

43 
61 
52 
58 
61 
36 
50 

50 
55 
54 
54 
57 

Per  ct. 

62 
49 

57 

53 

59 
67 

67 
65 
61 

75 

83 
78 
86 
75 

72 
72 

73 
71 

64 
69 
64 

66 
62 
70 
63 

71 
69 
70 
72 
73 
74 
63 

37 
39 
46 
53 
32 

Per  ct. 

62 
32 

34 
43 

54 

70 

62 
77 
63 

74 
81 
33 
71 
75 

43 
41 

42 
42 
55 
62 
53 

38 
44 
51 
60 

50 
29 
66 
71 
70 
66 
65 

31 
36 
36 
39 

47 

M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
L. 

L. 

L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 

Ripe  crab  grass,  Eragrostis  Neo  Mex- 
icanna 

Meadow  fescue,  Festuca  elatior  pra- 
tensis,  in  bloom         -  

Buttercup    Ranunculus  acris 

White  weed  (Ox-eye  daisy),  Leucan- 
themitm  vulgare 

Indian  potato,   Ataenia  gairdneri  
Common  sunflower,  Wyethia  mollis- 
Balsam    root,      Balsamorhiza     sagit- 
tata  

Wild  carrot,  Leptotaenia  multifida-- 
Dandeloin,  Crepis  intermedia    _  _ 

Bitter  brush,   Kunzia  tridentata  
Little  lupine,  Lupinus,  sp         __     _ 

Cured  hay  from  the  legumes 
Alfalfa,  average  all  trials  ___ 

First  crop  alfalfa,  budded  to  full 
bloom  

Second  crop  alfalfa,  budded  to  full 
bloom 

Third  crop  alfalfa 

Red  clover  _    

Red  clover,  in  bloom 

Red  clover,  late  bloom 

Alsike  clover. 

Crimson  clover 

White  clover 

Clover  rowen 

Cowpea 

2 
2 
2 
2 
6 
2 
2 

10 

59 
62 
60 
66 
69 
62 
62 

42 
46 
48 
52 
47 

Soybean  

Peanut  vine        

Spring  vetch,   Vicia  sativa  

Winter  or  hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa 
Sanfoin       

Serradella 

Straw  and  chaff 
Wheat 

Rve 

Oat 

11 

7 
4 

Barley  _ 

Rice  

Appendix.  579 

TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

°l 

£$ 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

ROUGHAGE  —  con. 
Straw   and   chaff  —  con. 
Horse  bean  

5 

2 
4 
3 
2 

17 
9 
9 
21 
2 
12 
9 

4 
2 
3 
? 

Per  ct. 

55 

59 
55 

30 
42 

68 
70 
67 
68 

77 

Per  ct. 

49 
60 
50 
26 
38 

66 
61 
54 
53 

77 
62 
45 

70 
68 
48 
72 
65 

50 

63 
73 
79 
71 

74 
66 

77 
62 

77 

79 
69 
76 
81 
71 

83 
75 

Per  ct. 
43 
52 

38 
39 
45 

64 
64 
51 
60 
75 
60 
58 

76 
76 
56 
64 
73 

62 

70 
55 
80 
58 

43 
49 
56 
52 
45 

50 
41 
60 
49 
44 

63 
52 

Per  ct. 
68 
64 
66 
33 
49 

71 

76 
75 

73 

81 
77 
70 

73 
73 
66 
68 
71 

67 

67 
62 
71 
72 

72 
71 

74 
65 
75 

72 
73 
81 
75 
76 

77 
68 

Per  ct. 
57 
46 
60 
43 
48 

68 
78 
78 
72 
74 
74 
69 

63 
58 
52 
52 

58 

68 

62 
69 
74 
56 

39 
61 
66 
61 
54 

54 
54 
59 
54 
59 

71 
59 

L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

Pea  vine_ 

Soybean  vine 

Wheat   chaff 

Oat  chaff 

Green  corn   forage   and  sorghum 

Dent  corn  fodder,  immature  stage- 
Dent  corn  fodder,  milk  stage 

Dent  corn  fodder,  glazing  stage  
Dent  corn  fodder,  mature  stage  
Sweet  corn  fodder,  milk  stage  
Sweet  corn  fodder,  roasting  stage- 
Sorghum  fodder 

64 

71 

70 

64 

Green  grasses 
Mixed  pasture  grass    

Meadow  grass    _ 

Timothy  grass 

Timothy  grass  rowen 

Barnyard  millet,  in  bloom  

6 
3 

70 

Japanese   millet,   bloom  to   early 
seed 

Hungarian    grass,    early    to    late 
bloom  

8 
5 
2 
6 

66 
~~74~~ 

Oat  fodder,  bloom  to  early  seed  
Rye  fodder     _    

Barley  fodder  ......  ...  

Green   legumes,   grasses  and  legumes 
combined 

Alfalfa      

2 
5 
3 

61 
66 

Red   clover  

Crimson  clover,  late  bloom 

Clover  rowen,  late  bloom 

2 

18 

2 

2 

4 

8 
2 

14 

4 

61 

65 

66 
62 
68 
65 
62 

71 

Soybean  .....    - 

Soybean,  before  bloom  

Soybean,  seed  half  grown  

Cowpeas,  ready  for  soiling    

Canada  field  peas 

Spring"  vetch     Vicia  sativa 

Winter  or  hairy  vetch,  Vicia  villosa, 
in  bloom 

Barley  and  pea,  in  bloom  

580 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 

°3 
S3 

Dry 
mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority| 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Green  legumes,  grasses  and 
legumes  combined  —  con. 

Oats  and  spring  vetch,  in  bloom  
Oats  and  peas  

3 
10 
5 
25 
17 

11 
2 
2 
5 

7 
4 
8 
4 
3 

2 
2 
3 
2 

30 
2 
22 
30 
10 

4 
2 

Per  ct. 
67 
70 
69 
66 
64 

75 
70 
68 
44 
56 
59 
69 
60 
57 

66 
65 
55 
65 

83 

87 
87 
92 
87 

85 
88 

Per  ct. 
75 
74 
75 
50 
53 

65 
56 
54 
35 
66 
57 
63 
57 
13 

63 
58 
28 
75 

51 

80 
70 
72 
73 

89 
83 

77 
74 

P«r  ct. 
68 
60 
68 
64 
68 

77 
72 
71 
48 
53 
69 
62 
52 
58 

60 
65 
57 
61 

Per  ct. 
68 
68 
73 
71 
66 

79 
76 
72 
45 
65 
59 
78 
72 
64 

72 
74 
62 
67 

90 
95 
95 
97 
92 

92 
91 
90 

80 

Per  ct. 
47 
64 
57 
82 
71 

82 
73 
83 
45 
57 
72 
83 
63 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 
L. 

M. 
L. 

Winter  wheat  and  hairy  vetch  

Dent  corn,  mature  stage 

Dent  corn,  immature  stage__    

Flint  corn,  mature  stage,  small  va- 
rieties     _                                 

Large  white  flint  corn,  partly  eared 
Sweet  corn,  mature  stage  

Clover  

Soybean        

Soybean  and  barnyard  millet  
Soybean  and  corn 

Cowpea  _    _    —       _    __ 

Sorghum  well  matured 

Corn,   sunflower  heads   and   horse 
beans  

77 
74 
50 
75 

~~84~~ 

Corn,  sunflowers  and  horse  beans.  _ 
Kafir  corn,  well  matured    

Oat  and  pea  

Boots  and  tubers. 
Potato 

Rutabaga  

74 
37 
34 
51 

87 
62 
65 
70 

Mangel 

Sugar  beet 

Turnip 

MISCELLANEOUS 
Dwarf  Essex  rape,  average 

48 
88 
50 
55 

Acorns 

Pumpkin  

Sugar  beet  leaves  

4 

77 

L. 

B.  Experiments  with  Horses. 

Corn  __ 

2 
2 
4 
2 

2 

74 
88 
74 
44 

50 

58 
76 
84 
21 

68 

88 
96 
82 
47 

47 

48 
73 
81 
47 

60 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 

Corn  meal                                    _  _ 

Oats 

22 
43 

55 

Timothy  hay     

Ground   corn   stover   minus    pith 
(Marsden's  process) 

Appendix.  581 

TABLE  II.  Average  digestibility  of  American  feeding  stuffs — continued. 
C.  Experiments  with  Calves. 


Feeding  stuffsl 

^ 

gB 

Dry 

mat- 
ter 

Pro- 
tein 

Carbohydrat's 

Fat 

Authority 

Fiber 

N-free 
ex- 
tract 

Whole  milk  _ 

8 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
95 
93 
87 
95 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 
100* 
100* 
100* 
100* 

Per  ct. 
97 
95 
95 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

Pasteurized  whole  milk 

q 

Cooked  whole  milk  

3 

Skim  milk  

3 

D.  Experiments  with  Swine. 

Corn  

1 
2 
1 

83 
90 
76 
83 
82 
77 

66 

67 
82 
80 
90 

77 

73 
97 
72 
92 
95 

69 

88 
76 
80 
80 
73 

75 

66 
76 
81 
89 
86 

68 
84 
72 
97 
96 

38 
39 
29 
60 
60 
37 

34 
9 
15 

49 
78 
12 

33 

89 
94 

84 
83 
83 
87 

66 
75 

90 
87 
95 
85 

92 
98 
92 

46 

80 
82 
70 
70 

M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
L. 
L. 
L. 

Corn  meal    

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Whole  wheat  

Cracked  wheat     

"2" 

2 
2 
8 
1 
1 
4 

1 
4 
1 
8 
1 

Wheat  shorts                

Wheat  bran 

72 

58 
65 
57 
50 

80 

59 

Rye  bran  

Barley  meal                     

Barley  meal 

Pea  meal 

Linseed  meal  old  process 

Hog    millet    seed,    Panicum    milia- 
ceum  _-  _     _     

Potato 

Dried  blood 

Flesh  meal     _    

87 
95 

Sour  milk    -     

98 

*Assumed. 


582 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


TABLE  III.  AVERAGE  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  AND  FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS 
IN  AMERICAN  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

The  data  for  the  digestible  nutrients  in  this  table  are  derived,  for 
the  most  part,  by  combining  the  data  in  the  two  preceding  tables. 
"Where  no  digestion  factors  are  available  in  Table  II  for  a  given 
feed,  the  digestion  factor  of  a  similar  feed  has  been  used  and  that 
fact  indicated  by  an  asterisk. 

The  fertilizing  constituents  given  are  mostly  from  the  extensive 
tables  compiled  by  Roberts  in  The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  and  by 
Voorhees  in  Forage  Crops. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

CONCENTRATES. 
Grains,  seeds,  and  their  parts 
Dent  corn 

Lbs, 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
85.0 
89.3 
84.9 

90.5 
90.8 
90.4 
91.4 
90.6 
89.5 
87.6 
90.1 
90.0 

88.8 

88.1 
88.5 
88.0 
89.1 
88.4 

91.3 
86.9 

88.2 
88.4 
87.6 
89.2 
87.8 
91.1 
92.0 

Lbs. 

7.8 
8.0 
8.8 
6.1 
0.5 
4.4 

29.7 
21.3 
6.8 
15.8 
6.0 
8.8 
10.6 
16.2 
16.9 

13.0 

11.9 
12.1 
11.9 
12.7 
9.6 

9.5 
5.6 
11.0 
11.2 
12.6 
8.4 
9.5 
11.5 
10.0 

Lbs. 
66.8 
66.2 
63.7 
64.3 
44.8 
60.0 

42.5 
52.8 
60.5 
38.8 
52.5 
67.5 
65.1 
57.0 
53.6 

45.7 

42.0 
37.1 
43.1 
47.1 
48.2 

69.4 
72.2 
52.9 
46.8 
56.6 
65.3 
49.9 
60.3 
70.3 

Lbs. 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
3.5 

Lbs. 
16.5 

16.8 
18.6 
14.7 
3.9 
13.6 

54.8 
40.0 
16.8 
34.7 
17.9 
19.0 
19.2 
29.4 
30.7 

27.0 

24.6 
25.1 
25.1 
26.1 
20.0 

18.1 
10.7 
22.9 
23.3 
25.1 
19.2 
19.7 
22.1 
18.4 

Lbs. 
7.1 
7.1 
7.1 
6.3 
0.6 
5.7 

3.3 
3.7 
9.8 
3.9 
10.1 
5.5 
5.7 

Lbs. 
5.7 

5.7 
5.7 

4.7 
6.0 

4.7 

0.5 
0.4 
4.9 
2.1 
6.2 
8.7 
5.4 

Flint  corn*        . 

Sweet  corn* 

Corn  meal 

Corn  cob 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

2.9 

6.1 
2.9 
7.4 
10.8 
4.8 
1.5 
1.0 
3.4 
4.1 

4.5 

2.5 
2.8 
3.1 
4.0 
1.9 

1.2 
0.5 
2.6 
1.8 
2.8 
1.6 
2.5 
2.9 
2.0 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed    

Hominy  feed  (chop)        _  

Germ  oil  meal 

Corn  bran 

Wheat 

High  grade  flour*     _            

Red  dog  flour* 

Flour  wheat  middlings 

12.2 

26.3 
26.9 

9.6 

15.3 
15.2 

Standard      wheat      middlings 
(shorts)            _  _         _  - 

Wheat  bran  all  analyses 

Winter  wheat  bran  

Spring  wheat  bran  _      

Wheat  feed 

20.4 
11.7 

8.6 
8.2 
12.3 

22.8 

7.7 
7.9 

5.4 
8.4 

5.8 
6.5 
9.6 
14.0 
4.7 
4.8 

Wheat  screenings  . 

Rye* 

Rye  flour* 

Rye  middlings* 

Rye  bran* 

Rye  feed 

Barley          _    _      _ 

Barley  screenings*     

Barley  feed* 

6.6 

7.6 

3.4 
5.7 

Emmer  (speltz)             _      

Appendix. 


583 


TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing:  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

CONCENTRATES  —  con. 

Grains,  seeds,  and  their 
parts  —  con. 

Oats  

Lbs. 

89.6 
88.0 
92.1 
91.2 
93.0 
93.5 
92.6 

86.6 
85.4 
87.2 
91.8 
88.4 
86.8 

87.6 
89.8 
89.2 
90.3 
91.2 

85.0 
89.5 
89.0 
89.1 
85.4 
88.3 
88.7 

90.1 
86.4 
87.2 
91.0 
90.3 
87.2 
87.9 
90.5 

90.8 
90.2 
91.0 
89.7 
93.9 
93.0 
88.9 
89.6 

Lbs. 
8.8 
10.1 
11.9 
13.1 
5.2 
5.1 
1.3 

8.1 
5.9 
22.7 
5.9 
15.6 
1.2 

6.4 
7.4 
7.9 
7.6 
0.3 

19.7 

16.8 
7.7 
20.2 
16.8 
29.1 
23.1 

5.2 
4.2 
4.5 
4.9 
4.2 
4.6 
7.1 
6.4 

20.6 
30.2 
31.5 
12.o 
7.9 
37.6 
0.3 
16.0 

Lbs. 
49.2 
52.5 
65.1 
57.7 
30.1 
32.8 
38.5 

48.2 
63.0 
37.5 
34.0 
38.2 
28.6 

79.2 
48.3 
58.6 
38.8 
19.9 

49.3 
51.7 
41.6 
42.3 
54/9 
23.3 
49.8 

44.3 
42.4 
61.1 
44.8 
45.0 
42.2 
48.5 
48.8 

17.1 
32.0 
35.7 
30.0 
25.5 
21.4 
33.2 
52.6 

Lbs. 
4.3 
3.7 
6.7 
6.5 
2.6 
2.3 
0.6 

2.4 
1.2 
6.1 
2.0 
4.4 
0.5 

0.4 
11.9 
5.3 
7.3 
0.7 

0.4 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 
1.1 
14.6 
0.8 

1.4 
1.2 
2.8 
1.3 

Lbs. 

18.2 
19.7 
23.5 
25.9 
12.8 
21.6 
5.3 

17.3 
11.0 
42.7 
20.2 
29.3 
7.3 

11.8 
19.2 
19.0 
19.0 
5.1 

37.9 
32.3 
16.0 
37.1 
32.8 
53.6 
42.6 

17.9 
14.7 
14.6 
17.1 

Lbs. 

7.8 
7.6 

Lbs. 
4.8 
5.0 

Ground  oats 

Oat  meal* 

Oat  middlings 

22.5 
6.1 

15.3 

7.2 

Oat   feed  

Oat  dust* 

Oat  hulls* 

1.6 

6.9 
6.8 
12.3 
4.2 
15.8 
4.3 

1.8 

4.9 

3.0 
3.4 
11.4 
12.7 
10.5 
14.7 

0.9 

Buckwheat     

Buckwheat   flour* 

Buckwheat   middlings 

Buckwheat   bran*     _      _      

Buckwheat   feed* 

Buckwheat  hulls*  

Rice 

Rice  meal  __    __      

Rice  polish     _ 

26.7 
2.9 
1.7 

8.4 
8.2 
3.1 
12.0 
10.1 
10.4 
12.0 

7.1 
2.4 
1.4 

10.1 
9.9 
10.3 
12.9 
12.0 
12.6 
12.9 

Rice  bran 

Rice  hulls 

Canada  field  pea  __    _ 

Canada  field  pea  meal 

Canada  field  pea  bran* 

Table  bean  meal*  

Cowpea  

Soybean     

Horse  bean* 

Kafir  corn 

Ground  kafir  corn  heads*  _ 

Sorghum  seed*  _ 

8.4 

3.4 

Milo  maize  seed* 

Ground  milo  maize  heads* 

1.1 
1.5 
2.5 
3.3 

29.0 
6.9 
2.4 
17.3 
19.9 
9.6 
1.7 
9.0 

14.7 
15.8 
17.4 
15.8 

36.2 
54.2 
60.0 
29.4 
26.9 
72.5 
6.7 
26.9 

Broom-corn  seed* 

7.2 
6.5 

4.7 

13.9 
16.6 
17.4 
10.5 

5.2 
3.3 

3.8 

10.3 
13.7 
13.4 
10.9 

Millet  seed 

Hungarian  grass  seed*  

Flax  seed  

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Linseed  meal,  new  process  
Cotton  seed 

Cotton  seed  roasted 

Cotton-seed  meal 

30.4 
4.3 
11.0 

15.8 
10.4 
5.0 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Palmnut   cake 

584  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

CONCENTRATES  —  con. 

Grains,  seeds,  and  their 
parts  —  con. 

Cocoanut  cake         _    

Lbs. 
89.7 
91.4 
89.2 
92.5 
89.3 
90.0 
92.6 

91.3 
23.0 
90.5 
92.4 

17.0 

88.0 
88.0 
31.2 
7.3 

87.0 

10.2 
91.6 
79.2 
74.1 
92.0 
89.6 
90.9 

12.8 
25.4 
9.4 
9.9 

6.2 

89.3 
94.0 
91.5 
93.0 
89.2 

57.8 
59.5 
49.1 
70.0 
60.0 

Lbs. 
15.4 

14.8 
29.5 
25.1 
42.8 
25.3 
33.0 

20.0 
4.9 
20.3 
22.8 

0.6 
0.4 
2.4 
3.7 
0.4 
7.0 

0.5 
4.1 
4.7 
1.4 

6.1 
10.8 
9.8 

3.4 
17.6 
2.9 
3.8 
0.6 

66.2 
36.7 
70.9 
50.1 
45.0 

2.5 
1.4 

0.8 
2.8 
3.4 

Lbs. 
41.2 
29.7 
23.3 
13.7 
20.4 
23.7 
10.9 

32.2 
9.4 
46.0 
39.7 

13.1 
74.0 
70.6 
12.4 
6.8 
55.5 

7.7 
64.9 
54.1 
59.2 

68.7 
48.0 
40.8 

4.8 
2.7 
5.3 
3.9 
5.0 

Lbs. 
10.7 
18.2 
8.0 
35.6 
7.2 
7.6 
23.4 

6.0 
1.7 
1.4 
11.6 

0.5 
0.6 
1.1 
2.6 
0.1 
4.8 

Lbs. 
31.5 
26.1 
52.5 
44.6 
76.2 
49.9 
58.7 

40.0 
10.7 
42.1 
49.9 

1.6 
1.2 
7.6 
8.0 
0.9 
12.8 

1.4 
12.9 
14.5 
4.3 
15.4 
27.4 
20.9 

5.8 
28.2 
5.0 
6.4 
1.0 

114.0 
63.2 
135.0 
86.2 

77.4 

7.2 
6.1 
4.0 
9.8 
9.8 

Lbs. 
16.0 
12.2 
21.5 
12.4 
20.0 
20.0 
32.7 

16.1 
4.2 
17.4 
6.0 

0.1 
0.6 
2.9 
0.5 
0.2 

Lbs. 
24.0 
5.6 
11.7 
12.7 
15.0 
13.0 
14.5 

2.0 
0.5 
19.9 
1.7 

0.3 
2.8 
1.5 
0.2 
0.9 

Sunflower  seed 

Sunflower-seed   cake_^    _      

Peanut  kernels,  without  hulls.  _ 
Peanut  cake                          

Rape-seed  cake 

Sesame  oil  cake 

Factory  by-products 
Dried  brewers'  grains 

Wet  brewers'  grains 

Malt  sprouts  

Dried  distillers'  grains 

Apple  pomace 

Cassava  starch  refuse* 

Starch  refuse*    

Wet  starch  feed                       

Potato  pomace 

Bakery  refuse* 

Wet  beet  pulp 

0.3 
2.2 
0.5 
1.2 
1.5 
8.5 

1.9 
6.6 
2.1 
1.7 
1.1 

81.1 
146.8 
13.5 
139.0 
140.0 

5.4 
3.8 

11.4 
3.1 

56.3 
36.8 
18.1 
21.1 

1.7 
1.1 
2.0 
1.6 
2.0 

~7~7 
3.0 
3.0 

8.9 
10.9 

Dried  beet  pulp 

Sugar  beet  molasses    

Porto  Rico  molasses* 

Dried  molasses  beet  pulp 

Molasses  grains 

2.2 
0.9 

3.7 
3.6 
0.3 
1.0 
0.2 

13.4 
10.6 
2.5 
11.6 
11.4 

1.2 
0.7 
0.2 
0.8 
1.1 

Alfalmo*      

Cow's  milk 

Cow's  milk  colostrum 

Skim  milk  ,  

Buttermilk   

Whey* 

Meat  scrap 

Meat  and  bone  meal* 

5.5 

Dried  blood 

Tankage* 

Dried  fish  

34.6 
31.2 
33.8 
37.8 
36.2 

DRIED  ROUGHAGE 
Field-cured  corn  forage 

Fodder  corn,  ears,  if  any,   re- 
maining 

Corn  stover,  ears  removed  _ 

Corn  husks 

Corn  leaves 

Sweet  corn  lorage^  

4.0 



Appendix. 


585 


TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

DRIED   KOUGHAGE  —  con. 
Cured  hay  from  the  grasses,  etc. 
English  hay     __    __ 

Lbs. 

86.0 
84.7 
86.8 
85.0 
85.8 
85.9 

93.4 
90.1 
91.1 

86.0 
80.0 

86.0 
86.0 
91.5 
86.0 
86.0 

92.9 
89.8 
93.0 
85.0 
86.0 
93.4 

86.0 
89.0 
86.0 
85.7 
90.8 

85.0 

85.7 
85.7 

Lbs. 

4.5 

4.2 
2.8 
3.4 
2.5 
2.1 

5.3 

4.9 
4.8 
6.8 
4.2 

4.4 
3.3 
4.5 

ea 

7.9 

6.4 
2.9 
4.4 
5.7 
4.7 
7.0 

5.2 
7.2 
5.0 
2.9 
3.0 

3.0 
4.2 
5.1 
3.3 
5.5 

4.0 
3.1 
4.8 
3.7 
3.8 

Lbs. 

44.0 
42.0 
42.4 
43.3 
39.2 
40.1 

41.0 
42.4 
46.9 
40.6 
36.9 

40.2 
41.4 
43.4 
37.8 
42.2 

44.9 
45.6 
48.7 
43.6 
36.7 
43.9 

38.6 
41.6 
46.9 
48.7 
42.9 

42.0 
39.9 
36.3 
47.2 
45.6 

38.9 
39.7 
40.7 
41.0 

28.8 

Lbs. 
1.2 

1.3 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.1 

1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
1.5 
1.5 

0.7 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.4 

1.6 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 

0.8 
1.0 
1.1 
1.7 
1.6 

1.6 
0.9 
1.4 
0.5 
0.6 

0.7 
0.9 
1.8 
1.7 
0.7 

Lbs. 

12.6 
11.9 
9.4 
9.6 
9.1 
8.0 

14.9 
12.9 
12.6 
17.9 
11.2 

12.5 
10.3 
12.0 
16.2 
18.2 

17.1 
11.5 
10.9 
14.1 
14.2 
17.1 

16.9 
18.5 
12.1 
8.0 
9.9 

7.1 
11.8 
14.6 
8.8 
14.6 

11.5 

8.8 
15.9 
12.3 
18.6 

Lbs. 

3.2 

2.7 
3.3 
5.0 

Lbs. 

16.1 
15.5 
14.2 
14.1 

Hay  from  mixed  grasses  

Timothy,  all  analyses 

Timothy,  cut  in  full  bloom 

Timothy,  cut  soon  after  bloom. 
Timothy,  cut  nearly  ripe 

Meadow  foxtail- 

Orchard  grass 

3.7 
3.6 

16.9 
10.2 

Red  top  _ 

White  top    _ 

Meadow  fescue* 

4.0 
4.0 

21.0 
15.7 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Tall  oat 

Italian  rye  grass*  - 

7.6 
7.4 
4.3 

24.6 
24.1 
14.9 

Perennial  rye  grass* 

Bowen  hay 

Bermuda  grass* 

Johnson  grass 

Macaroni  wheat.      _    __      

Barley     

Oat 

6.7 

25.4 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Barnyard  millet. 

4.3 

28.8 

Cat-tail  millet 

Hungarian   grass 

4.3 

15.4 

Wild  oat  grass 

Prairie  grass 

Buffalo  grass 

Gama  grass 

Texas  blue  grass 

Guinea  grass*  _ 

Para  grass* 

Swamp  grass     

88.4 
89.6 
90.7 
89.7 
93.0 

Salt  marsh  grass  

2.5 

7.2 

Buttercups* 

Dx-eye  daisy*     _  _      

4.4 
5.9 

12.5 
21.3 

Australian  salt  bush 

580  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

DKIED  ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Cured  hay  from  legumes  and 
mixed  legumes  and  grasses 

Red  clover  

Lbs. 

84.7 
79.2 
78.8 
90.3 
90.3 

90.4 
89.0 
92.1 
88.2 
89.5 
91.9 
15.1 

91.0 

88.7 
90.8 
92.4 
90.0 
90.8 

85.0 
85.0 
89.5 
85.0 
87.1 
83.4 

90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 
85.0 
90.1 

95.0 

89.9 
90.8 

85.7 
85.7 
90.0 
88.8  : 

Lbs. 

7.1 
7.7 
6.2 
8.4 
11.5 

10.5 
9.1 
11.9 
10.6 
9.2 
10.5 
36.8 

8.2 
11.9 
11.4 
6.7 
9.6 
6.8 

10.4 
10.6 
7.6 
8.3 
5.8 
8.0 

0.8 
0.7 
1.3 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 

3.6 
2.3 
4.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.2 
0.5 

Lbs. 

37.8 
34.0 
34.7 
39.7 
42.2 

34.9 
37.7 
36.7 
40.9 
39.3 
40.5 
35.9 

39.0 
40.7 
38.6 
42.2 
52.5 
42.8 

36.5 
36.8 
41.5 
35.8 
41.8 
40.1 

35.2 

39.6 
39.5 
40.1 
34.3 
37.4 

39.7 
40.1 
39.5 
25.4 
33.0 
34.4 
52.2 

Lbs. 

1.8 
2.8 
2.1 
1.1 
1.5 

1.2 
1.4 
0.5 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
1.3 

2.1 
1.6 
1.7 
3.0 
1.4 
1.6 

2.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 

Lbs. 

19.7 
19.9 
17.1 

20.5 
25.1 

24.3 
22.1 
28.8 
23.8 
14.3 
23.4 
37.3 

21.8 
27.2 

24.3 
17.1 

22.4 
18.9 

23.7 
23.2 
16.5 
20.5 
16.2 
18.6 

5.0 
5.0 
5.8 
7.0 
6.5 
8.0 

Lbs. 
5.5 

Lbs. 

18.7 

Red  clover  in  bloom  

Mammoth  red  clover* 

5.2 
5.0 

7.8 

4.0 

11.6 
13.9 
13.2 

13.1 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Japan  clover*  

Sweet  clover    __    _ 

5.6 

18.3 

Soybean  

Cowpea 

5.2 
6.1 

14.7 
17.9 

Alfalfa,             

Alfalfa  leaves          

Bur  clover  

Hairy  (winter)  vetch 

9.7 

7.4 
3.2 

24.4 

2G.3 
11.6 

Serradella 

Peanut  vine 

Velvet  bean    

Beggar  weed  __ 

Sanfoin   

5.0 

14.7 

Wheat  and  vetch*  

Oat  and  pea    

6.1 
6.0 

18.1 
12.7 

Oat  and  vetch 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover  _ 

Mixed  rowen  

Straw  and  chaff 
Wheat 

2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.3 

6.3 
8.6 
17.7 
10.6 
17.3 
11.4 

Rye 

Oat              _       

Barley 

Millet* 

Buckwheat*   

Field  bean 

Soybean  

1.0 

0.8 
0.6 
0.7 
1.0 

0.7 

6.8 
14.1 
7.2 
6.4 
8.1 
5.5 

2.5 

10.4 

Horse  bean            __  _ 

Wheat  chaff 

3.8 
1.4 

8.2 
4.5 

Oat  chaff 

Max  shives  _     

Sorghum  bagasse  

Appendix.  587 

TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

FRESH  GREEN  KOUGHAGE 
Green  corn  and  sorghum  forage 
Fodder  corn,  all  varieties  _ 

Lbs. 

20.7 
21.0 
26.6 
20.2 
22.9 
20.9 
20.0 

18.4 
16.6 
9.9 
16.8 
20.6 
15.8 

20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 

22.7 
23  4 

Lbs. 

1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
1.1 
1.5 

1.2 

0.7 

!    0.8 
0.9 
0.9 
1.1 
0.6 
0.5 

2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 

1.7 
2.1 

Lbs. 

11.9 
12.2 
15.0 
11.4 
13.2 
12.6 
11.6 

9.7 
8.3 
4.9 
9.3 
11.6 
9.5 

10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
21.3 

12.0 
14.1 
11.0 
18.2 
12.4 
10.4 

18.6 
12.6 
15.7 
13.7 
13.4 

15.9 
13.6 
14.4 
10.0 
11.0 
10.8 

13.6 
9.1 
11.4 
9.1 

8.4 

i 

Lbs. 

0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.4 

0.4 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

0.4 
0.4 
0.6 
1.0 
0.5 
0.3 

0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.4 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

0.7 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

Lbs. 

2.9 
2.7 
3.2 
3.2 
4.3 
3.4 
2.2 

2.9 
3.0 
2.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.9 

5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 

3.8 
4.2 
5.6 
5.4 
2.6 
4.3 

3.8 
5.0 
3.8 
1.9 
3.5 

5.0 
3.4 
3.8 
1.9 
2.4 
2.4 

7.0 
4.8 
6.2 
5.0 
6.1 

Lbs. 
1.1 

Lbs. 
3.9 

Dent  varieties    _ 

Dent,  kernels  glazed 

Flint  varieties* 

1.3     3.1 

Flint,  kernels  glazed 

Sweet  varieties 

1.4 

3.8 

Sweet  corn  without  cars 

Red  kafir  corn* 

1.3 
1.2 
0.6 
1.1 

0.7 
0.9 

2.6 

4.5 
5.0 
9.2 
5.7 
3.4 
4.4 

7.4 

White  kafir  corn* 

Teosinte* 

Yellow  milo  maize*  

Sorghum  fodder  

Sugar  cane  _  _ 

Fresh  green  grasses 
Pasture  grass  

Kentucky  blue  grass*  
Timothy 

2.6 
1.6 

7.6 
7.6 

Orchard  grass* 

Red  top,  in  bloom* 

Wheat  forage  

1.6 
2.5 

6.0 
7.1 

Rye  forage 

Oat  forage,  stage  uncertain  
Oat  forage,  in  milk  
Oat  forage  in  bloom 

25.0 
37.8 
25.0 
21.0 

30.1 
26.8 
30.5 
25.0 
28.3 

28.9 
25.0 
25.0 
18.5 
20.0 
20.0 

29.2 
20.0 
25.2 
19.1 
20.0 

2.6 
2.5 
1.1 
1.9 

1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
!    0.6 
1.3 

2.0 
1.1 
1.6 

!     0.6 
i    0.8 
0.8 

2.9 
2.0 
2.6 
2.4 
2.5 

1.3 

3.8 

Barley  forage 

Meadow  fescue* 

Italian  rye  grass* 

2.9 

11.4 

Tall  oat  grass* 

Johnson  grass* 

Bermuda  grass 

Hungarian  grass                     

1.2 

2.0 
1.1 
1.5 

0.7 

4.2 
3.4 
5.8 
7.1 

4.7 

Japanese  millet 

Barnyard  millet 

Pearl  millet* 

Common  millet* 

Hog  millet* 

Fresh  green  legumes,  grasses  and 
legumes  combined 

Red  clover 

1.5 

4.8 

Mammoth  red  clover* 

Alsike  clover*    _          _    _ 

1.1 
1.2 

2.4 

2.0 
4.0 
6.7 

Crimson  clover 

Sweet  clover* 

588  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

FRESH   GREEN   ROUGHAGE  —  con. 

Fresh    green    legumes,    grasses 
and  legumes  combined  —  con. 

Alfalfa      „    _ 

Lbs. 

28.2 
15.0 
16.4 
15.0 
18.0 

24.9 
20.5 
15.8 
17.8 
25.0 

15.3 

15.0 
13.0 
16.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.3 
20.0 
20.0 
25.0 

20.9 
11.5 
9.1 
13.5 
9.9 

11.4 
11.4 
11.7 

20.5 
28.9 
20.5 
34.0 

44.7 
22.2 
14.3 

15.0 

15.0 

10.0 

Lbs. 

3.6 
1.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.5 

3.1 
2.1 
2.3 
2.7 
2.9 

1.8 
2.6 
2.3 
1.9 
2.1 

2.1 
1.8 
2.3 
2.6 
2.3 

1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
1.3 

0.9 

0.8 
1.0 
1.1 
1.3 

0.8 
0.6 
0.8 

2.1 

0.8 
2.0 

1.9 

2.0 
2.3 

Lbs. 

12.1 
6.6 

8.7 
6.4 

7.7 

11.0 
8.9 
7.3 
•8.4 
11.1 

6.9 
6.8 
5.3 
7.0 
6.5 

9.1 
10.2 
10.0 
10.3 
14.6 

15.7 
7.9 
5.5 

9.8 
6.4 

7.7 
8.1 
10.1 
14.7 
22.9 
9.1 
28.9 

34.4 
16.5 
8.2 

8.6 

8.1 
5.9 

Lbs. 

0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.4 
0.2 
0.4 
0.5 

0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
5.6 
0.2 

1.7 
0.2 
0.2 

0.2 

0.2 
0.1 

Lbs. 

7.7 
4.3 
3.8 
5.8 
6.7 

6.4 
4.3 
4.5 
5.6 
7.0 

4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
3.7 
4.5 

4.5 
3.8 
4.8 
5.4 
4.6 

3.4 
2.4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 

1.8 
1.9 
2.6 
4.2 
2.4 

Lbs. 

1.3 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 

Lbs. 

5.6 
4.5 
4.6 
5.2 

Spring  vetch 

Cowpea  _ 

Hairy  vetch,  winter  

Hairy  vetch,  in  bloom  

Soybean   

1.4 
1.6 
0.5 

5.6 
5.5 

2.1 

Serradella*   

Horse  bean* 

Velvet  bean  

Sanfoin           

1.4 

1.6 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.0 

5.7 

5.0 
4.4 
3.2 
3.7 
5.7 

Canada  field  pea 

Canada  field  pea,  in  bud 

Canada  field  pea,  in  bloom 

Canada  field  pea,  in  pod 

Barley  and  vetch 

Barley  and  peas 

Oats  and  peas       __    _         _    _ 

1.5 
1.4 

5.0 
3.0 

Oats  and  vetch* 

Wheat  and  vetch* 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover  _  

Eoots  and  tubers 
Potato 

1.6 
0.8 
0.9 
0.8 
0.9 

0.9 
1.2 
2.0 
1.4 
0.8 

5.8 
4.8 
3.8 
3.7 
3.4 

2.6 
4.9 
4.4 
4.7 
3.7 

Common  beet* 

Mangel 

Sugar  beet 

Flat  turnip 

Carrot*  _____ 

Rutabaga 

Parsnip* 

Artichoke*   __ 

Sweet  potato* 

Chufa 

Cassava 

2.0 

4.0 
1.2 
3.5 

3.4 

3.7 

4.2 

1.0 

4.0 

MISCELLANEOUS 
Acorns* 

Apples   _      

0.1 
1.2 

1.7 
3.5 

Dwarf  Essex  rape 

Dwarf    Essex    rape,    summer, 
southern  states 

Dwarf     Essex     rape,     winter, 
southern  states  

Cabbage*  _              

1.1 

4.3 

Appendix.  589 

TABLE  III.  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents — con. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  Ibs. 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1,000  Ibs. 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Pot- 
ash 

MISCELLANEOUS  —  con. 
Sugar  beet  leaves  

Lbs. 

12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
15.8 
21.5 

Lbs. 

1.9 
1.0 
1.4 
0.4 
0.9 
4.4 

2.1 
1.5 
1.7 
2.0 
1.1 
10.9 
3.2 
1.2 
2.0 

3.2 
3.5 

0.9 

0.9 
1.4 
1.1 

0.1 
0.2 
0.7 

1.5 

3.4 
2.7 
1.5 
4.6 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
2.1 
2.2 
1.6 
1.6 

Lbs. 

5.0 
5.8 
8.3 
6.2 
11.1 
36.6 

37.1 
9.8 
5.1 
4.5 
7.5 
40.9 
19.7 
14.1 
8.5 

34.6 
30.4 
21.8 

11.4 
14.2 
14.9 
13.5 
13.1 
9.0 

9.2 
25.5 
9.6 
8.6 
11.5 
9.6 

10.1 
13.7 
13.1 
12.9 
13.2 
9.2 

Lbs. 

0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 

0.9 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
2.0 
1.8 
0.9 
3.8 
0.3 

1.6 
1.1 

0.6 

0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.6 
0.2 

0.5 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 
1.8 
0.5 

0.4 
0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 

Lbs. 

4.2 
2.1 
2.9 
1.1 
2.3 
21.1 

10.2 
3.8 
3.7 
3.7 
1.9 

Lbs. 

1.5 

"i~6~ 

0.2 
0.6 

Lbs. 
6.2 

'675 
3.7 

3.5 

Field  pumpkin    

Garden  pumpkin  

Prickly  pear*  

Cane  cacti 

Dried  banana  tops*__    _      

Dried  banana  butts* 

Spurry   

20.0 
13.0 
9.0 
15.7 
95.5 
65.0 
50.4 
22.0 

95.1 
84.0 

84.7 

20.9 
26.4 
26.3 
23.9 
26.0 
19.2 

28.0 
49.9 
25.8 
20.7 
29.7 
15.0 

16.2 
25.9 
23.2 
30.2 
24.0 
21.0 

2.5 
1.2 

5.9 
7.6 

Prickly  comfrey 

Purslane   

Dandelions* 

Greasewood 

Common  little  sage*  _    _ 

21.9 

7.4 
4.4 

15.2 
16.8 
6.4 

2.7 
4.3 
3.5 
1.3 
2.7 
3.8 

6.7 
9.4 
6.6 
4.3 
10.1 
1.9 

2.2 
2.4 
4.5 
6.1 
4.0 
4.5 

Common  sage      

"676 

Australian  salt  bush 

1.4 

Dried  oak  leaves,   gathered  in 
July*  

Dried  mixed  tree  leaves,  gath- 
ered in  July* 

Dried  beech  twigs,  gathered  in 
winter* 

SILAGE 
Corn,  early  analyses  

1.1 
1.1 

3.7 
3.7 

Corn,  recent  analyses 

Corn,  ears  removed*  

Sorghum 

1.5 
1.4 

1.9 

6.2 

Millet*   

Rye* 

Red  clover 

Canada  field  pea*__ 

~Te~ 

1.5 
4.2 
1.5 

~?7B 

4.6 
0.5 
4.0 

Soybean  

Cowpea  vine    _ 

Brewers'  grains* 

Apple  pomace*  __          

Corn  cannery  refuse,  husk*  _ 

Corn  cannery  refuse,  cobs*  

Pea  cannery  refuse*  

Cowpea  and  soy  bean* 

Corn  and  soy  bean  _ 

1.5 
1.1 

3.6 
4.4 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean__ 

590  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  IV.  THE  WOLFF  FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS. 

In  1864  Dr.  Emil  von  Wolff,  the  great  German  scientist,  presented 
in  the  Mentzel  &  von  Lengerke  Agricultural  Calendar,  published  an- 
nually by  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  Germany,  a  table  of  feeding  standards 
for  farm  animals  based  on  the  digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs. 
This  marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  efforts  toward  the  rational  feed- 
ing of  farm  animals.  The  last  appearance  of  the  table  under  the 
directorship  of  Dr.  Wolff  was  in  1896.  From  1896  to  1906  the  table 
was  annually  presented  by  Dr.  C.  Lehmann,  of  the  Berlin  Agricul- 
tural High  School.  The  table  which  follows  is  a  copy  of  the  last 
presentation  by  Dr.  Lehmann. 

The  table  is  given  because  historically  it  is  worthy  of  a  place  in 
any  book  on  the  feeding  of  farm  animals,  and  further  because  no 
matter  what  line  one  may  ultimately  follow  in  these  matters,  he 
should  know  and  understand  the  teachings  of  Wolff. 

The  table  has  been  for  the  most  part  fully  considered  in  Chapter 
VIII,  to  which  the  student  is  referred  for  further  explanation  as  to 
its  purpose  and  manner  of  use.  It  only  remains  to  say  that  the  fig- 
ures given  in  the  column  headed  "Sum  of  nutrients"  were  written 
into  the  table  by  Lehmann  in  a  primitive  effort  toward  expressing 
the  energy  value  of  feeding  stuffs.  Having  been  superseded  by  later 
work,  (69-73,  141-6)  no  explanation  of  how  the  figures  the  column 
contains  were  derived  is  necessary  in  this  work.  The  following  ex- 
planations accompany  the  table: 

In  considering  the  fattening  standards  the  student  should  bear  in 
mind  that  the  most  rapid  fattening  is  usually  the  most  economical, 
so  that  the  standards  given  may  often  be  profitably  increased. 

Standards  for  milch  cows  are  given  for  the  middle  of  the  lacta- 
tion period  with  animals  yielding  milk  of  average  composition. 

The  standards  for  growing  animals  contemplate  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  exercise;  if  much  is  taken,  add  15  per  cent. — mostly  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients — to  the  ration.  If  no  exercise  is  taken,  deduct 
15  per  cent,  from  the  standard. 

The  standards  are  for  animals  of  normal  size.  Those  of  small 
breeds  will  require  somewhat  more  nutrients,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  0.3  of  a  pound  of  nitrogenous  and  1.5  pounds  of  non-nitrog- 
enous digestible  nutrient?  daily  for  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight  of 
pnimals. 


Appendix. 


591 


Narrowing  the  nutritive  ratio  in  feeding  full-grown  animals  is 
for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  depression  of  digestibility,  to  en- 
liven the  temperament,  or  to  increase  the  production  of  milk  at  the 
expense  of  laying  on  fat. 

The  different  standards  given  for  the  same  class  of  animals  accord- 
ing to  performance  illustrate  the  manner  and  direction  in  which  de- 
sirable changes  should  be  made. 


Animal 

Per  day  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates* 

Fat 

Sum  of 
nutri- 
ents 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio,!: 

1.  Oxen 
At  rest  in  stall  

Lbs. 
18 
22 
25 
28 

30 
30 
26 

25 

27 
29 
32 

20 
23 

25 

30 

28 

20 
24 
26 

22 

36 
32 
25 

Lbs. 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
2.8 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 

2.0 
2.5 

2.5 

4.5 
4.0 

2.7 

Lbs. 
8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.0 

15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 

Lbs. 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 

0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

Lbs. 
7.5 
9.7 
12.0 
15.0 

15.6 
17.0 
17.2 

10.2 
12.2 
14.4 
16.0 

9.1 
10.5 

16.3 

16.5 
16.9 

10.0 
12.8 
15.5 

19.0 

31.2 
29.2 
22.0 

11.8 
7.7 
6.5 
5.3 

6.5 
5.4 
6.2 

6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 

9.1 
8.5 

5.6 

5.4 
4.5 

7.0 
6.2 
6.0 

6.6 

5.9 

6.3 
7.0 

At  light  work 

At  medium  work  __ 

At  heavy  work  ,_ 

2.  Fattening   cattle 
First  period 

Second  period 

Third  period    

3.  Milch  cows 
When  yielding  daily  — 
11.0  pounds  of  milk 

16.6  pounds  of  milk     _       _    _ 

22.0  pounds  of  milk 

27.5  pounds  of  milk 

4.  Sheep 
Coarse  wool  __    

Fine  wool                            

5.  Breeding    ewes 
With  lambs 

6.  Fattening  sheep 
First  period 

Second  period 

7.  Horses 
Light  work 

Medium  work 

Heavy  work  

8    Brood  sows 

9.  Fattening  swine 
First  period    __      

Second  period     

Third  period    _ 

592  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

TABLE  IV.  Feeding  standards  for  farm  animals — continued. 


Animal 

Per  day  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Sum  of 
nutri- 
ents 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio,!: 

10.  Growing  cattle 

Dairy  breeds 
Aero  in                    Av.  live  wt. 
months                  per  head,  Ibs. 

2-3                               150 

Lbs. 
23 
24 
27 
26 
26 

23 
24 
25 
24 
24 

25 
25 
23 
22 
22 

26 
26 
24 
23 
22 

44 
35 
32 
28 
25 

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 

;  Lbs. 

4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

4.2 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 

3.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 

4.4 
3.5 
3.0 
2.2 
2.0 

7.6 
4.8 
3.7 
2.8 
2.1 

7.6 
5.0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 

Lbs. 
13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 

13.0 
12.8 
13.2 
12.5 
12.0 

15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 

10.8 

15.5 
15.0 
14.3 
12.6 
12.0 

28.0 
22.5 
21.3 
18.7 
15.3 

28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 

Lbs. 
2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 

1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

Lbs. 
21.0 
17.0 
13.7 
12.8 
11.8 

21.5 
19.0 
15.8 
13.9 
13.2 

18.4 
15.8 
12.8 
12.0 
11.0 

20.9 
17.8 
16.3 
13.8 
12.8 

38.0 
29.0 
26.0 
22.2 
17.9 

38.0 
30.0 
28.0 
25.1 
22.0 

4.5 
5.1 
6.8 
7.5 
8.5 

4.2 
4.7 

6.0 
6.8 

7.2 

5.0 
5.4 

6.0 
7.0 

7.7 

4.0 
4.8 
5.2 
6.3 
6.5 

4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.5 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 

3-  6  .    300  

6-12                          500    _.      _    _ 

12-18                          700 

18-24                         900 

11.  Growing  cattle 
Beef  breeds 
2-3                          160 

3-  6  330  

6-12  550.      _ 

12-18                          750 

18-24                          950 

12.  Growing  sheep 
Wool  breeds 
4-6                           60 

6-  8  75  

8-11  80    _      _ 

11-15                            90 

15-20                          100 

18.  Growing  sheep 
Mutton  breeds 
4-6           _      „       60. 

6-8                           80 

8-ll_               _    __100_    

11-15        _           —  120 

15-20                         150 

14.  Growing  swine 
Breeding  stock 
2-3        __    50    

3-  5                         100 

5-6     120  _    

6-  8  ._    200 

8-12                          250 

15.  Growing,  fattening  swine 
2-  3  50  

3-  5                          100    _      

5-6                          150 

6-  8     _      200 

9-12.                  .  .300 

Appendix. 


593 


TABLE  V.  MINERAL  MATTER  IN  1,000  LBS.  OF  REPRESENTATIVE  FEEDING 

STUFFS. 

The  data  presented  in  the  following  table  are  compiled  from  analy- 
ses by  the  American  Experiment  Stations,  supplemented  by  others 
taken  from  Wolff's  Ash  Analyses.  The  older  determinations  of  sul- 
phur in  feeding  stuffs  are  too  low  on  account  of  faulty  methods  of 
analysis.  The  figures  here  given  for  sulphur  are  the  result  of  recent 
work  at  the  Wisconsin  Station. 


Name  of  feed 

Total 
ash 

Pot- 
ash 

K,O 

Soda 
Na,O 

Lime 
CaO 

Mag- 
nesia 

MgO 

Iron 
oxide 

Fe,O3 

Sul- 
ph'ric 
acid 

SO3 

Phos- 
ph'ric 
acid 

P205 

Silica 
SiO, 

Chlo- 
rin 

Cl 

Corn 

Lbs. 
15.0 
18.0 
32.0 
25.0 
58.0 

55.0 
66.0 
26.0 

Lbs. 
5.7 

8.7 
4.8 
4.8 
15.2 

13.7 
15.8 
9.9 

Lbs. 
0.2 
0.4 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 

0.8 
"o~3 

Lbs. 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
1.7 

4.6 
2.9 
1.3 

Lbs. 
2.3 
2.2 
2.3 
2.2 
9.7 

8.7 
10.0 
2  1 

Lbs. 
0.11 
0.23 
0.38 
0.30 
0.34 

1.44 
0.84 
0  22 

Lbs. 
3.9 
4.3 
4.7 
3.8 
5.0 

10.1 
12.2 

Lbs. 
7.1 
5.5 

7.8 
7.9 
26.9 

16.6 
30.4 
8.2 
16.1 
17.4 

3.8 
3.3 
5.5 
6.1 
5.2 

Lbs. 
0.31 
0.35 
12.54 
6.48 
0.26 

6.88 
5.48 
0.24 
12.27 
13.46 

9.10 
14.15 
1.67 
10.11 

Lbs. 
0.14 
0.06 
0.30 
0.26 

Wheat,  winter     

Oats  

Barley 

Wheat  bran 

Linseed  meal,  o.  p  
Cotton-seed  meal  
Pea  meal 

0.39 
0.03 
0.41 

T23 

0.41 
2.28 
2.34 
3.19 

Dried  brewers'  grains- 
Mart  sprouts  _  

37.0 
61.0 

2.0 
19.9 

0.2 
1  1 

5.2 
1.7 

3.7 
1.7 

0.39 
0.95 



Corn  stover  __    

34.0 
44.0 
62.0 
106.0 
142.2 

10.9 
14.2 
18.7 
17.9 
14.7 

6.5 
0.8 
1.2 
l.f 
9  h 

4.3 
3.5 
21.6 
43.1 
12.7 

2.1 
1.4 
6.8 
5.2 
4.2 

0.71 
0.37 
0.67 
1.97 

3.2 
4.8 
4.1 
7.2 

Timothy  hay 

Red  clover  hay 

Alfalfa  hay  

Cowpea  hay 

Wheat    straw  

42.0 
51.0 
21.0 

6.3 
17.7 
3.7 

0.6 
1.7 
1  0 

2.4 
3.6 

2.8 

1.0 
1.9 
2.2 

0.26 
0.59 

3.0 
4.9 
1.3 

2.2 
3.0 
1  i 

28.35 
23.81 

0.71 
2.23 
1.01 
1.10 
0  79 

Oat  straw 

Corn  silage 

Mangel  _ 

11.0 
12.0 

3.8 
4.9 

0.4 
0.7 

1.8 
1.4 

0.5 
0.4 

0.08 
0.07 

0.3 
2.6 

0.9 
1.2 

0.22 
0,13 

Rutabaera  _ 

INDEX. 


The  References  are  to  Pages. 


Absorption  of  nutrients,  35 
Acid  in  gastric  juice,  20,  30 

in  gluten  feed,  134 
Acorns,  197 

effects  on  pork,  514 
Adulteration  of  feeds,  223 
Aftermath,  175 

Age,  influence  on  gain  of  pigs,  502 
sheep,  451 
steers,  321 

on  milk  yield  of  cows,  380 
Air,  heat  carried  off  by  expired,  83 
required  by  farm  animals,  62 
Albumin  in  milk,  377,  379 
Alfalfa,  177 

yield  of  different  cuttings,  178 
Alfalfa  hay,  180 

for  brood  sows,  180 
cows,  180.  414-17 
heifers,  180 
horses,  180,  279 
lambs,  470-2 
pigs,  180.  549,  559 
steers,  180,  350-2,  354 
ground,  181 
in  place  of  bran  for  cows,  180,  415 

concentrates  for  cows,  415-17 
losses  in  feeding  value,  179 
loss  of  leaves  in  making,  179 
making,  179 

yield  compared  with  corn  crop,  178 
Alfalfa  meal,  181 
for  cows,  415 
Alfalfa  pasture,  181 

for  pigs,  181,  545,  546 

sheep,  181 

Alfalfa  and  corn  for  pigs,  546 
Alfalfa  silage,  181,  232 
Alfalfa  soilage,  181 
Alfalmo,  181 
Alimentary  tract,  18 
Alsike  clover,  see  Clover,  alsike 
Amber  cane,  166 
Amber  cane  seed,  for  cows,  147 
Amids,  6 

digestion,  30 
in  corn  crop,  12 
in  various  feeds,  56 
use  by  animals,  56 
Ammo  acids,  28 
Amylopsin,  23,  24 
Anabolism,  34 

Animal,  not  a  heat  machine,  88 
Animal  body,  14 

composition,  14, 15 
dry  substance  in,  15 
fat  in, 16 

mineral  matter  in,  14 
nitrogen  and  ash  in,  17 
protein  in,  16 
water  in,  16 
Animals,  bran  for  growing,  137 

nutrients  stored  by  young,  71 
Animals  and  plants  compared,  17 
Apple,  195 

Apple  and  corn  silage  compared,  195 
Apple  pomace,  195 


Apple  pomace  silage,  232 

for  cows,  408 

Armsby's  energy  value  of  feeds,  120 
Artichokes,  192 
for  horses,  281 

pigs,  535 
Ash,  bone,  for  farm  animals,  67 

in  bodies  of  farm  animals,  15 
in  corn  crop,  11 
in  corn  kernel,  132 
in  feeds,  how  determined,  9 
in  ripening  clover,  183 
grasses,  178 
retained  and  voided   by  farm   animals, 

246 

see  Mineral  matter 
Ashes,  wood,  for  farm  animals,  67 
Asparagin,  56 

Baby  beef,  see  Beef,  baby 
Bacon,  513 

production,  563 

see  Pigs 

Bacteria,  action  in  digestion,  29 
Bagasse,  sorghum,  for  silage,  231 
Balanced  ration  defined,  109. 

see  Ration 

Barium  salts,  cause  of  loco  poisoning,  208 
Barley,  140 

compared  with  oats  for  lambs,  462 
for  calves,  140 
cows,  394 
horses,  140,  270 
lambs,  461,  486 
pigs,  140,  522,  558 
steers,  140,  337 
rolled,  140 

v.  bran  and  shorts  for  steers,  337 
Barley  and  by-products  in  brewing,  140 
Barley  hay,  169,  170 
Barley  straw,  176 
Barrows  and  sows,  gain  of,  512 
Beans,  castor,  210 

field,  for  pigs,  528 

sheep,  158 

produce  a  soft  pork,  158 
horse,  158 

table,  see  Beans,  field 
velvet,  189 

for  cows,  397 
steers,  341 

Bean  straw  for  fattening  lambs,  471 
Beef,  baby,  321,  325,  369 

cost  of  producing,  375 
effects  of  cotton-seed  meal  on,  152 
feed  consumed  in  producing,  375 
see  Steers 

Beef  calves,  feeding,  309 
Beef  cows,  see  Cows,  beef 
Beef  meal,  203 
Beef  production,  315 
cost  of,  374 
labor  cost  of.  373 
Beet,  mangel,  see  Mangel 

sugar,  see  Sugar  beet 
Beet  leaves,  206 

silage  from,  206,  232 


594 


Index. 


595 


Beet  molasses,  see  Molasses,  beet 
Beet  pulp,  dried,  205 

for  cows,  205,  402 
lambs,  465 
sheep,  205 
steers,  205,  346 
molasses,  for  lambs,  405 
wet,  204 

for  cows,  204,  402 
horses,  275 
lambs,  204,  468 
pigs,  533 
sheep,  491 
steers,  204.  345 
Beet  pulp  silage,  205,  232 

for  sheep,  205 
Beggarweed,  190 
Bermuda  grass,  170 
Bermuda  hay  for  cows,  414 

horses,  276 
Bile,  24 

Bloat  in  cattle,  how  prevented,  186 
Blood,  dried,  203-4 
for  calves,  204,  307 
horses,  275 
pigs,  204,  542 
sheep,  466 

Blood  in  body,  influence  of  light  on,  69 
Blood-molasses  feed,  206 
Blood  of  pigs,  influence  of  corn  feeding  on 

91-6 
Blue  grass,  Kentucky,  166 

v.  rape  for  lambs,  469 
Body,  growth,  under  scant  feeding,  71 
Body  of  horse,   energy  expended  in  lifting 

259 

Body  waste,  disposal  of,  37 
Bone,  increase  of,  in  young  animals,  71 
Bone  ash,  for  farm  animals,  67 

pigs,  98 
Bone  meal,  204 
for  calves,  307 
colts,  204 
cows,  204 
horses,  204 
pigs,  542 

Bones,  brittle  because  lacking  lime,  66 
of  pigs,  strength,  93-4 

influenced   by   corn 

feeding,  92-6 
influenced   by    feed, 

94-5 

strengthened  by  calcium  phosphate,67 
Bran,  buckwheat,  146 
rice,  146 

for  cows,  146 

horses,  146 
wheat,  136 

for  calves,  310 
colts,  291 

cows,  137,  395,  397 
horses,  137,  271 
pigs,  137,  558 
sheep,  478 
stallions,  137,  291 
steers,  137 
the  trotter,  293 

laxative  effect  due  to  phytin,136 
phosphorus  in, 136 
phytin  in,  136 
poor  in  lime,  137 
uses  for  stock,  137 
Bran  disease,  137 
Bread,  136 

for  horses,  275 

Breed,  value  in  beef  production,  328 
Breed  tests  of  cows  at  expositions,  420 
sheep.  454,  455 
steers,  328-32 
swine,  511 


Brewers'  grains,  dried,  142 

for  cows,  142,  404 
horses,  142,  272 
pigs,  142 
pentosans  in,  142 
wet,  141 

for  cows,  141 

British  feeding  trials  with  sheep,  474 
steers,  360 
Brome  grass,  168 
Brome  hay  for  horses,  276 
Brood  mare,  care  of,  292 
Brood  sow,  care  of,  554 
Broom  corn  seed,  147 
Buckwheat,  146 

effects  on  butter,  147 
for   pigs,  524 
wild,  for  lambs,  463 
Buckwheat  bran,  value  of,  146 
Buckwheat  hulls,  feeding  value,  146 
Buckwheat  meal  for  calves,  306 
Buckwheat  middlings,  feeding  value,  146 
for  cows,  147,  398 
Buffalo  Exposition,  tests  of  dairy  cows  at. 

420 
Butter,  effects  of  buckwheat  on,  147 

cocoanut  meal  on,  157 
cotton-seed  meal  on,  152 
potatoes  on,  192 
soybeans  on,  156 
Buttermilk,  202 
for  calves,  304 
pigs,  539 

Cabbage,  195 
Cacti,  200 

for  cows,  200 
steers,  200 

spineless,  200 
Caecum,  25 
Calcium,  in  blood,  65 

in  skeleton,  65 
see  Lime 

Calcium  carbonate  useful  to  animals,  67 
Calcium  phosphate,  for  farm  animals,  67 

pigs,  98 
Calorie,  47 
calorimeter,  47 

respiration,  49 
Calorimetry,  47 
Calves,  302 

advantage  of  fall-dropped,  313 

barley  for,  140,  305 

birth  weight,  302 

buckwheat  meal  for,  306 

buttermilk  for,  304 

chalk  for,  307 

clover  hay  for,  186 

cod  liver  oil  for,  306 

compared  with  lambs  and  pigs,  302 

corn  meal  for,  305 

corn  silage  for  steer,  355 

cost  of  rearing,  308 

cotton-seed  meal  poisonous  to,  152 

cotton-seed  oil  for.  306 

dairy,  birth  weight  of,  376 

dried  blood  for,  307 

feed  and  gain  in  1  year,  321 

feed  eaten  by  yearling,  308 

feeding  for  beef,  309 

feeding  on  skim  milk  only,  97-8 

gains  made  by,  307 

ground  bone  for,  307 

ground  rock  phosphate  for,  307 

hay  tea  for.  304 

kafirfor,  148 

kafir  meal  for.  306 

mineral  matter  for,  307 

molasses  for,  306 

oatmeal  for,  305 


596 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Calves,  continued 
oats  for,  139 
oil  meal  for,  155,  305 
oleomargarine  for,  306 
pasteurized  skim  milk  for,  303 
per  cent  of  nutrients  stored  by,  71 
rearing,  309 

rearing  for  the  dairy,  310 
returns  from  compared  with  other  farm 

animals,  79 

rich  and  poor  milk  for,  100 
saccharified  starch  for,  306 
salt  for,  307 
skim  milk  for,  202,  302 
substitutes  for  milk  for,  304 
sugar  for,  306 
water  for,  307 
whey  for,  304 
whole  corn  for,  305 
whole  milk  for,  302 

v.  skim  milk  for,  303 
wintering,  363 

Canada  field  pea,  see  Field  pea 
Cane  molasses,  see  Molasses,  cane 
Cane  sugar,  4 
Capillaries,  34 
Carbohydrates,  3 
absorption  of,  35 
a  source  of  muscular  energy,  86 
compared  with   other  nutrients   for  pro- 

ducing work,  87 

determination  in  feeding  stuffs,  10 
digestion,  25 
effects  of  feeding  only,  55 
energy  lost  in  digesting,  48 
in  ripening  clover,  183 

grasses,  178 

what  the  term  embraces,  107 
Carbon  dioxid,  amount  in  air,  2 

amount  produced  during 

work,  85 

danger  from,  in  silo  filling,  237 
how  taken  up  by  plants,  2 
produced  during  work,  85-6 
the  great  food  of  plants,  2 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  see  Carbon  dioxid 
Carrots,  191,  192 

for  horses,  281 
Casein  in  milk,  377,  379 
Cassava,  198 
for  pigs,  198 

steers,  198,  359 
Castor  bean,  210 
Catabolism,  34 
Cattle,  pasturing,  319 
rape  for,  196 

steaming  roughage  for,  217 
see  Steers 
Cellulose,  4 

decomposition  of,  29 
digestion  of,  26 
Cereals,  for  hay,  170 

pasture,  169,  171 

Cereal  by-products  for  dairy  cows,  405 
Cereal  hay  for  horses,  275 
Chaff,  wheat  and  oat,  176 
Chaffing  hay  and  straw,  219,  282 


Charcoal  for  pigs,  561 
Chemical    regulat 


regulation   of   heft   production    in 
body,  82 

Cherry  leaves,  prussic  acid  in  wild,  209 
Christmas  lambs,  see  Hothouse  lambs 
Chufas,  198 

for  pigs,  536 
Chyle,  35 
Clover,  alsike,  186 

bloat  from,  how  prevented,  186 
combined  with  timothy,  167 
crimson,  187 


Clover,  alsike,  continued 
for  soilage,  186 
Japan,  187 
mammoth,  186 
red,  182 

development  of  nutrients  in,  182 
losses  in  curing,  184 
methods  of  making  hay  from,  183 
silage,  232 
time  to  cut,  183 
uses  of,  185 
yield  of  green,  182 
Clover  hay,  crimson,  dangerous  to  horses,  187 

for  cows,  417 
Japan,  for  cows,  415 
red,  for  calves,  312 

cows,  185,  412,  430 

horses,  185,  279 

lambs,  471,  488 

pigs,  186,  549,  559 

sheep,  186 

steers,  186,  348,  349,  352. 

366 

rich  in  lime,  66,  177, 185 
Clover  pasture,  for  pigs,  186 

v.  rape  for  pigs,  547 
Coarse  forage,  digestibility  of,  41 

withholding  from  horses,  275 
ruminants, 

96,98 

Cocoanut  cake  for  cows,  401 
Cocoanut  meal,  157 

for  horses,  275 
Cod  liver  oil  for  calves,  306 
Coefficients    of    digestibility,    107,    Appendix 

Table  II 

Colorado,  fattening  sheep  in,  490 
Colostrum,  201 
Colts,  bone  meal  for,  204 
daily  gains  of,  250 
ground  rock  phosphate  for,  204 
weight  at  birth,  250 
see  Foals 
Columbian   Exposition,  tests  of  dairy  cows. 

420 

Comfrey,  196 
Common  salt,  see  Salt 
Composition    of    feeding    stuffs,    Appendix 

Table  I 
Concentrates,  11 

feeding  cows  exclusively  on,  96 
sheep  exclusively  on,  97 
steers  exclusively  on,  97 
proper  amount  for  dairy  cows,  387 
various  classes  for  dairy  cows,  438 
Condimental  stock  foods,  see  Stock  foods 
Confinement  of  cattle,  315 
Cooked  feed,  216 
digestibility,  41 
digestion  trials  with,  217 
for  pigs,  506 

stock,  216 
Corn,  Indian,  129 

a  carbonaceous  feed,  134 
analyses  of,  132 
characteristics  of,  129 
dent,  characteristics  of,  130 
ear,  for  cows,  393 
pigs,  505 
steers,  334 

shrinkage  in  drying,  130 
effects  of  thick  planting,  160 
feeding  exclusively  to  pigs,  91 
to  horses,  267 
to  steers,  365 
field  feeding  to  pigs,  517 
flint,  characteristics  of,  130 
for  cows,  393 
horses,  267-9 


Index. 


597 


Corn,  Indian,  continued 
for  lambs,  458-9,  486 
pigs,  516,  557 
sheep,  458-9 
silage,  225 
steers,  333-5 
gain  from  1  bu.  by  pigs,  516 

steers,  321 

gain  from  100  Ibs.  by  pigs,  516 
grinding  for  cows,  216 
pigs,  504 
steers,  215 
stock,  133 

heavy  v.  light  feeding  to  steers,  333 
importance  of  feeding  nitrogenous  supple- 
ments with,  366 

loses  palatability  after  grinding,  133 
losses  by  ensiling  and  field  curing,  225 
loss  of  energy  in  chewing,  52 
number  of  stalks  per  acre,  160 
preparing  for  pigs,  504 
races,  130 

removing  ears  for  silage,  230 
requirements  for  growth,  129 
shelled,  for  lambs,  458 
pigs,  505 
steers,  333 
soaked,  for  pigs,  505 

steers,  333 
soft,  for  pigs,  517 

steers,  336 
value,  131 

source  of  starch  and  glucose,  133 
southern,  for  silage,  230 
sweet,  characteristics,  130 
various  forms  for  steers,  334 
v.  oats,  lor  horses,  268 
water  in  green  and  dry,  131 
weight  of  1  bushel,  131 
yellow  compared  with  white,  130 
see  Corn  crop  and  Corn  plant 
Corn-and-cob  meal,  133 
for  cows,  393 
horses,  133 
pigs,  518 
steers,  335,  359 

Corn  and  cobs  hard  to  grind,  133 
Corn  and  oats  for  fattening  lambs,  462 
Corn  belt,  fattening  sheep  in,  492 
Corn  belt  v.  cotton  belt  ration  for  steers,  359 
Corn  chop,  133 

see  Corn  meal 

Corn  cobs,  weight  and  composition,  130 
Corn  crop,  changes   in   carbohydrates   during 

ripening,  12 
changes  in   crude   protein  during 

ripening,  12 
composition  of,  at  different  stages, 

distribution  of  nutrients  in   ears 

and  stover,  161 

increase  in,  during  ripening,  13 
losses  in  field  curing,  162 
proportion  of  ears  and  stover,  161 
yield  of  nutrients  in  1  acre,  11, 13 
Corn  fodder,  159 
pulling,  162 

v.  corn  silage  for  cows,  406 
see  Corn  forage 
Corn  forage,  159 

for  cows,  165,  436,  439 
horses,  277 
silage,  165 
steers,  163,  334 
saltpeter  in,  210 
shocking,  163 
shredding,  164 
stocking,  163 


Corn  kernel,  parts  and  composition,  132 
Cora  meal,  133 

as  sole  concentrate  for  cows,  393 
for  calves,  305 
cows,  394 
lambs,  459 
pigs,  504 
steers,  334 
v.  whole  corn  for  pigs,  505 

steers,  334 
Corn  plant,  11, 159 

changes  in  maturing,  11 

crude  protein  at  different  stages,  12 

distribution  of  nutrients,  161 

for  cows,  436 

nitrogen-free  extract  at  different  stages, 

nutrients  at  different  stages,  11 
Corn  product,  new,  165 

for  horses,  165 
Corn  oil,  132 

for  calves,  306 
Corn  silage,  see  Silage,  corn 
Corn  smut,  feeding  experiments  with,  210 
Corn  stalk  disease,  209 
Corn  stover,  159 
for  cows,  416 
horses,  278 
lambs,  471 
steers,  164,  347,  352 
shredded,  164 

for  cows,  219 

steers,  164 

v.  mixed  hay  for  cows,  412 
v.  timothy  hay  for  horses,  277 
Correctives  for  pigs,  561 
Cotton  belt  v.  corn  belt  ration  for  steers,  359 
Cotton  cake,  150 

for  fattening  wethers,  465 
see  Cotton-seed  meal 
Cotton  seed,  149 

and  by-products,  rational  feeding,  153 
as  a  feed,  150 
for  steers,  150 
poison  in,  152 
products  from  1  ton,  149 
roasted,  150 
Cotton-seed  cake,  150 
cold  pressed,  150 
see  Cotton  seed  meal 
Cotton-seed  hulls,  152 
for  cows,  414 

steers,  353,  359 
Cotton-seed  meal,  150 
decorticated,  150 
effects  on  animal  fats,  152 
for  cows,  151,  396,  399,  401 
horses,  150,  273 
lambs,  465 
pigs,  152,  531 
steers,  151,  342,  354,  359 
makes  hard  butter,  151 
poison  in,  152 
undecorticated,  150 
Cotton-seed  oil  for  calves,  306 
Cowpea,  158 

for  pigs,  158,  530 

silage,  232 
Cowpea  hay,  188 

for  cows,  189,  415,  418 

horses,  271,  280 
lambs,  472 
steers,  189,  352,  354 
Cowpea  pasture,  188 
for  pigs,  546 

steers,  355 
Cowpea  silage,  232 
for  cows,  417 


598 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Cowpea  vine,  188 

Cows,  beef,  v.  dairy  cows  for  butter  fat,  423 

wintering,  317 
Cows,  dairy,  376-441 

alfalfa  hay  for,  180,  414,  416 

in    place    of    concentrates, 
415-17 

alfalfa  meal  for,  415 

amount  of  heat  given  off  daily,  62 

annual  feed  requirements,  427 

apple  pomace  for,  195 

apple  pomace  silage  for,  408 

apples  for,  195 

barley  for,  140,  394 

Bermuda  hay  for,  414 

bone  meal  for,  204 

bran  for,  137,  395 

breed  tests  by  experiment  stations,  422 

buckwheat  middlings  for,  398 

burden  of  dairying,  435 

cacti  for,  200 

calculating  rations  for,  112,  122 

care  before  and  after  calving,  433 

census,  426 

cereal  by-products  for,  405 

chaffing  (cutting)  hay  for,  219 

changing  milkers,  389 

cocoanut  cake  for,  401 

cocoanut  meal  for,  157 

Colantha  4th's  Johanna,  429 

compared  with  heifers,  380 

composition  of  milk  of  various  breeds,  379 

compounding  rations  for,  437 

concentrates  and  roughage  for,  435,  438 

cooking  feed  for,  434 

corn-and-cob  meal  for,  393 

corn  fodder  for,  163,  406 

corn  meal  as  sole  concentrate  for,  393 

corn  plant  for,  436 

corn  silage  for,  406 

v.  corn  fodder  for,  227 

v.  hay  for,  407 

v.  sugar  beets  for,  408 

corn  stover  v.  clover  hay  for,  412 
v.  mixed  hay  for,  412 

cotton-seed  cake,  cold  pressed  for,  150 

cotton  seed  for,  150 

cotton-seed  hulls  for,  152,  414 

cotton-seed  meal  for,  151,  396,  399-401 

cowpea  hay  for,  418 

cowpea  silage  for,  417 

crimson  clover  hay  for,  417 

dairy  v.  beef  type,  423 

dehorning,  388 

disposition  of  food  by,  378 

dried  beet  pulp  for,  205,  402 

dried  brewers'  grains  for,  141,  142,  404 

dried  distillers'  grains  for,  403 

dried  fish  for,  204 

dried  molasses-beet  pulp  for,  403 

dry  feed  for,  434 

ear  corn  for,  393 

economy  of,  376 

effects  of  advancing  lactation  on  milk 

yield,  380 

age  on  milk  yield,  380 
dehorning  on  milk  yield,  388 
drought  on  milk  yield,  384 
tuberculin  testing  on  milk  yield. 

388 
work  on  quality  of  milk,  385 

excessive  and  low  feeding,  382 

exercise  for,  432 

fall  fresh,  433 

feed  and  care,  431 

feed  and  yield  of  great,  429 

feed  for,  435 

required  by  for  1  year,  426 


Cows,  dairy,  continued 

feeding  concentrates  on  pasture,  385 

exclusively  on  concentrates,  96 

fat,  383 

fish  scrap  for,  406 
flesh  meal  for,  406 
fodder  corn  v.  timothy  hay  for,  412 
frequency  of  feeding,  388,  433 

milking,  389 

generous  feed  and  care  for,  434 
germ  oil  meal  for,  399 
gestation  period,  376 
gluten  feed  for,  398 
gluten  meal  for,  398 
good  and  poor  producers,  424 
great,  feed  and  yield  of,  429 
grinding  grain  for,  216,  220 
grooming,  389 

ground  rock  phosphate  for,  204 
hairy  vetch  hay  for,  419 
hay  v.  corn  silage  for,  407 
Hegelund  method  of  milking,  389 
herd  records,  423 
hominy  feed  for,  399 
Jacoba  Irene,  429 
Japan  clover  for,  415 
Johnson  grass  hay  for,  414 
kafirfor,  148 
kafir  meal  for,  395 
legume  hay  for,  436 
legumes  v.  concentrates  for,  415-19 
liberal  and  meager  feeding,  382 
lime  withheld  from,  65,  383 
linseed  meal  for,  399 
loss  in  weight,  382 
malt  sprouts  for,  142,  404 
meadow  foxtail  hay  for,  413 
meat  meal  for,  203 
milk  and  fat  records,  420-7 
milking  3  times  daily.  389 
oats  for,  139.  394,395 
oil  cakes  for,  399 
oil  meal  for,  155 
order  of  feeding,  433 
pasturage  v.  soilage  for,  411 
pea  vine  silage  for,  188 
poor,  fair,  and  ideal  rations  for,  440 
prairie  hay  for,  413 
preparation  of  feed  for,  434 
prickly  pear  for,  200 
profitable  and  unprofitable,  424 
proper  amount  of  concentrates  for,  387 
protein  rich  silage  for,  437 
public  tests  at  expositions,  420 
pumpkins  for,  195 
rations  for,  when  on  test,  428 
regularity  and  kindness  in  care  of,  432 
returns  from,  compared   with   other   farm 

animals,  79 

compared  with  steers,  376 
in  Swedish  test  associations, 

127 

rice  bran  for,  146 
roots  for,  194,  409 

v.  concentrates  for,  410,  436 
roughages  for,  438 
rutabagas  for,  192 
rye  for,  143 
rye  meal  for,  394 
rye  pasture  for,  171 
salt  for,  434 
saltmarsh  hay  for,  414 
shelter  for,  432 
shock  corn  for,  163 
shredding  corn  fodder  for,  219 
silage  for,  226,  406-9,  436 
mixed  for,  409 


Index. 


599 


Cows,  dairy,  continued 

v.  soilage  for,  411 

skim  milk  for,  406 

soilage  for,  210-14,  437 

v.  pasturage  for,  411 
v.  silage  for,  411 

sorghum  meal  for,  395 

sorghum  seed  for,  147 

soybean  cake  for,  401 

soybean  hay  for,  415 

soybean  meal  for,  396 

soybean  silage  for,  419 

soybean  straw  for,  415 

spaying,  388 

sugar  beets  v.  corn  silage  for,  408 

summer  silage  for,  437 

sweet  potatoes  for,  197 

tankage  for,  see  Flesh  meal  for 

timothy  hay  for,  437 

v.  corn  fodder  for,  412 

trashy  feeds  for,  437 

tuberculin  testing,  388 

turning  to  pasture,  384 

unreliability  of  short  tests,  425 

value  of  various  grains  for,  393 

variations  in  fat  in  milk,  390 

velvet  bean  for,  189 

water  for,  434,  387 

wet  and  dry  feed  for,  389 

wet  beet  pulp  for,  402 

wet  brewers'  grains  for,  141 

wheat  bran  for,  395,  397 

wheat  meal  for,  394 

wheat  middlings  for,  137 

wheat  shorts  for,  397 

whey  for,  406 

Yeksa  Sunbeam,  429 

yield  of  from  pasture  v.  soilage,  212 
Crimson  clover,  see  Clover,  crimson 
Crops  for  the  silo,  231 
Crude  protein,  6 

how  determined  in  feeds,  9 

see  Protein 
Cull  beans,  158 

Cutting  hay  and  straw,  see  Chaffing 
Cylindrical  silo,  238 

capacity  of  different  sizes,  239 

Dairy  and  beef  breeds,  loose  tallow  from,  330 

Dairy  by-products  for  pigs,  561 

Dairy  calf,  feeding,  310 

Dairy  calves,  see  Calves,  dairy 

Dairy  cows,  see  Cows,  dairy 

Dairying,  the  burden  of,  435 

based  on  maternity  of  cow,  431 
Darkness,  see  Light 
Dehorning,  effects  on  cows,  388 
Diastase,  141 
Digestibility,  39 

coefficients  of,  40, 106,  Appendix  Table  II 
effects  of  work  on,  254 
general  discussion  of,  41 
influence  of  age  on,  43 
breed  on,  43 

frequency  of  feeding  on,  43 
starvation  on,  43 
water  on,  43 
work  on,  43 

method  of  determining,  39 
of  coarse  forage,  41 
of  cooked  food,  41 
of  crude  protein,  41 
of  fat,  41 

of  feeds  low  in  fiber,  41 
of  food  by  horse,  42,  253 
pig,  43 

ruminants,  42 

of  grasses  affected  by  maturity,  41 
of  ground  grain,  41 
of  nitrogenous  foods,  42 


Digestible  nutrients,  defined,  107 
Digestible   nutrients   in   feeding   stuffs    Ap- 
pendix Table  III 
Digestion,  18 

coefficients  explained,  107 
heat  evolved  in,  52 
in  stomach,  20 

of  coarse  food  by  idle  horses,  52 
of  fiber  involves  much  work,  52 
studies  of  Pawlow  on,  30 
trials  with  cooked  feed,  217 
horses,  253 
sheep,  39 

work  involved  in,  52 
Dipping  sheep,  488 
Distillers'  grains,  dried,  208 
for  cows,  208,  403 
horses,  208,  274 
pigs,  526 
steers,  208,  345 
wethers,  465 

Draft,  energy  expended  by  horses  in,  259 
Dressed  carcass,   composition  of  from  farm 

animals,  15 
yielded  by  pigs,  512 

sheep,  447,  455 
steers,  323 

Dried  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp,  dried 
Dried  blood,  see  Blood,  dried 
Dried    brewers'  grains,  see  Brewers'  grains, 

dried 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  see  Distillers'  grains, 

dried 

Dried  fish,  204 
Drought,  effects  on  milk,  384 
Durra,  see  Milo 
Dynamometer,  251 

Earth  nut,  see  Peanut 
Egyptian  corn,  see  Milo 
Emmer,  143 

for  cows,  395 

lambs,  461,  487 
pigs,  524 
steers,  338 
Energy,  48 

available  and  net,  49 

expended  by  dairy  cows,  378 

factors  influencing  amount  appearing  ag 

useful  work,  88 

for  animal  derived  from  sun,  80 
for  work  furnished  by  carbohydrates,  87 
fat,  87 
protein,  87 

in  common  feeds,  50 
pure  nutrients,  50 
urea,  48 

liberated  as  heat  and  mechanical  work,  86 
muscular,  may  come  from  protein,  85 

produced  by  oxidation  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat,  85 
production,  85 
source,  86 

net,  49 

in  feeding  stuffs,  50 

in  feeds  determines  amount  of  work 

produced,  87 
in  pure  nutrients,  50 
part    expended   which    is    utilized    in 

work,  88 
practice,  87 

required  for  work,  decreases  with 
practice,  87 
factors  influencing, 

87-8 

increases  with 
fatigue,  87 
increases  with 
speed,  87 


600 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Energy,  continued 

of  animal  machine  compared  with  steam 

engine,  88 

of  feeds,  loss  of,  in  assimilation,  51 
digestion,  51 
feces,  50,  51 
mastication,  51 
production  processes, 

50,51 

urine,  50,  51 
see  Work 

Energy  value  of  feeds,  Armsby's,  120 
English    system  of    allowing    for    manurial 

value  of  feeds,  245 
Ensilage,  see  Silage 
Ensilage  of  fodders,  225 
Enzymes,  20 
Erepsin,  24 
Ergot,  209 

Ether  extract,  see  Fat 
Ewes,  breeding,  feed  for,  477 

in  winter,  482 

care  of  at  lambing  time,  479 
when   raising    winter   lambs, 

494 

cost  of  keeping  at  North,  482 
South,  483 
date  of  lambmg,  478 
feed  required  for  100  Ibs.  milk,  444 
flushing,  479 

maintenance  rations  in  winter,  482 
milking  qualities  of,  444 
turning  to  pasture,  481 
winter  rations,  482 
Ewe's  milk,  composition  of,  443 
value  for  lambs,  445 
Excrement,  composition  of  fresh,  247 

voided  by  farm  animals,  246 
see  Manure 
Exercise  for  brood  sows,  553 

carriage  horses,  295 
colts,  298 
dairy  cows,  432 
horses,  298 
lambs,  452 
pigs,  553,  556 
stallions,  292 
Exposure  for  lambs,  452 
steers,  315 

Farm  animals,  calculating  rations  for,  110 

128 

comparative  fattening  quali- 
ties, 78 

composition  of  bodies,  14-17 
excrement  voided  by,  246 
nitrogen    and    ash    retained 

and  voided  by,  246 
relative  economy  of,  79 
Fat,  5 

absorption  of,  35 

amount  formed  from  fat  in  food,  57,  61 
pentosans,  59 
protein,  59,  61 
starch,  58,  61 
sugar,  61 

a  source  of  muscular  energy,  86 
compared    with  other   nutrients  for  pro- 
ducing work,  87 
digestion  of,  25 

effect  of  cotton-seed  meal  on,  152 
feeding,  on  digestibility,  42 

feeding  fat  only,  55 
feeding  to  dairy  cows,  383 
formed  by  ox  in  1  day,  46 
from  carbohydrates,  58 
from  pentosans,  59 
from  protein,  59 

in  animal  may  resemble  that  in  vegetable 
57 


Fat,  continued 

in  clover  cut  at  different  stages  of  ripen- 
ing, 183 

in  grasses  cut  at  different  stages  of  ripen- 
ing, 173 

in  milk,  composition  affected  by  feed,  391 
effects  of  protein-rich  rations  on, 

383 

globules  in,  378 
influence  of  feed  on,  390 
in  ripening  clover,  183 
in  wool,  456 
origin  in  body,  56 
peanuts  produce  a  soft,  156, 198 
possible  amount  produced  in  body  by  nu- 
trients, 61 

soft,  produced  by  field  beans,  158 
source  of  in  milk,  60 
vegetable,  5 

yielded  by  great  dairy  cows,  429 
Fattening,  75 

composition  of  increase  during,  76 
factors  influencing,  77 
influence  of  ample  food  on,  77 
breed  on,  77 
exercise  on,  77 
palatabilitv  on,  77 
quantity  of  blood  on,  77 
temperament  on,  77 
object  of,  75 
Fattening  animals,  75 

Fattening    period,    cost    of    gain    increases 
with  length,  325,  326,  499 
length  for  pigs,  509 
sheep,  488 
steers,  326 

Fattening  process,  what  it  is,  364 
Fattening   qualities   of   ox,    sheep,    and  pig 

compared,  78 
Fattening  the  horse,  296 
Fatty  tissues,  storage  of,  70 
Feces,  30 

heat  carried  off  by,  83 
Feed,  administration  to.  cows,  433 

horses,  296-7 
lambs,  490 
pigs,  562 
steers,  371-3 

consumed    daily    by    pigs    of    various 

weights.  502 

from    birth    to  maturity  by 

steers  374-5 
yearly  by  calves,  308 
cows,  426-7 
horses,  285 
cooking,  for  cows,  433 

horses,  218,  283 
pigs,  217,  506 
steers,  218 

cost  of,  for  milk  production,  427 
eaten  by  yearling  calves,  308 
effects  on  fat  composition,  391 

teeth  and  skull  of  pigs.  510 
influence  on  body  of  pig,  91-96 

milk  fat,  390 

long  and  short  for  steers,  325 
preparation  for  farm  animals,  215-221 
preparation  for  calves,  311 
cows,  434 
horses,  282-4 
pigs,  504-8,  518 
sheep,  487 

relation  to  work  of  horse,  251 
returns  from  by  various  farm  animals, 

sale  and  regulation  of,  223 
soaking,  218 
soaking  for  swine.  506 
see  Feeds,  also  Feeding  stuffs 
Feed  adulteration,  223 


Index. 


601 


Feed  and  care  of  stallion,  291 

Feed  and  yield  of  great  dairy  cows,  429 

Feeding,  light  v.  heavy,  for  pigs,  507 

summer  v.  winter,  for  pigs,  508 
Feeding  standards,  104 
first,  104 
for  dairy  cows,  Haecker's,  116 

Scandinavian,  126 
for  farm  animals. 

Armsby's,  119-24 
Kellner's,  117-19 
Wolff's,  104-15,  Appendix  Table 

history  of,  104 
Feeding  stuffs,  129 

coefficients  of  digestibility,  Appendix 

Table  II 

composition,  Appendix  Table  I 
control,  222 
digestible  nutrients  in,  Appendix  Table 

fertilizing  constituents  in,  242 
mineral  matter  in,  Appendix  Table  V 
Feeding  the  horse,  hints  on,  296 
Feed  lot,  counsel  in,  363 

paved,  317 

Feed  racks  for  sheep,  486 
Feeds,  Armsby's  energy  value  of,  120 

crude  protein-rich  for  steers,  348 
fertilizing  value  of,  243 

how     allowed     for 

in  England,  245 
for  beef  calves,  309 
breeding  ewes,  477 
carriage  horses,  295 
cows,  393,  435 
horses,  267 
pigs,  516,  551,  557 
rams,  478 
sheep,  458,  486 
steers,  333,  365 
trotting  horses,  293 
work  horses,  295 
Kellner's  starch  values,  117 
low  in  fiber,  digestibility  of,  41 
in  lime,  67 
in  phosphorus  67,  Appendix  Table 

V 
rich  in  lime,  67,  Appendix  Table  V 

in  phosphorus,  67 
standards  for,  224 
true  value  of,  for  horses,  260 
see  Feed,  also  Feeding  stuffs 
Feed   units,   returns   from,   in    Swedish    test 

associations.  127 
Scandinavian,  124-5 
Feral  swine,  511 
Fertility,  selling,  in  crops,  243 
Fertilizers,  composition  of,  241 

essential  elements  in,  241 
see  Manure 
Fertilizing  constituents  in  feeding  stuffs,  242, 

Appendix  Table  III 
Fertilizing    value    of    feeds,    retained    and 

voided  by  animals,  245 
Fermentation  in  stomach,  22,  29 
Fiber,  10 

changed  to  marsh  gas,  41 
digestion  of,  26 
how  determined  in  feeds,  10 
in  feeding  stuffs,  224 
loss  of  energy  in  digesting,  52 
Field  bean,  158 

see  Bean,  field 

Field  pea,  Canada,  157 

for  horses,  270 

pigs,  527 

Field  pea  vine,  188 
Filly,  weight  of  at  birth,  250 
Fish  scrap,  204 

for  dairy  cows,  406 


Flat  turnips,  see  Turnips 

Flavors  in  milk  affected  by  feed,  391 

Flax  seed,  154 

for  calves,  305 
Flax  straw,  176 
Flesh  formation,  70 
Flesh,  how  formed,  28 
Flesh  meal  for  dairy  cows,  406 
Flesh  waste,  203 
Flock,  proper  size,  47  6 
quarters  for,  477 
winter  care,  477 
see  Sheep 
Flour,  low  grade,  136 

manufacture  of,  135 
Foals,  care,  288 

cow's  milk  for,  290 
feed  for  after  weaning,  291 
raising  orphan,  289 
weaning,  290 
weight  of  at  birth,  250 
yearly  gain  of,  251 
see  Colt 

Fodder,  ensilage  of,  225 
Fodder  corn,  159 
dry,  164 
for  soilage,  163 
v.  corn  silage,  227 
v.  timothy  hay  for  cows,  412 
see  Corn  forage 
Food,  cooked,  digestibility  of.  41,  216 

coarse,  energy  lost  in  digesting,  52 
disposition  of,  in  respiration  study,  45 
of  horse,  loss  of  energy  in  digestion,  52 
required  to  maintain  pigs,  501 
taken  by  ox  in  1  day,  44-5 
see  Feeds,  also  Feeding  stuffs 
Forage,  coarse,  digestibility,  41 

withholding  from  pigs,  98 

ruminants, 

96-7 

green,  digestibility  of.  42 
Forage  crops  at  South  for  pigs,  548 
Force,  see  Work 
Foot-pound,  252 
Foot-ton,  252 

Frosted  corn  for  silage,  230 
Fuel  value  of  food,  see  Energy 

Gain,  by  calves,  307 
foals,  250 
lambs,  445 
pigs,  499,  502 
sheep,  447 
steers,  323,  326 

comparative,  by  ox,  sheep,  and  pig.  78 
of  growing  animals,  72 
Gasoline  and  steam  engines  compared  with 

animals,  88 
Gastric  juice,  20 
Germ  oil  meal,  134 

for  cows,  399 

Gestation  period  of  cow,  376 
ewe.  442 
mare,  250 
sow,  496 
Glucose,  4 

disappears  from  muscles  during  work,  86 
manufactured  from  corn,  133 
stored  in  the  muscles,  86 
Gluten  feed,  134 
acid  in,  134 
for  cows,  398 
Gluten  meal,  134 
for  cows,  398 
for  pigs.  519 
Gluten  of  wheat,  135 
Glycogen,  35 

disappears  from  muscles  during  work.  86 
produced  continuously  in  body  tissues,  86 
stored  in  the  muscles,  86 


602 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Grade,  influence  on  energy  expended  in  work, 

258 

Grain,  grinding  for  cows,  216,  393,  434 
horses,  283 
pigs,  504,  505 
sheep,  487 

ground,  digestibility  of,  41 
soaking,  for  horses,  283 

pigs,  504,  506 
Grass,  159 

changes  in  ripening,  173 

curing  into  hay,  174 

dried  compared  with  fresh,  172 

effects  of  frequent  cutting  on  yield,  171 

weather  on  curing,  172 
for  silage,  231 
gains  of  steers  on,  319 
influence  of  ripeness  on  digestibility,  41 
quality  of  young,  171 
time  to  cut  for  hay,  173 
Grasses,  mixed,  168 

the  smaller,  166 
see  Hay,  also  Pasture 
Greasewood,  199 

Great  Britain,  fattening  sheep  in,  473 
steers  in,  360 

Green  forage,  digestibility  of,  42 
Grinding  corn  for  cows,  216 
horses,  283 
pigs,  216 
steers,  334 

Grinding  oats  for  horses,  283 
Grooming,  effects  on  cows,  389 
Ground  bone  for  calves.  307 
colts,  291 
pigs,  542 

Ground  rock  phosphate,  see  Phosphate,  rock 
Growth,  as  influenced  by  scant  rations,  71 

of  animals,  70 
Guinea  grass,  171 

Haecker  feeding  standard  for  dairy  cows,  116 

Hairy  vetch,  see  Vetch,  hairy 
Hay,  aroma  of,  174 

chaffing  for  horses,  282 
changes  while  curing,  174 
from  second  growth  grass,  175 
lime  for  curing,  175 
long  and  chaffed  for  cows,  219 
losses  by  stacking,  175 
loss  of  energy  in  chewing,  51 
making,  174 
measurement,  175 
mixing  straw  with,  for  curing,  175 
new  made,  laxative,  175 
salt  for  curing,  175 
shrinkage,  175 
spontaneous  combustion,  184 
time  to  cut  clover  for,  182 
grass  for,  173 

v.  corn  silage  for  dairy  cows,  407 
see  Grasses,  also  Legumes 
Hay,  alfalfa,  effects  of  rain  on,  179 
losses  by  stacking,  179 
Hay  equivalents,  104 
Hay  tea,  304 

Heat,  amount  given  off  by  cow  daily,  62 
in  coal,  48 

in  pure  nutrients,  48 
in  various  feeds,  48 
controlling  loss  from  human  body,  83 
energy  expended  in  body  takes  form  of. 

81 

how  it  is  produced  in  body,  81 
lost,  by  dog  after  being  shaved,  83 
from  bodies  of  fasting  dogs,  74 
in  digesting  fiber,  48 
varies    according  to    body  surface, 
74 


Heat,  continued, 

manner  of  escape  from  body,  83 
manner  of  equalization  in  body,  82 
of  body  increased  by  work,  81 
produced  by  all  work  of  body,  82 

in  body  influenced  by  standing 

and  lying,  73 
production  in  body,  36,  81 
regulation  in  body,  82 
requirements  in  maintenance  rations,  7?, 
see  Energy 
Heating  water  for  cows,  388 

farm  animals,  64 
Heiden's  method  of  calculating  manure  from 

farm  animals,  249 
Heifers,  alfalfa  hay  for,  180 

fatten  more  quickly  than  steers,  370 
value  of  compared  with  cow,  380 
v.  steers  for  beef  production,  324 
Herd  records  of  cows,  423-6 
Herd's  grass,  see  Timothy 
Hogs,  see  Pigs 
Hominy  feed,  134 
for  cows,  399 
pigs,  519 

Honeycomb,  or  second  stomach,  22 
Hordein,  6 

Horse  bean,  see  Bean,  horse 
Horse  feeding,  a  skilled  art,  287 
Horses,  250-301 

air  breathed  by,  62 
alfalfa  hay  for,  180,  279 
alfalfa  v.  timothy  hay  for,  279 
artichokes  for,  281 
barley  for,  140,  270 
beet  molasses  for,  274 
Bermuda  hay  for,  276 
body  temperature,  80 
bran  for,  137,  271 
brome  hay  for,  276 
cane  molasses  for,  274 
carriage,  feed  for,  295 
carrots  for,  192,  281 
cereal  hay  for,  275 
chaffing  hay  for,  282 
clover  hay  for,  185,  279 
cocoanut  meal  for,  275 
computing  rations  for,  262 
cooked  feed  for,  283 
corn  for,  267 

v.  oats  for,  267 
corn-and-cob  meal  for,  133 
corn  forage  for,  277 
corn  silage  for,  280 
corn  stover  and  straw  for,  278 

v.  timothy  hay  for,  277 
cost  of  feed,  278 
cotton-seed  meal  for,  150,  273 
cowpeas  for,  271 
cowpea  hay  for,  280 
crimson  clover  hay  dangerous  to,  187 
daily  work  performed  by,  252 
digestibility  of  food  by,  42 
digestion  trials  with,  253 
dried  distillers'  grains  for,  142,  274 
energy  expended  in  carrying  load,  259 
draft,  259 
lifting  body,  259 
locomotion,  258 
exercise  for,  298 
fattening,  281,  296 
feed  and  care  of,  287 
feed  consumed  daily,  278 

yearly,  285 

required  for  maintenance,  254 
feeding,  supervision  of,  297 
field  pea  for,  270 
grade,  effect  on  energy  expended  in  work, 

258 
grinding  grain  for,  220 


Index. 


603 


Horses,  continued 

hints  on  feeding,  296 

kafir  for,  148,  270 

linseed  meal  for,  272 

maintenance  requirements,  254 

malt  sprouts  for,  275 

measuring  work  performed  by,  251 

meat  meal  for,  203 

millet  hay  for,  276 

injurious  to,  169,  276 

milo  for,  270 

minimum  protein  requirement,  256 

mixed  concentrates  for,  273 

necessity  of  roughage  for,  275 

net  nutrients  needed  in  work,  260 

new  corn  product  for,  165 

nutritive  ratio  for,  256 

oats  for,  138,  267 

oil  meal  for,  155 

peanut  meal  for,  275 

peanut  vine  hay  for,  190 

potatoes  for,  281 

power  exerted  by,  of  varying  weights,  252 

preparing  feed  for,  282 

protein  required  for  maintenance,  256 

rations  for,  298 

relation  of  feed  to  work,  251 
speed  to  feed,  264 
work,  263 

rice  bran  for,  146 

rice  for,  145 

roots  for,  280 

roughages  for,  275 

rutabagas  for,  281 

rye  for,  143 

severe  work  by,  264 

skim  milk  for,  202 

soaking  grain  for,  283 

sorghum  hay  for,  277 

speed  influences  energy  required  for  work 
263 

stock  food  for,  281 

straw  for,  278 

supervision  of  feeding,  297 

sweet  potatoes  for,  198 

tankage'for,  275 

time  of  watering,  284 

timothy  hay  for,  167,  275 

true  value  of  feeds  for,  260 

variations  in  body  weight,  265 

velvet  bean  for,  1 90 

water  drank  by,  284 

evaporated  by,  266 

wet  beet  pulp  for,  275 

wheat  for,  270 

wheat  bran  for,  271 

v.  oats  for,  271 

wheat  middlings  for,  271 

work,  feed  and  care  of,  295 

work  performed  by,  258 

in  relation  to  feed,  251 
Hothouse  lambs,  493 

breeding  for,  494 

feeding,  495 
Hungarian  grass,  169 

see  Millet 

Hydrochloric  acid  in  gastric  juice,  20 
in  stomach,  65 
influence  on  pancreatic  se- 
cretion, 23 

Increase  during  fattening,  composition  of,  76 

Indian  corn  plant,  see  Corn 

Inorganic  phosphorus  useful  to  pigs,  67 

see  Calcium  phosphate 
Insalivation,  19 
Intestinal  secretion,  24 
Intestine,  large,  29 
small,  22 


Intestines,  length  and  capacity  of,  19 

of  pigs,  length,  510 
Invertases,  24 
Iron  in  blood,  65 
plants,  2 

Jacoba  Irene,  429 

Japan  clover,  see  Clover,  Japan 

Japanese  millet,  see  Millet,  Japanese 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  see  Artichoke 

Johnson  grass,  170 

Johnson  grass  hay  for  cows,  414 

June  grass,  see  Blue  grass 

Kafir,  165 

compared  with  corn,  148 
for  calves,  306 
cows,  395 
horses,  270 
lambs,  487 
pigs,  525,  558 
steers,  339 

may  contain  poison.  209 
red,  148 

astringent  in  character,  148 
white,  148 

Kafir  hay  for  steers,  351 

Kellner's    starch   values  and  feeding  stand- 
ard, 117 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  see  Blue  grass 
Kidneys,  elimination  of  waste  thru,  37 
Kidneys  of  pigs,  influence  of  corn  feeding  on 

92-6 
Kuehn's  maintenance  standard  for  steer,  115 

Labor,  see  Work 

Lactase,  24 

Lactation,  effects  of  advancing,  380 

Lacteals,  35 

Lambing,  date  of,  478 

Lambs,  see  Sheep 

alfalfa  hay  for,  470-2 

alfalfa  v.  prairie  hay  for,  470 

assimilate  calcium  phosphate,  67 

barley  and  oats  for,  462 

barley  for,  461,  486 

bean  straw  for,  471 

blue  grass  v.  rape  for,  469 

breeding  for  hothouse,  494 

clover  hay  for,  471 

compared  with  calves,  302 

pigs,  302,  446 

corn  and  oats  for,  462 

corn  for,  458,  486 

corn  silage  v.  roots  for.  466 

corn  stover  for,  471,  472 

corn  with  oats  or  peas  for,  459 

cost  of  gains  by,  489 

cowpea  hay  for,  472 

cow's  milk  for,  445 

dried  beet  pulp  for,  465 

dried  blood  for,  465 

dried  distillers'  grains  for,  465 

economy  of,  compared  with  pigs,  446 

emmer  for,  461,  487 

exercise  v.  confinement  for,  452 

exposure  v.  confinement  for,  452 

fattening.  458.  485 

feed  consumed  during  fattening,  489 

feeding  grain   before  and  after  weaning 

448 
milk,  100,  445 

field  peas  for.  470 

frosted  wheat  for,  463,  486 

gains  by,  445,  489 

gain  from  ewe's  milk,  445 

hothouse,  493-5 

linseed  cake  for,  465,  487 


604 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Lambs,  continued 

mangels  v.  corn  silage  for,  467 

millet  hay  for,  471 

millet  seed  for,  463 

molasses-beet  pulp  for,  465 

oats  for,  139,  460.  486 

oat  straw  for,  471 

peas  and  oats  for,  462 

pigeon-grass  seed  for,  463 

prairie  hay  for,  472 

rape  for,  468 

v.  blue  grass  for,  469 

returns  from,  compared  with  other  farm 
animals,  79 

rich  and  poor  milk  for,  100 

self-feed  for,  450 

shorn,  fattening,  449 

sorghum  hay  for,  471 

soybeans  for,  464,  487 

teaching  young,  to  eat,  480 

water  drank  by  fattening,  453 

weaning,  481 

weight  of,  at  birth,  443 

weight  of  fat,  454 

wet  beet  pulp  for,  468 

wheat  for,  460,  486 
small,  for,  463 

wheat  screenings  for,  464,  486 

wild  buckwheat  for,  463 

winter,  see  Lambs,  hothouse 
Lamb's  quarter  for  pigs,  527 
Lean  meat,  formed  by  ox  in  1  day,  46 
Leaves  and  twigs,  197 
Legumes,  177 

for  silage,  232 

importance  in  feeding,  177 
for  cows,  436 
pigs,  560 
steers,  366 

in  place  of  concentrates  for  cows,  415-19 

rich  in  lime,  177 
Legume  hay  for  cows,  436 
Legume  roughages  for  pigs,  559 
Legumin,  6 
Leguminous  plants  for  green  forage  and  hay, 

Leguminous   roughage  contains  lime  in   ex- 
cess of  phosphorus,  66 
Levulose,  4 
Light,  69 

absence  of,  favors  fattening,  69 
influence  of  on  blood  in  body,  69 
required  by  farm  animals,  69 
Lime,  65 

effect  of  deficiency  in  ration  for  cow,  65 

low  supply,  66 
feeds  low  in,  67 

rich  in,  67,  Appendix  Table  V 
in  legumes,  177 
stored  by  calf,  71 
withholding  from  cows,  383 
see  Calcium 

Lime  phosphate,  see  Calcium  phosphate 
Linseed  cake,  see  Linseed  meal 
Linseed  meal,  154 
for  calves,  305 
cows,  399 
horses,  272 
pigs,  531 
sheep,  465 
steers,  344,  351 
steers  on  pasture,  344 
wethers,  465 
new  process,  154 
old  process,  154 
value  of  oil  in,  155 
Linseed  oil  meal,  see  Linseed  meal 
Liver,  23 

influence  of  corn  feeding  on,  92-6 
Load,  energy  expended  by  horse  carrying,  259 


Locomotion  of  horses,  258 
Loco  poisoning,  208 
Lucern,  see  Alfalfa 
Lymph,  34 
Lymphatics,  34 

Machine,  the  animal  as  a,  88 
Maintenance  of  farm  animals,  73 
Maintenance  rations,  73 
for  growing  steers,  101 
mature  animals,  73 
various  farm  animals,  Appendix   Table 

furnish  sufficient  heat  for  body,  74 

protein  required  in,  74 
Maintenance  requirements,  73 

greater  when  animal  is  standing,  73 

of  horse,  254 

vary  with  size  and  weight,  73 
Maize,  see  Corn 
Malt,  141 

for  stock,  141 

manufacture  of,  141 
Maltase,  24 
Maltose,  4,  24,  141 
Malt  sprouts,  142 

for  cows,  404 

Mammoth  clover,  see  Clover,  mammoth 
Mangels,  191 

dangerous  to  sheep,  192 

for  cows,  410 
pigs,  534 
sheep,  192,  467 
steers,  358,  361 

v.  corn  silage  for  fattening  lambs,  467 
Manure,  241 

barnyard,  benefits  the  soil,  241 

calculating  amount  of,  249 

value  of  1  ton  from  farm  animals,  249 

voided  by  steer  from  birth   to  maturity, 
375 

see  Excrement  and  Fertilizers 
Manurial  value  of  feeds,  241 
Manyplies,  22 
Mare,  brood,  feeding,  292 

gestation  period  of,  250 
see  Horse 

Mare  and  foal,  investigations  concerning,  250 
Mare's  milk,  composition  of,  251 
Margin,  see  Spread 
Marsh  gas,  29,  37 

from  fiber,  41 
Mastication,  energy  lost  in,  51 

see  Insalivation 

Meadow  foxtail  hay  for  cows,  413 
Meat,  marbling  of,  76 
Meat  meal,  203 

for  sheep,  466 

see  Tankage 

Meat  scrap,  made  into  bread,  203 
Metabolism,  33,  34 
Middlings,  wheat,  137 

for  horses,  271 
,     pigs,  558 

uses  of,  138 

see  Shorts 

Milch  cows,  see  Cows 
Milk,  201 

affected  by  drought,  384 

turning  to  pasture,  384 
work,  385 

ash  in,  202 

bitter,  391 

color  of,  affected  by  feed,  391 

composition  of,  379 

cow's,  for  calves,  302 
foals,  290 
lambs,  445 
pigs,  536 


Index. 


605 


Milk,  continued 

effects  of  rich,  on  infants,  100 

silage  on,  233 
energy  expended   by   cows  in  producing. 

378 

fat  globules  in,  378 
feed-cost  of  producing,  427 
first  and  last  drawn,  composition  of,  379 
flavor,  affected  by  feed,  391 

rape  pasture,  186 
rye  pasture,  169 
silage,  233 
wheat  pasture,  169 
from  silage  and  dry  fodder,  226 
nitrogen  and  ash  in,  17 
odors  in,  due  to  feed,  391 
of  cow,  201,  379 
ewe,  443 
mare,  251 
sow,  497-8 

various  breeds  of  cows,  379 
rich  and  poor  for  young  animals,  100 
Milk,  skim,  202 
for  cows,  406 
colts,  290 
calves,  303 
horses,  202 
pigs,  537-9 

money  value,  for  pigs,  538-9 
pasteurized  for  calves,  303 
proper  proportion  for  pig  feeding,  538 
source  of  fat  in,  60 
tainted  by  rape,  196 
Milk,  whole,  202 
for  calves,  302 
foals,  251 
lambs,  445 
pigs,  530 
Milk  sugar,  201 
Milk  yield,  compared  by  months,  381 

effects  of  advancing  lactation,  380 
of  great  dairy  cows,  429 
period  of  greatest,  381 
Milking  cows  3  times  daily,  389 
Milking,  Hegelund  method,  389 
Millet,  149,  526 

Black  Veronesh,  149 
for  lambs.  463 
pigs,  526 
steers,  339 
Millet  hay,  169 

dangerous  to  horses,  276 
for  horses,  276 
lambs,  471 
Milo,  148,  165 
for  horses,  270 
pigs,  525,  558 
steers,  340 

laxative  nature  of,  148 
Mineral  matter,  2,  64 
digestion  of,  30 
effects  on  animals  of  lack,  64 

on  bones  of  pigs,  99 
for  calves,  307 
colts,  291 
cows,  65,  383 
pigs,  65,  67,  561 
importance  of  in  food,  64,  65 
in  feeding  stuffs,  65,  Appendix  Table  V 
in  plants,  2,  7 

stored  in  body  of  ox  in  1  day,  47 
Molasses,  beet,  205 
analysis  of,  206 
for  horses,  274 
steers,  347 
Molasses,  cane,  206 
for  calves,  306 
cows,  207 
horses,  274 


Molasses,  cane,  continued 
for  mules,  207 
pigs,  207 
steers,  207,  346 
Molasses-beet  pulp,  206 

dried,  for  dairy  cows,  403 
Molasses  feeds,  207 
Molasses  mixtures,  207 
Muscles,  cause  of  contraction  unknown,  85 
increase  thru  exercise,  71 
of   pigs,    influence    of    corn    feeding 

on, 92-6 
see  Protein 

Muscular  energy,  may  come  from  protein,  85 
produced  by  burning  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat,  85 
production  of,  85 

New  corn  product,  165 
Nitrogen,  in  feeds,  as  a  fertilizer,  241 
in  fresh  excrement,  247 
produced  yearly  by  farm  animals, 

248 

voided  by  farm  animals,  246 
Nitrogen-free   extract   in   feeds,    how    deter- 
mined, 10 

Nitrogenous  compounds  in  plants,  5 
Nitrogenous  waste  during  work  in  urine,  46, 

84 

Nutrient,  defined,  105 
Nutrients,  distribution  of  absorbed,  36 
final  uses  of,  36 
in  alfalfa  crop,  178 
in  feeding  stuffs,  explained,  106 
net,  needed  by  horse  in  work,  260 
required    for   gain    by    ox,    sheep, 

and  pig,  78 
Nutrition  studies,  53 
Nutritive  ratio,  108 
for  work  horses,  256 
how  calculated,  108 
how  expressed,  109 
may  be  wide  for  maintenance,  73 
narrow  and  wide,  109 

Oat  dust,  140 

Oat  feed,  140 

Oat  hay,  169,  170 

Oat  hulls,  139 

Oat  meal  for  calves,  305 

Oat  middlings,  140 

Oats,  138 

by-products  of,  139 

clipped,  138 

for  cows,  394,  395 
horses,  138,  267 
lambs,  460,  462,  486 
pigs,  523 
steers,  337 

loss  of  energy  in  chewing,  52 

stimulating  principle  in,  139 

v.  corn  for  horse  feeding,  268 

weight  of,  138 
Oat  straw,  176 

for  lamb's,  471 

Odors  in  milk,  due  to  feed,  391 
Oil  cake,  154 

for  cows,  399 
wethers,  465 

see  Linseed  meal 
Oil,  corn,  132 
Oils,  see  Fats 
Olein,  5 

Oleomargarine  for  calves,  306 
Oleo  oil  for  calves,  306 
Orchard  grass,  168 
Outgo  from  ox  in  1  day,  44 
Ox,  body  temperature  of,  80 

composition  of  body,  15 


606 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Ox,  continued 

increase  by  in  1  day,  44-47 

see  Steer 

Oxygen,  breathed  by  ox  in  1  day,  44 
Oxygen  intake  increased  during  work,  86 

Palatability,  32 

Palmitin,5 

Pancreas,  23 

Pancreatic  juice,  23 

Parsnips,  192 

Pasturage  v.  soilage  for  cows,  411 

Pasture,  abuse  of,  171 

advantage  of  feeding  steers  on,  321 

annual,  for  sheep,  473 

effects  of    feeding    concentrates    to 

cows  on,  385 
on   milk   yield   and   composi- 

tion, 384 
for  cattle,  319 


pigs,  544 
ns  by 


gains  by  steers  from,  319 

midsummer  shortage  of,  171 

milk  from  1  acre,  212 
Paunch,  20,22 

see  Stomach 

Pa\rlow,  studies  of,  on  digestion,  30 
Pea-cannery  refuse,  188 
Pea  meal,  see  Field  pea 
Peanut,  156,  198 
Peanut  cake,  157 
Peanut  hulls,  157 
Peanut  meal  for  horses,  275 
Peanuts  for  pigs,  530,  535-6 
Peanut  vine  hay,  190 

for  steers,  354 
Pear,  prickly,  200 

for  cows,  200 

steers,  200 
silage,  232 

Peas  and  oats  for  wethers,  462 
Peas,  field,  188 

fattening  sheep  on,  493 

for  lambs,  470 


pigs,  558 
le  sila 


Peavine  silage,  fattening  steers  on,  233 
Peavine  waste,  from  canneries,  188 
Pentosans,  5 

a  source  of  muscular  energy,  86 
in  corn  cobs,  5 

in  dried  brewers'  grains,  142 
in  flax  seed,  154 
Pentose,  5 
Pepsin,  20,  21 
Peptones,  21,  27 

Phosphate,  calcium,  for  farm  animals,  67 
Phosphate,  ground  rock,  for  pigs,  98-9 

useful  to  animals,  67 

Phosphoric  acid  in  feeds  as  a  fertilizer,  241 
in  fresh  excrement,  247 
produced  yearly  by  farm  ani 

mals,  248 

voided  by  farm  animals,  246 
Phosphorus,  effect  of  low  supply,  66 
feeds  low  in,  67 
rich  in,  67 
in  bran,  136 
in  nerve  cells,  65 
inorganic,  for  pigs,  98-9 
stored  by  calf,  71 
withholding  from  pigs,  98-9 
Physical    regulation    of   heat   production    in 

body,  82 

Phytin  in  wheat  bran,  136 
Pigeon-grass  seed  for  lambs,  463 

pigs,  527 
Pigs,  496-564 
acorns  for,  197 


Pigs,  continued 

administration  of  feed  to,  562 
air  breathed  by,  62 
alfalfa  hay  for,  180,  549,  559 
alfalfa  pasture  for,  181 

and  corn  for,  546 
v.  rape  pasture  for,  545 
amount  of  water  in  slop  for,  507 
artichokes  for,  193,  535 
average  daily  gain  by,  502 
bacon  production  from,  563-4 
barley  for,  140,  522,  558 
barrows  v.  sows,  512 
beet  pulp  for,  533 
birth  weight  of,  496 
blood  meal  for,  542 
body  of,  composition,  14 
body  temperature  of,  80 
bone  ash  for,  98-9 
bran  for,  137,  558 
breed  tests,  511 
buckwheat  for,  524 
buttermilk  for,  202,  539 
calcium  phosphate  for,  98-9 
calves  and  lambs  compared,  302 
cassava  roots  for,  198 
chufas  for,  198,  536 
clover  hay  for,  549,  556 
clover  pasture  for,  186 

v.  rape  pasture  for,  547 
composition    of    increase    during    fatten- 
ing, 76 

cooking  feed  for,  217,  506 
corn  for,  516,  557 

gains  from  1  bu.  of,  516 

gains  from  100  Ibs.  of,  516 

field,  for,  517 

soft,  for,  517 

corn-and-cob  meal  for,  518 
corn  meal  v.  barley  meal  for,  522 


cowpeas  for,  530 
emmer  meal  for,  524 
kafir  for,  525 
pea  meal  for,  528 
skim  milk  for,  537-9 
wheat  middlings  for,  520 


v.  wheat  shorts  for,  521 
correctives  for,  561 
cotton-seed  meal  for,  531 

poisonous  to,  153 
cowpeas  for,  158,  530,  558 
cowpea  pasture  and  corn  for,  546 
cow's  milk,  whole,  for,  536 
cull  beans  for,  528 
dairy  by-products  for,  561 
digestibility  of  food  by,  43 
dressed  carcass,  per  cent  yielded  by,  512 
dried  blood  v.  corn  for,  91-4 
dried  distillers'  grains  for,  526 
droppings  of  corn-fed  steers  for,  324-336 
early  grains  of,  498,  499 
economy  of  young  compared  with  lambs, 

446 

effects  of  addition  of  water  to  feed,  507 
feed  on  teeth  and  skull,  510 
lengthening  fattening  period,  509 
emmer  for,  524 
exercise  for  young.  556 
fattening,  557 
feed  eaten  daily,  502 

for  100  Ibs.  of  gain,  502-3 
feeding  corn  exclusively,  91 

on  alfalfa  pasture,  546 
field  corn  to,  517 
inorganic  phosphorus  to,  98-9 
thru  the  dam,  500 
field  beans  for,  158 
field  peas  for,  157,  527,  558 
following  steers.  368 


Index. 


607 


Pigs,  continued 

food  required  to  maintain,  500-502 
forage  crops  at  South  for,  548 
gain  from  1  bushel  of  corn,  516 
gains  from  birth  to  maturity,  499 

droppings  of  steers,  336 
gluten  meal  for,  519 
grinding  corn  for,  216,  221,  503-6 

grain  for,  216,  503 
ground  bone  for,  542 
ground  rock  phosphate  for,  98-9 
hairy  vetch  for,  189 
home  markets  for  pork  products,  563 
hominy  feed  for,  519 
influence  of  feed  on  body,  91-6 

length  of  fattening  period  or 

gains,  509 
kafir  for,  148,  525 
lambs-quarter  seed  for,  527 
legumes,  rape,  and  roots  for,  560 
length  of  intestines,  510 
light  v.  heavy  feeding,  507 
linseed  oil  meal  for,  531 
mangels  for,  191 
meat  meal  for,  see  Tankage 
middlings  for,  558 
milk,  rich  and  poor,  for,  100 
milk,  whole,  for,  536 
millet  seed  for,  149,  526 
milo  for,  525 
mineral  matter  for,  561 
number  in  litter,  496 
oats  for,  138,  523 
oil  meal  for,  155 
pasture  for,  544 
peanuts  for,  156,  198,  530,  535 
peas,  field  for,  157,  527,  558 
pigeon-grass  seed  for,  527 
pork  from,  see  Pork 
potatoes  for,  192,  534 
preparing  corn  for,  504 
proprietary  stock  feeds  for,  543 
pumpkins  for,  536 
rape  for,  196,  559 

v.  alfalfa  pasture  for,  545 

v.  clover  pasture  for,  547 
rate  of  daily  gain,  502 
razorback,  511 

see  Feral  swine 
red-dog  flour  for,  520 
returns  from,  compared  with  other  farm 

animals,  79 

rice  by-products  for.  526 
rich  and  poor  milk  for,  100 
roots  for,  532,  534,  560 
rye  for,  143,  522 
rye  shorts  for,  143 
shelter  for,  508,  553 

brood  sows,  509 
silage  for,  551 
skim  milk  for,  202,  537-9 
v.  corn  for,  537 
soaking  feed  for,  219,  506 
soft  pork  from,  see  Pork,  soft 
soilage  for,  548 
sorjfhum  seed  for,  526 
soybeans  for,  156,  529,  558 
soybean  pasture  and  corn  for,  547 

cowpeas  for,  547 
squash  for,  536 
sugar  beets  for,  532 
summer  care  of,  552 
summer  v.  winter  feeding  of,  508 
sweet  potatoes  for,  198,  535 
strength  of  thigh  bones,  92-4 

affected  by  ground  bone,  542 

inorganic  phosphorous, 

98-9 
tankage  for,  203,  540-2,  561 

v.  linseed  meal  for,  541 


Pigs,  continued 

tuberculosis,  from  tuberculous  steers,  513 
thru    feeding   infected    milk, 

513 

unweaned,  gains  by,  498 
velvet  bean  for,  190 
water  for,  562 
weight  at  birth,  496 
wheat  for,  135,  519,  558 
wheat  bran  for,  521 
wheat  middlings  for  520 
wheat  shorts  for,  521 
whey  for,  203,  540 
winter  care  of,  553 
wintering  in  single-board  cabins.  508 
withholding  phosphorus  from,  98 
see  Hogs,  Swine,  and  Sows 
Plants  and  animals  compared,  17 
Plants,  carbon  dioxid,  food  material  for,  2 
food  of,  1 

how  they  grow,  1,  3 
iron  in,  1 
poisonous,  208 
the  source  of  animal  life,  8 
use  of  mineral  matter  in,  2 
water  in,  1 
water  required  by,  2 
Plant  substances,  how  grouped,  8, 9 
Pork,  effects  of  acorns  on,  197 

barley  on,  140,  564 
buckwheat  on,  147,  524 
corn  on,  91-6,  514,  564 
cull  beans  on,  158,  528 
linseed  meal  on,  531 
millet  on,  149 
molasses  on,  533 
oats  on,  564 
peas  on,  528 
peanut  feeding  on,  156 
roots  on,  514,  534 
rye  shorts  on,  143 
skim  milk  on,  564 
soybeans  on,  530 
squashes  on,  536 
velvet  beans  on,  190 
wheat  bran  on,  522 
wheat  middlings  on,  558 
Pork,  soft,  514 

causes  of,  514 

Potash,  as  a  fertilizer  in  feeds,  241 
in  fresh  excrement,  247 
produced  yearly  by  farm  animals.  248 
voided  by  farm  animals,  246.  247 
Potassium  chlorid,  feeding  in  place  of  salt, 

68 

Potassium  in  blood,  65 
Potatoes,  191,  192 
dried,  192 
feeding  value  for  horses.  281 

pigs.  534 
Poultry,    returns    of.    compared    with    other 

farm  animals.  79 
Prairie  hay  for  cows,  413 

lambs.  470-2 
steers.  351 

Preparation  of  feeds,  215 
Preparing  feed,  general  conclusions  on,  220 
Prickley  comfrey,  196 
Prickly  pear,  see  Cacti,  and  Pear,  prickly 
Products,   edible,   returned   by  various   farm 

animals,  79 

Proprietary  stock  foods,  see  Stock  foods 
Protein,  6 

absorption  of,  30 
a  cell  stimulant,  75 
body,  a  source  of  muscular  energy,  86 
building  of  body,  28 

compared  with   other  nutrients  for  pro- 
ducing work,  87 
crude,  digestibility  of,  41 


608 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Protein,  continued 

in  ripening  clover,  183 

grasses,    178 

in  young  and  mature  grass,  172 
too  high  in  Wolff's  rations,  155 
digestion  of,  27 

effects  of  carbohydrates  in  sparing,  55,  5G 
excessive  feeding  of,  55 
fats  in  sparing,  56 
feeding  only,  54 
feeding  carbohydrates  with,  55 

fats  with,  55 
gain  in  by  growing  ox,  72 
increase  of  in  young  animals,  71 
liberal      supply      essential      to      normal 

growth,  71 
minimum  requirement,  74 

by  cows,  75 
horses,  256 
steers,  75 

percentage  stored  in  body,  70 
required  for  maintenance,  73 
source  of  muscular  energy,  86 
stored  by  calf,  71 
Protein   and   fat  in   body,  energy   expanded 

in  producing,  70 
Protein  metabolism,  36,  37 
Protein-rich   rations,  effect  on  fat  in  milk, 

383 

Protein  supply  must  be  ample,  75 
Protein  tissue,  storage  of,  70 

waste  of,  during  work,  84 
Proteoses,  21,  27 
Protoplasm,  plant,  3,  5 
Prussic  acid,  plants  carrying,  209 
Ptyalin,  20,  "21 

Public  tests  of  dairy  cows,  420 
Pumpkins,  195 

for  cows,  195 

pigs,  195,  536 
Pumpkin  seeds,  195 
Purslane,  197 

Quiet,  influence  of,  69 

Ram,  feed  for,  478 

see  Sheep 

Rape,  dwarf  Essex,  195 
for  fattening  lambs,  468 

pigs,  548,  559 

v.  alfalfa  pasture  for  pigs,  545 
v.  blue  grass  for  lambs,  4(39 
v.  clover  pasture  for  pigs,  547 
Rations,  109 

balanced,  defined,  109 
calculating,  for  dairy  cows,  112,  122 
horses,  298 
steers  at  rest,  110 
compounding,  for  dairy  cows,  437 
digestibility  of,  affected  by  carbohydrates 

cooking,  42 
drying,  42 
fat,  42 
fibre,  41 
salt,  42 
steaming,  42 
fed  cows  on  test,  428 
feeding  wide  and  narrow  to  steers,  90 
for  dairy  cows,  by  Armsby  standard,  122 
Haecker  standard,  116 
Scandinavian  feed    unit 

system,  126 
Wolff-Lehmann    stand 

ard, 112 

for  dairy  cows  on  test,  428 
horses,  298 
fattening  steers,  364 
steers,  used  in  Great  Britain,  360 


Rations,  continued 

various  animals  explained,  109-10 
hints  and  help^  on  calculating,  113 
influence  of  scanty,  on  growth,  71 
maintenance,  defined,  109 

economical,  73 
for  mature  animals,  73 
heat  requirements  in.  73 
influence  of  quiet  on,  73 

restlessness  on, 

73 
temperature  on, 

74 

protein  required  in,  73 
should  vary  according  to 

body  surface,  74 
see  Maintenance  ration 
meager,  effect  of.  on  growing  steers,  101 
poor,  fair,  and  ideal  for  dairy  cows,  440 
practical  considerations  concerning,  114 
practical,  for  steers,  370 
standard,  Armsby 's,  119 

Haecker's,  115-116 
Kellner's,  115,  117 
Wolff-Lehmann,  105 

notes  on,  115 

Rations  and  feeding  standards,  general  con- 
clusions, 115 

Red  clover,  see  Clover,  red 
Red-dog  flour  for  pigs,  520 
Red  top  grass,  168 
Rennet,  20,  21 
Rennin,  20,  21 

Respiration  apparatus,  description,  43 
Respiration  studies  with  ox,  43 
Rice,  145 

damaged,  value,  145 
feeding  value,  145 
red,  feeding  value,  145 
returns  from  sack  of,  145 
Rice  bran,  feeding  value  of,  146 
Rice  by-products  and  rough  rice  for  steers,  341 
Rice  by-products  for  pigs,  526 
Rice  hulls,  dangerous  to  animals,  146 
Rice  polish,  feeding  value,  145 
Roads,  draft  required  on  various,  253 
Rock  phosphate,  see  Phosphate,  rock 
Roots  and  silage,  dry  matter  in,  228 
relative  cost  of,  229 
yield  of,  228 

Roots,  191 
costly,  193 

for  cows,  194,  409,  436 
horses,  280 
pigs,  532-4,  560 
steers,  194 

how  fed  in  Canada  and  Great  Britain,  193 
influence  of  feeding  on  bacon.  192 
modify  carcass  of  animals.  194 
relative  value  of  various  kinds  for  pigs, 

534 
use  in  steer  feeding  in  Great  Britain,  360 

in  stock  feeding,  193 
v.  concentrates  for  dairy  cows,  410 
v.  corn  silage,  194,  228 

for  lambs,  466 
for  steers,  358 

value  of  dry  matter  in,  193,  228 
yield  of  and  dry  matter  in,  191,  228 
Roughages,  11 

digestibility  of,  affected  by  carbohydrates, 

nitrogenous 

matter,  42 

effect  of  storage  on  digestibility  of.  42 
for  sheep,  488 

losses  of  energy  in  digestion  of,  52 
necessity  of,  for  calves.  97 
cows,  96 


Index. 


609 


Roughages,  continued 

necessity  of,  for  herbivora,  98 
horses,  275 
sheep,  97 
steers,  97 
swine,  556,  559 
steaming  for  cattle,  217 
various  classes  for  cows,  438 
steers,  352 

with  cotton-seed  meal  for  steers,  354 
Ruminants,  digestibility  of  food  by,  42,  43 
Rutabagas,  191,  192 
for  horses,281 
lambs,  467 
steers,  192 
Rye,  142 

effect  on  dairy  products,  143 
for  cows,  394 
hay,  169 
horses,  270 
pasture,  171 
pigs,  522 
silage,  232 

Rye  pasture  injures  flavor  of  milk,  169 
Rye  shorts  injure  pigs,  143 
Rye  straw,  176 

Sage  brush,  199 

Saliva,  action  on  food,  20 

amount  secreted,  20 
Salt,  common,  67 

effect  of  excessive  consumption  of,  68 

on  digestibility,  42 
for  calves,  307 
for  cows,  434 
horsos,  69 
sheep,  453,  483 
steers,  373 
in  blood,  65 

influence  on  digestibility,  42 
need  of.  by  farm  animals,  69 
withholding,  from  cows,  68 
Saltbush,  199 

Salt-marsh  hay  for  cows,  414 
Saltpeter  in  corn  forage,  210 
Scandinavian  feed  unit  system.  124 
Scarlet  clover,  see  Crimson  clover 
Screenings,  see  Wheat  screenings 
Self-feeder  for  sheep,  450 
steers,  316 

Separator  skim  milk,  see  Milk,  skim 
Serum  albumin,  36 
Serum  globulin,  36 
Shearing,  effect  of  frequent,  457 
Sheep,  air  required  by,  62 
alfalfa  hay  for,  470,  471 
annual  pastures  for,  473 
barley  for,  461 
bean  straw  for,  471 
Bermuda  grass  pasture  for,  170 
body  temperature  of,  80 
bran  for,  137  487 
breeding  studies  of,  442 
breed  tests  of,  446-7 
buckwheat,  wild,  for,  463 
care  and  management  of.  442 

at  lambing  time,  479 
clover  hay  for,  186 
composition  of  body,  15 
daily  gain  of,  447 
danger  from  feeding  mangels,  192 
dipping,  488 

dressed  carcass,  per  cent  yielded  by,  455 
dried  blood  for,  466 
emmer  for,  143,  461 
fattening,  458 

different  ages,  451 
in  Colorado,  490 
corn  belt,  492 
40 


Sheep,  continued 

fattening,  in  Great  Britain,  473 
small  bands,  492 
winter,  485 
mature,  485 
on  field  peas,  493 

wet  beet  pulp,  491,  498 
wheat  screenings,  492 
feeding,  hints  on,  490 
feed  racks  for,  486 
field  peas  for,  157 
general  care,  475 
gestation  period,  442 
grinding  grain  for,  221,  487 
increase  during  fattening,  76 
investigations  with,  442-57 
length  of  fattening  period,  488 
meat  meal  for,  203,  466 
millet  for,  463 

mutton  and  Merino,  compared,  476 
oats  for,  460 
oat  straw  for,  471 
pea  vine  silage  for,  188 
pigeon-grass  seed  for,  463 
plains,  fattening,  490-3 
proper  size  of  flock,  476 
protein-rich  feeds  for,  487 
rape  for,  196 

v.  blue-grass  pasture  for,  469 
regularity  and  quiet  for,  490 
returns  compared  with   other  farm  ani- 
mals, 79 
rice  for,  145 
roughage  for,  488 
rutabagas  for,  192 
sagebrush  for,  199 
saltbush  for,  199 
salt  consumed  by.  453,  483 
self-feeder  for,  450 
shrinkage  in  shipping,  455 
silage  for,  466-7 
slaughter  tests,  455 
soiling,  448 
sorghum  hay  for,  471 
soybeans  for,  156 
stomach  worms,  484 
succulent  feeds  for,  488 
sugar  beets  for,  466 
unusual  feeds  for,  475 
various  grains  for  fattening,  486 
water  required  by,  483 
weight  of  dressed  carcass,  455 

fattened,  454 
wheat  for,  460 

frosted  for,  463 
screenings  for,  463 
small  for,  463 
winter  care  of,  477 
winter  quarters  for,  477 
see  Ewes  and  Lambs 
Shelter  for  cows,  432 

farm  animals,  80 
pigs,  508,  553 
sheep,  452,  477 
Shock  corn,  for  steers,  335,  366 

value  in  feeding,  163 
Shocking  corn,  163 
Shorts,  137 

for  cows,  397 
pigs.  521 
see  Middlings 
Shotes,  care  and  feed  of,  556 

following  steers,  gain  of,  336,  368 
see  Mgs 
Shredding  corn  forage,  219 

see  Corn  forage 

Shrinkage  in  shipping  sheep,  455 
steers,  374 
Silage,  225-237 
alfalfa,  181,  232 


610 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Silage,  continued 
apple  pomace,  232 
as  a  feeding  stuff,  234 
beet  leaves  for,  206,  232 
beet  pulp,  205,  232 
clover,  186,  232 
corn,  165,  225,  231 

for  cows,  234,  406-8,  436 
ewes,  234 
horses.  234,  280 
pigs,  234,551 
sheep,  234,  466-7 
steers,  234,  355-9,  367 
removing  ears  from  corn  before  en- 
siling, 230 
v.  apples,  195 

v.  clover  hay  for  steers,  356 
v.  corn  fodder,  227 

for  cows,  226,  406 
v,  corn  stover  for  steers,  356 
v.  hay  for  cows,  407 
v.  mangels  for  lambs,  467 
y.  roots,  194 

for  lambs,  466 
steers,  358 

v.  shock  corn  for  steers,  355 
v.  sugar  beets  for  cows,  408 
cost  of  producing,  235 
cowpea,  188,  232 

for  dairy  cows,  232 
crops  suitable  for,  232 
cured  corn  forage  for,  231 
effects  on  milk,  233 
frosted  corn  for,  230 
losses  in  silo,  236 
makes  watery  flesh,  234 
mixed,  for  cows,  409 
pea  vine,  188 

position  of,  on  stock  farm,  234 
prickly  pear,  232 
space  occupied  by,  235 
Southern  v.  Northern  corn  for,  229 
steaming,  231 
studies  on,  for  cows,  409 
summer,  236 

for  cows,  437 
thistles  for,  232 
v.  soilage  for  cows,  411 
waste  in  airtight  silo,  236 
weight  of,  238 
Silage  and  roots,  dry  matter  in,  228 

relative  cost,  229 
Silo,  237 

capacity  of,  239 
cylindrical,  237 

danger  from  carbon  dioxide  in  filling,  237 
economy  of  various  sizes,  239 
filling,  237 
proper  size,  238 
rate  of  filling,  237 
Skim  milk,  see  Milk,  skim 
Skin,  heat  carried  off  by  water  escaping  from, 

Oo 

lost  from,  by  radiation  and  conduc 

tion,  83 

Slaughterhouse  waste,  203 
Slop,  amount  of  water  in,  for  swine,  506 

feeding  grain  in  form  of,  to  cows,  434 
Smut,  corn,  210 
Soaked  feed,  218 

for  pigs,  218,  505,  507 

see  Feeds,  soaked 
Soft  pork,  see  Pork,  soft 
Soilage,  211 

advantages  of  partial,  212 

alfalfa  for,  181 

clover  for,  186 

crops  for,  213 

defined,  211 

for  cows,  437 


Soilage,  continued 
for  pigs,  548 
labor  involved  in,  212 
v.  pasturage,  211,  214 

for  cows,  411 
v.  silage  for  cows,  411 
Soiling  chart,  213 
Sorghum,  147 
Sorghum  for  forage,  165 
for  silage,  231 
may  contain  poison,  209 
sweet,  forage  and  seed,  147 
Sorghum  hay  for  horses,  276 
lambs,  471 
steers,  351 

Sorghum  meal  for  cows,  395 
Sorghum  seed,  147 

for  pigs,  526 
Sorghum  silage,  165 
Southern  grasses,  170 

Southern  v.  Northern  seed  for  silage  corn,  229 
Sow  and  litter,  care  of,  555 
Sows,  care  at  farrowing,  554 

composition  of  milk,  497 
feeding  exclusively  on  skim  milk,  97 
gestation  period,  496 
maintenance  requirements,  500 
milk  yield  of,  497,  498 
spayed  v.  unspayed,  512 
v.  barrows,  512 
wintering,  509 
Soybean,  155 
Soybeans,  for  cows,  396 

lambs,  156,  464,487 
pigs,  156,  529,  558 
Soybean  cake  for  cows,  401 
Soybean  hay  for  cows,  415 
Soybean  meal  for  cows,  396 
Soybean  pasture  and  corn  for  pigs,  547 
Soybean  silage  for  cows,  419 
Spayed  v.  unspayed  sows,  512 
'•'nayine:,  effects  of  on  cows.  388 
Speed  in  relation  to  feed,  264 
work,  2(53 
Speltz,  see  Emmer 
Spread  in  selling  steers,  370 
Spurry,  196 
Squash  for  pigs,  536 
Stallions,  feed  and  care  of,  291 
St.  Louis  Exposition,  tests  of  dairy  cows  at, 

420 

Standard  rations,  see  Rations 
Starch,  4 

absent  in  flax  seed,  154 
action  of  saliva  on,  20 
dissolved  by  ptyalin,  20 
in  corn  kernel,  132 
production  of,  from  corn,  133 
saccharified,  for  calves,  306 
Starch  values.  Kellner's,  117 
Starvation,  effects  of,  53 
Steam  engine  and  animal  compared,  88 
Steaming  roughages  for  cattle,  217 

silage,  231 
Steapsin,  23 
Stearin,  5 
Steer  feeding,  ability  in,  317 

counsel  in  feed  lot,  363-75 
order  and  quiet  in,  371 
Steers,  315-75 

advantages  of  pasture  for,  321 

age,  influence  of  on  gains,  323 

alfalfa  hay  for,  180,  350-2 

barley  for,  140,  337 

barley  v.  bran  and  shorts  for,  337 

bran  for,  337 

cacti  for,  200 

calcium  phosphate  beneficial  to,  67 

calculating  ration  for,  110-11 

cane  molasses  for,  346 


Index. 


611 


Steers,  continued 

cassava  roots  for,  198,  359 
clover  hay  for,  185,  348,  352,  356 
v.  corn  stover  for,  349 
v.  timothy  hay  for,  348 
composition  of  increase  during  fattening, 

76 

confinement  v.  open  shed  for,  315 
corn  and  nitrogenous  feeds  for,  366 
corn  for,  333,  336,  365 
corn,  shock,  for,  163 
corn  silage  for,  355,  358,  367 

v.  clover  hay  for.  356 
v.  corn  stover  for,  356 
corn  stover  for,  164,  347 
cost  of  fattening,  375 

increases  with  age,  322 
increases  with  length  of 

fattening  period.  326 
cotton-belt  v.  corn-belt  ration  for,  359 
cotton  seed  for,  342 
cotton-seed  hulls  for,  152,  354 
cotton-seed  ineal  for,  151,  342-4 
cotton-seed  meal  and  legume  hay  for,  354 
cowpea  hay  for,  189,  352,  354 

pasture  for,  355 

daily  gains  of  various  breeds.  329 
dressed  carcass,  per  cent  yielded  by,  329 
dried  beet  pulp  for,  346 
dried  distillers'  grains  for  steers,  345 
dry  v.  soaked  corn  for,  333 
ear  corn  for,  335 

early  maturity  of  various  breeds,  329 
effects  of  feeding  wide  and  narrow  rations 

90 

emmer  for/338 

fat  of,  effects  of  cotton  seed  on.  152 
fattening  on  peavine  silage,  233 

ration  for,  364 
feed  consumed  by  various  breeds,  328 

from  birth  to  maturity,  375 
feeding  corn  to,  365 

exclusively  on  concentrates,  97 
feeding  stuffs  for,  333-62 
finished,  cost  of,  322.  375 
finish  when  fed  on  silage,  357 
frequency  of  feeding,  372 
gains  on  grass.  319 

from  droppings,  by  hogs,  336 

1  bu.  of  corn, 321 
getting  on  feed,  365 
grain  feeding  on  pasture.  320-1 
grazing  on  cowpeas  and  corn,  355 
grinding  corn  for,  215.  334 

grain  for,  221 
growing,  feeding  on  maintenance  rations 

101-3 

growth  under  adverse  conditions,  101-3 
guinea  grass  for,  171 
heavy  and  light  feeding  of  corn,  333 
importance  of  legumes  for,  366 
increase  during  fattening,  76 
influence  of  age  on  daily  gain.  321,  323 
injured  by  cotton-seed  meal,  152 
judgment  of  market  on  breeds,  331 
kafir  for,  339 
knfir  hay  for.  351 
labor  cost  of  fattening,  373 
length  of  fattening  period,  325 
linseed  oil  meal  for,  351 
long  v.  short  feeding,  325 
loose  tallow  from  various  breeds,  330 
loose  v.  tied.  316 
low-grade  wheat  for,  336-7 
manure  voided  from  birth  to  maturity,  375 
meat  meal  for,  203 
millet  for,  149,  339 
milo  for,  340 
molasses,  beet,  for,  347 
cane,  for,  346 


Steers,  continued 

nitrogenous  supplements  for,  348 
normal  and  abnormal  growth  due  to  feed, 

101-3 

oats  for,  337 
oil  meal  for,  155 

pasture  v.  summer  feeding,  319,  320 
paved  feed  lots  for,  317 
peanut  cake  for,  157 
peavine  for,  188 

percentage  of  dressed  carcass  of,  323 
loose  tallow  to  dressed 

weight,  330 

practical  rations  for,  370 
preparing  for  shipment,  374 
prickly  pear  for,  200 
process  of  fattening,  364 
proportion  of  valuable  parts  in  carcass, 

o31 
pure-bred,  amount  of  feed  consumed  by 

328 

early  maturity  of,  329 
feed  consumed  by  for  given 

gain,  328 
quarters  for,  315 

rations  fed  by  British  feeders,  360 
returns  from  compared  with  dairy  cow, 

376-7 
compared  with  other  farm 

animals,  79 

roughages  with  cotton-seed  meal  for.  3.14 
rough  rice  and  rice  by  products  for,  341 
salt  for,  373 
self-feeder  for,  316 
sheds  v.  confinement  for,  315 
shredded  corn  stover  for,  164 
shrinkage  in  shipping,  374 
silage-fed,  finish  of,  357 
silage  for,  355-9 

v.  roots  for.  358 
soaking  corn  for,  366 
soft  corn  for.  336 
sorghum  hay  for,  351 
spread  or  margin  required  in  selling,  322, 

370 

sugar  beet  molasses  for,  347 
summer  v.  winter  feeding,  320 
sweet  potatoes  for,  359 
tied  v.  loose,  316 
valueable   parts  in   carcasses  of   various 

breeds,  331 
value  of  quality,  332 
variation  in  weight,  327 
various  forms  of  corn  for.  334 

roughages  for,  352 
velvet  bean  for.  341,  353 
v.  heifers  for  beef  production,  324 
water  drank,  327 

from  birth  to  maturity,  375 
required  by,  373 

weight  of  fat,  at  Smithfield  Show,  323 
wet  beet  pulp  for.  345 
wheat  bran  for,  337 
wheat  for,  135,  336,  337 
wheat  shorts  for,  337 
wide  and  narrow  ration  for,  90 
wintering  yearling,  363 

with  grain,  318 
without  grain,  318 
withholding  coarse  feed  from,  97 
yield  of  dressed  carcass  of,  329 
Steers  and  pigs,  gain  of  in  feed  lot,  323 
Stock,  cooked  feed  for,  218 

preparing  feed  for,  220 
Stock  foods,  221 
for  horses,  281 


pigs,  543 
mula 


formulae  for,  222 
Stomach,  capacity  of,  19 
digestion  in,  20 
of  ruminants,  22 


612 


Feeds  and  Feeding. 


Stomach  worms  in  shtep,  484 
Stocking  corn,  see  Shocking  corn 
Stover,  see  Corn  stover 
Straw,  for  wintering  animals,  176 

how  used  in  Europe,  176 
Straw  and  chaff,  175 
Sucrase,  24 
Sucrose,  4 

Sugar  as  a  feed.  207 
Sugar  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp 
Sugar  beets,  191 

for  lambs,  466 

for  pigs,  532 

v.  corn  silage  for  cows,  408 
Suint  in  wool,  456 
Summer  shage,  236 
Sunflower  seed,  157 
Sunflower  seed  cake,  157 
Sun,  the  source  of  life,  37 
Swedes,  see  Rutabagas 
Swedish  clover,  see  Clover,  alsike 
Swine,  management  and  feed  of,  552 

see  Pigs 

Sweet  potato,  197 
Sweet  potatoes  for  pigs,  535 

steers,  359 
Tallow,  fed  to  cows,  383 

loose,  yielded  by  steers  of  various 

breeds,  330 
Tankage,  203 

for  horses,  275 

pigs,  94,  540-2,  561 

see  Flesh  waste  and  Meat  meal 
Temperature,  body,  of  farm  animals,  80 
effects  of  stable,  80 
see  Heat 
Teosinte,  171 

Test  association,  Swedish,  127 
Therm,  47 
Thistles,  Russian,  199 

silage  from,  232 
Timothy,  167 

effect  of  manuring  on,  167 

yield  at  different  stages,  173 
Timothy  hay,  167 

early  and  late  cut,  167 

for  horses,  275 
steers,  348 

v.  fodder  corn  for  cows,  412 

v.  upland  prairie  hay  for  cows,  413 
Tissue  building,  28 
Tree  leaves,  197 
Tree  twigs,  197 
Trotter,  feed  for  the,  293 
Trypsin,  23,  27 

Tuberculosis,  pigs  infected  thru  feeding.  513 
spread  by  feeding  infected 

milk,  203 

Turnips,  flat,  191. 192 
Twigs,  see  Tree  twigs 


Upland    prairie    hay    v.    timothy    hay    foi 

cows,  413 
Urea,  37 

enercry  in,  48 
Urine,  37 

fertilizing  constituents  voided  in,  246-8 

heat  carried  off  by,  83 

nitrogenous  waste  in,  by  ox  in  1  day,  46 

voided  by  farm  animals,  247 

waste  of  nitrogen  in,  53 


Veal,  feeding  for,  313 

Dutch,  314 

Scotch,  314 

Velvet  bean,  see  Bean,  velvet 
Ventilation,  air  required  by  farm  animals,  62 
see  Air 


Vetch,  hairy,  189 
for  cows,  419 
for  pigs,  189 

Villi,  35 


Waste  of  body,  disposal,  37 
Water,  amount  escaping  from  body,  63 
required  by  animals,  63 
calves,  307 
cows,  387,  434 
horses,  284 
lambs,  453 
pigs,  562 
sheep,  453,  483 
steers,  327,  373 

drank  bv  steers  from  birth  to  matur- 
'   ity,  375 

effects  of  depriving  animals  of,  63 
evaporated  by  horses,  266 
evaporation    of,    carries    heat    from 

body,  63 

formed  from  breaking  down  food,  64 
free    drinking    does    not    cause    body 

waste,  63 

frequency  of  drinking,  64,  285 
how  determined,  9 
influence  on  digestibility  of  feeds,  43 
in  plants,  1 

must  be  warmed  in  body,  63 
stored  in  body  of  ox  in  1  day,  47 
taken  by  ox  in  1  day,  44-5 
vapor  of  lungs,  heat  carried  off  by,  83 
warming  for  cows,  388 

farm  animals,  64 
Weeds,  silage  from,  232 
Wet  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp,  wet 
Wet  brewers1  grains,  see  Brewers'  grains,  wet 
Wethers,  see  Lambs  and  Sheep 
Wheat,  135 

by-products  of,  136 
for  cows,  87,  388 

growing  animals,  135 
hay,  169 
horses,  270 
lambs,  460,  486 
pigs,  519,  558 
frosted,  for  lambs,  463,  486 

stock,  135 

low  grade,  for  steers,  336-7 
shrunken  and  damaged,  for  stock,  135 
small,  for  fattening  lambs,  463 
Wheat  bran,  136 

for  cows,  137,  395,  397 
horses,  271 
lambs,  137 
pigs,  521 
sheep,  137 
steers,  337 

v.  oats  for  horses,  271 
see  Bran 

Wheat  bread,  feeding  to  animals,  136 
Wheat  meal  for  cows,  394 
Wheat  middlings,  137 
for  pigs,  520 

see  Middlings  and  Shorts 
Wheat  pasture  favorably  affects  milk,  1 69 
Wheat  screenings,  138 

for  lambs,  464.  486,  492 
Wheat  shorts  for  pigs.  521 

cows,  397 
Wheat  straw,  176 
Whey,  203 

for  calves.  304 
cows,  406 
pigs,  540 
Whole  milk,  202 

see  Milk,  whole 
Wild  hogs,  see  Feral  swine 
Winter  lambs,  see  Hothouse  lambs 


Index. 


613 


Wintering  beef  cows,  317 

yearling  steers,  363 

with  grain,  318 
without  grain,  318 
Winter  v.  summer  feeding  pigs,  508 
Wolff-Lehmann     feeding    standards,   Appen 

dix  Table  IV 
explained,  109-115 
notes  on,  115 

Wood  ashes  for  farm  animals,  67 
Wool,  456 
fat  in,  456 
growth  of,  456 
influenced  by  shearing,  457 
nitrogen  and  ash  in,  17 
production.  456 
suint  in,  456 
yolk  in,  456 


Work,  84 

causes  production  of  carbon  dioxid,  85 
effects  on  digestibility  of  feeds,  254 

milk  production,  385 
heat  produced  thru,  82 
increase  of  body  heat  thru,  81 
internal,  produces  heat,  82 
net  nutrients  needed  by  horses  for,  260 
of  the  horse,  258 
performed  by  the  horse,  252 
possible  from  1  Ib.  of  feed,  261 
protein  waste  during,  84 
relation  of  speed  to,  263 
relative  value  of  nutrients  for  producing 

severe  by  the  horse,  264 
see  Energy 
Yolk  in  wool,  456 


YC   I  1 593 


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